Good and Useful Tools.
Jennings' Superior Quality Auger Bits.
~ '^' ~' ' bmplete.
iVlitr<
No. I.
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BOUGHT WITH THE INCOME
FROM THE
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THE GIFT OF
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1891
./).nk2%3 ijMl
No. 2.
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'amps.
^o. ■^. No. 3.
jj in. 4 in. mouldings.
3 - 4- per jiair.
Combined IVIitre Cutter and Saw Vice.
Stanley's Improved Plated Butt Adjustable to suit any gauge of saw. Cuts a perfect
Gauge, 3/-. mitre. Takes mouldings up to 2 J in. Price 7/6.
Complete Illustrated Catalogue {812 pages) Post Free to any address, Six Stamps.
CHARLES NURSE & Co., Tool Makers,
182, 184, 173, Walworth Road, London, 5.E.
Also at 144, BISHOPSGATE STREET WITHOUT, E.G., and 100, FLEET STREET, LUDGATE CIRCUS, E.C.
CycLOP.i!DiA OF Mechanics.— Cover 2 ]
I The date shows when this voli-me was t
Cornell University Library
Brown & Sharpe's No. 8 Micrometer.
With Ratchet attachment to
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time to the article mtisuieJ
Measurements :
lin. by t,\i
by T^ir mm-
case, 28/-.
or to 2511
, 25 6;
.i..Li,Y.i..i..ir'i..i :,i,.ir!Li;.i..i:'i..i:j..i°i ■!.,.,.,.]
1a '"f Brown & SKarpe's
Centre or Universal Square.
4 in. 6 in. 8 in. 10 in. rain.
5/6 10/6 15/- 21/- 25/- each.
Brown &
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Screw- Pitch
Gauge.
22 Pilches, including
Pipe Threads. ,
'Illustration is full
size.)
Price 4/3.
Agents for BROWN & SHARPE'S HIQH=CLASS SPECIALITIES.
Improved Bevel Protractor.
Graduated o to 90, both right and left, and capable of the most
accurate adjustment.
gin. 12 in. 18 in. 24 in. Rule. (9 in. Rule has S in. head ;
10/- 11/- 13/- 15/- other sizes, 7 in. head.)
^
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Starrett's
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Jaws reversible
and adjustable.
Graduated ^V one side ; ji^ the other.
With adjusting screw, as shown. Without adjusting screw.
Jin. 4 in. 6 in. 3 in. 4 in. 6 in.
Starrett's Universal
Surface Gauge.
No. 56. 5 in. high, weight 10 oz.
With auxiliary guide, as shown, 11/-.
13/- 15/- 21/-
11/6 12/6 18/6
ILLUSTRATED CATALOGUE
(312 pages, 2,000 Illustrations)
POST FREE, 6d.
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182 & 184, Walworth Road, London, S.E. ;
And also at 144, Bishopsgate Street Without, London, E.C.; and at 100, Fleet Street, Ludgate Circus, London, E.G. ;
and at 173, Walworth Road, S.E.
Face Cover 2.]
WHOLESALE
AN
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WILLIAM HAYWARD,
18 & 19, Giltspur Street,
Newgate Street, E.G.
Branches s
111, LE^WISHAM HIGH BOAD, S.E. ;
2, HIGH STEEET BUILDINGS,
HIGH STBEET, SYDENHAM.
Factory and! Wholesaie Depot s
65, FABRINGDON ROAD, LONDON, E.G.
Practical Carver and Gilder.
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Wood Mouldings.
Over 700 Patterns to select from.
Oil Paintings relined & restored.
Old Engravings Bleached and
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Regilding in all its branches.
Gilding Materials supplied.
Picture Frame Maker.
Oil Paintings, Engravings,
Oleographs, Photographs, a large
selection always, on hand.
Tapestries and Needlework care-
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Amateurs supplied with every re-
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Tools, Glass, Backboards,
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A neat Ebonised Show Case, size 88 x 18, containing patterns of Mou/dings, supplied.
Catalogue Post ?ree on application.
Face Half-Title.]
CASSELL'S
CYCLOPEDIA OF MECHANICS
Cornell University
Library
The original of this book is in
the Cornell University Library.
There are no known copyright restrictions in
the United States on the use of the text.
http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924021892413
CAS8ELLS
CYCLOEIDIA OF MECHANICS
CONTAINING
' RECEIPTS, PROCESSES AND MEMORANDA FOR
WORKSHOP USE
«
I BASED OK PERSONAL EXPERIENCE AND EXPERT KNOWLEDGE
, WITH 1,200 ILLUSTRATIONS AND AN INDEX OF 8,500 ITEMS
EDITED BY
Paul N. Hasluck
EDITOE OP "WOKK" AND "BUILDING WORLD," AUTHOE OF " HANDYBOOKS FOR HANDICRAFTS/" ETC. ETO.
FIRST SERIES
OASSELL AiTD COMPAJSTY, Limited
LONBON, PARIS, NEW YORK k MELBOURNE
1901
ALL EIGHTS RESERVED
A« \■\[,'£'i^
First Edition September 1900.
Keprinied 1901.
PREFACE.
pASSELL'S, CYCLOPEDIA OF MECHANICS contains in a form convenient
for ready reference and everyday use receipts, processes, and memoranda
,^elected from a rich store of choice information contributed by a staff of
skilful and talented technicians, upon whose practical experience and expert know-
ledge the information is based. The matter contained in this volume has been
carefuUy digested, freely illustrated, and made plain to those inexperienced.
All compilations of receipts and memoranda for the use of mechanics that have
been published — and some have atta,ined great popularity — differ from the present
work in the important fact that every item in this volume is the paid contribution
of an expert, written specially to satisfy the want of an inquirer, and each has
challenged enlendation from a wide , circle of practical men. Corrective and
supplementary matter supplied by these critical readers has been incorporated to
ensure the greater efficiency of this work.
A superficial glance through the pages of this volume might tend to a false
impression that the varied coAtents are not readily available for easy and systematic
reference. However, this is not so. Experience has shown that it is not possible
to classify paragraphs that often include matters essentially different so that there
shall be a definite place for every item, and the impossibility of such a course
is particularly emphasised in the present collection, which embraces subjects widely
diversified. Even a little consideration of this Cyclopsedia would show that no
possible arrangement of the paragraphs would place them go that the several facts
contained in each could be found with ease and certainty. The copious index
provides a means by which every separate particular and detail of any kind dealt
with in the volume may be traced and referred to with the least amount of
trouble. This index also brings together every reference to the same subject,
however widely they may be scattered, and all varied notes included under one
heading are properly analysed and, thus disclosed, regrouped with kindred topics.
No pains have been spared in the compilation of this index, which efficiently serves
6 Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
a purpose impossible to be met by any arrangement of paragraphs comprising the
volume.
Amongst the items embodied in this work probably every reader can find
some that contain information already known to him. Possibly some readers may
be able to supplement the particulars given in respect of matters with which they
are familiar. Any authentic supplementary particulars that are likely to be of
benefit and that would increase the usefulness of the information will be welcomed,
^nd should be sent to the undersigned, with the view to including them in a
second volume, now in preparation, that will be issued when ready.
Additional information or instruction on special details of the matters dealt
with in Cassell's Cyclopedia of Mechanics may be obtained by addressing
a question to Work or Building World, from the contents of which journals
this Cycloptedia has been compiled, so that it may be submitted to the staff of
contributors and answered in the columns of one of those journals in the usual
course.
P. N. HASLUCK
La Belle Sauvage,
London.
September, 1900.
INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS.
(TTie Contents Indeyi is on pp. 355-383.)
Acetylene Gas Generator, 282
• for Magic Luutern^
67
Aerated Water Machinej 329
Alrer for Towels, 179
Air-gun Construction, 256
Air-pump for Blowlamp, 73
Alarm, Electric, for Shop Door,
181
Aitar, Private, 106
American Organ Reed-hook, , 299
Roll-top Desk, Roll-shutter
for,'. 291
■ Angler's Three-legged Folding
Stool, 21
Antlers, Method of Mounting, 77
Apple-scoop, Bonb, 47
Aquarium Top, Pattern for, 118
Ai'hour, 147
Arc, Determining Centre of, 172
-T — , Drawing, when Centre is
inaccessible, 177
' Lamp, Hand Feed, 344
, Method of Developing, 227
Arch, Brick, 278
, , Centering for, 155
, , Circle-on-circle, Centre for,
171
, Elliptic, 201, 211
— , , Gothic, 196
— -, Gauged, 285
, Mouldings on, 146 ,
, Return Bead round, 158
, Semi-elliptic, 209 ,
Architects' Perspective Draw-
ings, 138
^ Armcliair, Spring Seat of, 830
■ Assembly-room Floor Joists, 217
Automatic Sewage Filter, 203-
Axle Boxes, Machine for with-
drawing from Wheels, 126
Baby's Cradle, Stand for, 41
Swing; 205
Bag Changing Box for Camera, 343
Baiter's Steam-heated Oven, 37
Balanced Steps, 177
Ball, Cutting, Inside Ball, 325
Bamboo, Bedstead, 46
Cabinet, 132
Camera Stand, 836
Newspaper-jaok, 128, 134
Rocking CI air, 237
Table "Top, Method of fasten-
ing Legs to, 128
Band-saw Brazing, 272
Wheel, Method of Fixing
Leather to, 262
Bands, Straw, 'Twisting Hook for,
309
Ban;o Worm Screws, 115
Barber's Chair, 98
Bam, Dutch, 182
BaiTow, Child's, 216
, Wheel, 176
, - — , Frame of, 32
Basket Repairing, 309
Baskets for Single-sticks, 308
Bath for Ferrotype Photography,
307
Bathroom Mirror, 186
Bead round Arch, 158
Beading St)indl^ for Lathe, 288
Beadwork, fCabinet or Workbox
for, 49
Beam, Flitched, Section of, 162
Beam-compasses, 321
Bed-rest for Invalid, 139
Bedroom Tahle, 36
Bedstead, Bamboo, 46
, Child's Wooden, 70
, Curtain Rails. 104
, Doll's Woiideh, 70
, Wood Tester, Head for, 198
, Wooden, 273
Bellows, Conical, for Camera, 276
Belts, Leather, Diagram of
Power Ti'ansmission by, 99
, Tent Pole Rack for, 260
Bench, Circular Saw, 285
Bending Block for Shackles, 67
Brass Tubes, 316
, Machine for, 286,
316
Bevel Set-square, Carpenter's, 160
Bevelled Stock Hoops, 262
Bevelling Frames, Apparatus for,
270
Glass, Wheels for, 314
Bevels for Hips to Semi-octag-
onal Lantern Light, 193
Oval Cask Joints, 66
Rafters, 57, 165 -■
Bier Stand for Mortuary, 73
Billiard Table Corner, 158
Bin for Poultry Food, 130
Bird Cage, 169
Room, Warming, 202
Birds, Breeding Cage for, 228
Blind, Wire, Frame for, 64
I Block for Supporting Person on
Cycle, 387 '
Blocks, Floor, Apparatus for
Cutting, 330 '
Blowing Fan for Forge, 319
Blow-lamp, Paraffin, 161
■ , Air-pump for, 73
Blowpipe, Paraffin, Reservoir for,
323
Boards, Figured, cut from Pitch-
pine Logs, 15
Boiler, Boot, 174
■ , Egg-ended, 173
for Greenhouse. 173
,Saddle-shaped,Patitemfor,56
Bone Apple-scoop, 47
Book-rack, 229
Book-rests, 114, 172
Boot Finisher's Irons, 53
, French Cork, 17
Rack, 313
Shop, Double Seats for, 144
Boot Boiler, 174
Bow, Violin, Head and Mount-
ings of,, 214
Box for Oil Colours, 190
Stunip'Moulding, 54
, Window, for Flowers, 311
' with Oval Top, 266
Box-sextant, 93 '
Bracket, 278
, Moulding on Edge of, 78
Brake Blocks, Waggon, 303
Brass Cells for Optical Work, 48
Collar for Dog, 22
Gas-cocks, 51
Money Box, 42
Table-lamp, 212
Tubes, Bending, 316
, Machine for Bending,
286, 316
Brazing Band-saws, 272
Key Stems, 311
Breeding Cage for Small Birds,
223
Brick Arch, 278
, Centering for, 155
Kiln, 175
Brickmaker's Clay Waggon, 354
Brickwork, Model, 'Clock-stand
in, 149
Bristle on Waxed Thread, 104
Bromide Solution, Apparatus for
Applying to Paper, 166
Brougham Under-carriage Com-
passed Bed, 79
Brush Rack, 206
Builder's Level, 27
Trestle, 314
Building, Sham Timber, 142
Burner, Incandescent, for Oil, 151
Buriii-^her tor Silver Mounts, 29
'Bus Under-carriage, 231
Butterfly Cases, 306,
Cabinet, Bamhoo, 132
, Beadwork, 49
, Scent, 199
Cabinet-maker's Steel Scraper,
Method of Sharpening, 184
Cabinet-making, Panelled Doors
in, 284
Cage, Bird, 223
for Starlinj or Thru.sh, 169
Ccimera, Bag Changiug Box for,
283
Bellows, Conical, 276
with Changing Bag, Sheath
for, 343
— - Double Repeating Back, 23
, Enlarging, 275
, Fixed Focus, Method of
Enlarging wjth, 121
, Folding Hand, 220
, Hand, 822
, ■, Bamboo Stand for, 336
--^—, , View-ftnder for, 148
, Kodak, Enlarging with, 68
Lens, Hood or Sky Shade
for, 345
— ^ . and Stop, 173
, Majjazine Back for, 283
, Pinhole, 211
Plate-changer, 175
— -, i-plate. Shutter for, 169
Shutter for taking Photo-
graphic Doubles, 212
, Everset. 93
, Silent, IS .
, Time and Instan-
taneous, 187
, IJnicum, 79
Stand, Bamboo, 336
, Stereoscopic, 22
, Studio, 267
Swing Back, ^38
Canoe Mast, JPosition of, 141
Cap, Circular-moulded Stone, 236
Carbonic Acid Generator, 329
Carpenter's Bevel Set-square, 160
Tool Cupboard, 317
Try-square, Testing, 50
Carriage. Invalid, Hood for, 290
Wheels, Putting Felloes on,
31
Cart, Hand, 333
Panels, Router Planes for
Boxing out, 243 ' ,
: ; Pony, 96
Wheels, Measuring Wheel
I for, 347
, Putting Felloes on, 31
Carved Photograph Frame, 60
Carving Wood, Knife for, 325
Case for Croquet Mallet, 20
■ Ferns, 101
, Insect, 306
, Jewel, 86
, -^ — . and Gloves, 140
, Marble Clock, 284
for Tea and Sugar, 240
, Traveller's Sample, 63
, Turned Wood, for Drum
Clock, 62
Case-hardening, Oven for, ,107
Cask, Oval, Bevels for Joints of, 66
Cells for Optical Work, 48
Cement Frame, Oval-shaped, 221
Centre for Brick Arch, 155
■ ■ Circle on-Circle Arch,
171
Centrifugal Pump, 28 '
Chair, Bamboo Ropking, 237
, Barber's, 98
, Child's, 116
, Divan, 214
, Invalid's Self-propelling,346
, Marlborough Easy, 122
, Rush- or Cord-bottomed, 174
, Spring Seat of, 380
Changing Bag Camera, 343
Chapel Pulpit, Small, 131
Chat-coal, Method of Making, 109
Chemical Tank for Magic Lan-
tern, 61
Chest, Medicine, 139
— , Tool, for Coach Body
Maker, 65
, for Electrical En-
gineer, 35
Chest, Tool-, Tenon Saw fastened
^ to Lid of, 137
Chicken Rearer, Heating, 14S
Child's Bedstead, 70
Chair, 116
— — Wheelbarrow, 216
Chimney Breast, Method of Un-
derpinning, 260'
Design, 194
CLrcle-on-Circle Arch, Centre for,
171
Circular Mouldings, 78
, Router for Working, 78
Saw Attachment for Cutting
Floor Blocks, 330
Bench, 286
Guard, 62
Cistern, Flushing, 277
Clay, Side-tipping Waggon f6r,351
Clip for Scribing Block, 156
Clock Case, Marble, 284
in Turned Wood, 62
, Electric Alarm for. 141
, Grandfather, Striking Work
of, 201
, Lantern, Eight-day Move-
ment for, 154
Stand, Model Brickwork, 149
Striking Movement, 123
Clockwork Metronome, 9.'v
Motor for Gramophone or
Phonograph, 58
Clothes Rack, 331, 337
Coach M^er's Tool-chest, 65
Coal-weighing Machine, Scoop
forj 342 '
Cob, Trotting Sulky for, 318
Collar, Brass, for Dog, 22
Colour Box, 190 '
Column, Spiral Flute on, 323
Colujnns for Roof, 226
Compalssed Bed of Brougham
"Under-carriage, 79
Compasses, Beam, 321
, Trammel, 321
Compo., Gauge Boxes for, 167
Concrete Sills and Heads, 111
Cone, Wrought-iron, 37
Conical' Bellows for Camera, 276
Rim, Pattern for, 45
Copper Foot-warmer, 63
Pipes, Wiped Joints on, 62
Copper, Flash-flue Washing, 283 '
Cord-bottomed Chair, 174
Cork Boot, French, 17
Cornice Moiilding, MjtrC of, 122,
136 ■
Cotes, Pigeons', 219, 296
Cotton Fibres, 106
Counter, Simple, 312
Coupling Shackles, 67
Crabs, Pot for, 184
Cradle, Baby's, Stand for, 41
Cramping Pictui'e Frames, 302
Crank-shaft of Engine, 102
Crate for Carrying Pig, 97
Croquet-mallet Leather Case, 20 . i
Crucible Steel Furnace, '39
Cupboard, Glass-fronted Hang-
ing, 222
for Carpenter's Tools, 317
Curtain for Door, 110
Rails for Bedstead, 104
Rod, 126, 145
Curved Wing Wall, 254 >
Curves, Involute, 226
, Spiral, Projection of, 110
Cycle, Block for Supporting, 337 i
Parts, Qven for Case-hard-
ening, lO'T
Shed, 170 '
Cylinder-tank System Hot-watei
Supply, 158, 258
Damper for Postage Stamps, 276
Dancing Steps, 177
Dark Room, Photographer's, 213
, , Lamp for, 189, 238
, , Ventilating Sys
tem for, 181
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
Decker Oven, 37
Desk, Roll-top, Shutter for, 291
Developer, Pyro, Mixing, 203
Dinins-voom Ingle Nook, 332
Dipper for Ferrotype Pboto-
Sraphy, 307
Distilling 'Water, Apparatus for,
lOS
"Wliislvy, Apparatus for, 204
Divan Cliair, '214
Settee, 336
Dog Collar of Brass, 22
Kennels, 65^,255, 352
Doll's Wooden Bedstead, 70
Dolly, Metalworkers' Mandrel,
113
Dome, EooC cutting into Side of,
25
Diior Curtain, 110
, Electric Alarm for, 181
Frame, Elliptical Headed, 13
Openings; Recording, .243
, Panelled, in Cabinet- making,
285
, , in Joinery, 285
, Railway Carriage, Sliding
Sashes in, 349
, Watertiglit Sliding, 77
Doorway Porch, 33
Dovetailing, 24
Drain~ of House connected to
Sewer, 23 ^
Draughtsman's Pen, Settijig, 47
Dra^vers, Secret, in Jewel Case,
SS
Drawhooks, Locomotive, 297
, Railway Waggon, 297
Drawing-pen, Setting, 47
Drawings, Architects' Perspec-
tive, 138
Drilling Watch BtafT, 42
Drilling-machine, 178
Dunlop Tyre Valves, Trammel
Heads made from, 218
Dutch Barn, Design for, 182
Easy Chair, Marlbordugh, 122
Egg supported in Net, 254
Eight-day Movement for Lantern
Clock, 164
Electric Alarm for Clock, 141
, Shop Door, ISl
Are Lamp, Hand Feed, 344
Push, Double-contact, 99
Electrical Engineer'3 Tool-chest,
35
Ellipse, 66
Elliptic Arch, 201, 209, 211
Gothic Arch, 196
Elliptical Headed Door Frame, 13
Embroidery Frame, 133
Engine Crank-shaft, 102
Indicator Diagi-ams, 92
for Pile Driving, 166, 316
■ Rods, 84
Engineer, Electrical, Tool-chest
for, 86
Enlargements, Photographic, 121,
127
Enlarging Camera, 275
— , Kodak as, 68
Lantern, 31, 277
Entrance Gate Tenons, 124
Envelopes for Insects, 306
Bverset Photographic Shutter, 93
Extension Ladder, 241
Fan, Blowing, for Forge, 319
Felloes, Method of Putting, on
Wheels, 31
Felt and Corrugated Iron Roof,
225
Fender Stool, 264
Fern Case, 101
Ferrotype Photography, Bath
and Dipper for, 307
Fibres of Linen, Cotton, Wool,
and Silk, 106
Filter, Automatic Sewage, 203
Beds, 215
for Oil, 100
Filtration of Oils by Heat,
Apparatus for, 125
Fir, Scotch, 816
, Spru(;e, 315
Fireguard, 71
Firelighters, 268
Fishing, Folding Gnlffor, 179
Fishing, Landing Net for, 157
Line Knots, 234
Reel, 237
Stool, Three-legged, 21
Flags, Signal Code, 351
Flash-flue Washing Copper, 283
Flashings, Lead, for Roofs, 331
Flitched Beam, Section of, 162
Floor, Assembly-room, Joists for,
217
Blocks, Cutting, 330
■ Boards, Tightening, 119
supported by Girder, 190
, Wood-block, 246
Flower Pot Board, Window, 326
Stand, 246
■ Window Box, 811
Flues of Washing Copper, 283
Flushing Cistern, 277
Flute, 152
Flute, Spiral, on Column, 323
Folding Gaff" for Salmon Fishing,
170
Hand Camera, 220
Leaf of Kitchen Table, 179
Stand for Baby's Cradle, 41
Stool, Angler's, 21
Table, 143
Food Bin for Poultry, 130
Footstool, Round, 2S1
Foot-warmer, Copper, 62
Forge, Blowing Fan for, 319
Fountain for Greenhouse, 340
Fowls' House, 339
Frame, Apparatus for Bevelling,
270
-t Carved Photograph, 60
■ covered with Pluah, 108
, Cramping, 302
, Door, Elliptical Headed, 13
, Embroidery, 133
, Oval, in Cement, 221
, Oxford, 247
for Wire Blind, 64
French Cork Boot, 17
Whip Top, 286
Furnace, Crucible Steel, 39
for Waggon Springs, 59
Gaff for Salmon Fishing, 179
Galvanometer, Watch-case, 66
Garden Pump, 331
Tripod for Telescope, 94
Vase, 228
Wicket Gate, 320
Gas Generator, Acetylene, 67, 282
, Carbonic, 329
Stove Clothes Rack, 337
■ for Heating Laundry
Irons, 242
Gas-cocks, Brass, 51
Gate, Entrance, Tenons for, 124
, Garden Wicket, 320
Gauge Boxes for Co(npo., 167
for Inlaying Purfliug on
Violin, 308
; Stringing, 164
• — - marking Positions of
Studs in Upholsteiy, 210 ■
, Pencil Marking, 133
Gauged Arch, 235
Gedge's Draw-hook, 297
Girder for Roof, 226
Sections, 161
to support Floor, 190
Glass Louvre Ventilators, 34
Roof, Preventing Moisture
Dropping from, 299
Silverer's Table, 72
, Wheels for Bevelling and
Polishing, 314
Glass-faced Swinging Sign, 295
Glass-fronted Cupboard, 222
Glazing Window Frames, 109
Glazing-knife, 343
Glove and Handkerchief Case, 140
Goods Hoist, 31U
Lift, 320
Gothic Aroli, Elliptic, 195
Gradient o! Watercourse, Setting
out, 334
Gramophone, Clockwork Motor
for, 68
Grandfather Clock, Striking Work
of, 201
Granite Dressing Tools, 205, 238;
282
Greenhouse Boiler, 173
Greenhouse Fountain, 340
, Top Rail of, lis
Greenstuff Food, Rack for, 334
Grocer's Hoist, 819
Grooving Sashes, Machine for, 259
Guard for Circular Saw, 62
Fireplace, 71
Guns, Air, 256
Gutters, Cast-iron, 202
Hair Mattress, 207
Halation in Negatives, Diagram
showing, 313
Hall Racks, 331, 346
Hammer, Scubbling, 61
Hand Camera (see Camera)
-■ — Cart, 333
— — Feed Arc Lamp, 334
Guards for Singlf-sticks,
308
— Shears for Sheet Iron', 210
Handkerchief Case, 140
Hanging' Clipboard, 222
Hat Riiolis, 331, 346
Heaped Material, Method of De-
termining Contents of, 210
Hearth, Tile, 244
Heating Chicken Rearer, 148
by Hot-water, 236, 253
Laundry Irons, Stove for,- 242
, Steam, System of, 228
Hinge of Screen Frame. 94
Hip Rafter, Bevel of, 57
Hoist, Grocer's, 319
Hood for Camera Lens, 345
— — Invalid Carriage, 290
Hook, Reed, for American Or-
gans, 299
for Twisting Straw Bands,
309
Horse for Mortising Wheel Naves,
135
Horses, Stocks for Shoeing, 43
Hot Box for Negatives and Lan-
tern Slides. 26
Hot-air Oven, i32
Hot-water Apparatus, 127, 158,
175
Pipes, Joint for, 347
Systems of Heating, 235, 258
Towel Airer, 179
House Drain Connection to Deep
Sewer, 23
House, Fowls', 339
, Pigeons', 219, 296
■ Porch, 33
Hydraulic Gradient, 263
Mean Depth, 68
Bam, 163
Incandescent Burner for Oil, 151
Indicator Diagrams of Engine, 92
Ingle Nook, 342
Inlaying Puifling on Violin,
Gauge for, 308
' Stringing. Gauge for, 164
Insect Cases, 306
Invalid's Bed-rest, 139
Carriage, Hood for, 290
Self-propelling Chair, 345
Involute Curves, -226
Iron, Corrugated, Roof of, 226
Roof, ISO
, Sheet, Hand Shears for, 210
Irons, Shoe Finishers', 53
Jack Plane with Side Slip, 117
Rafters, 209
Jewel Box and Scent Cabinet
combined, 199
Case with Secret Drawers, 86
, Glove, and Handkerchief
Case, 140
Joinerv, Panelled Doors in, 285
Joint for Hot-water Pipes, 347
. Oblique, Mortise-and-tenon,
190
, Pavodilos, 98
, Plumber's Underhand, SS '
, Wiped, on Copper Pipe, 62
Joints ot Oval Cask, 66
Joi-sts for Floor ot Assembly-
room, 217
Kennels, Dog, 55, 265, 352
Kerbing, Curved, 217
Key Steins, Brazing, 311
, Stopcock, 271
Kiln for Bricks, 175
King-post Truss, Hipped End of,
328
Kitchen Table, 171
Folding Leaf and Sup-
ports, 179
Knife, Glazing, 343
, Stopping, 343
, Umbrella-maker's, 164
, Wpo'l-carving, 325
Knots fbr Fishing Lines, 234
Kodak as Enlarging Camera, 68
Ladder, Extension, 241
, Step, Setting out Side of, 30
Lamp for Dark-room, 189, 233
Hand Feed Arc, 344
, Street, Door Catch of, 92
, Table, 212
Landau Head, 188
Landing Net, Fisherman's, 157
Lantern Clock, Eight-day Move-
inent for, 154
for Enlarging, 31, 277
— ~ Light, Semi-octagonal, Bevel
for Hips to, 193
, Magic, 31 >
- — • , Acetylene Gas Gen-
erator for, 67
, , Chemical Tank for, 61
Slides, Apparatus for
Making. 95
, Hot Box for, 26
Lath, Detachable, for Table, 66
Lathe Beading Spindle, '288
, Overhead ■ Arrangement
for, 192
Slide-rest, Tool-holder for,
191
, Wood Chuck for, 14
Latrine on Board Ship, 341
Laundry Stove for Heating Irons,
242
Lavatory Mirror, 186
Lead Bays for Ogee Roof, 280
— '— Flashings " Burnt-in " to
Stone, 229
Flashings for Roofs, 331
Leakage of Water, Instrument
for Locating, 271
Leather on Band-saw Wheel, 262
, Belts, Diagram of Power
Transmission by, 99
Case for Croquet Mallet, 20
■■ Purses, 261
Legs of Bam boo Table, 128
Lens, Camera, Hood or Sky
Shade for, 345
Lenses, Periscopic, 327
, Photographic, 324
, Rectilinear, 327
Letter-bdx, Shaet-metal, 291
Level, Builder's, 27
Lift, Goods, 320
Linen Fibres, 106
Lines, Fishing, 234
Lobster Pot, 184
Locomotive Draw Hook, 297
Reversing Gear, 'Stephen-
son's, 213
Log, Ship's, Working, 169
Louvre Ventilators, Glass, 34
Louvred Thermometer Screen, 71
Lumber, Apparatus for Arti-
ficially Seasoning, 107
Magazine Back for Camera, 283
Magic Lantern, 31
— , Acetylene Gas Gener-
ator for, 67
, Chemical Tank for, 01
— - Slides, Apparatus for
Making, 95
Mailcart, 1S3
Mandrel Dolly, Metalworkers',
lis
Mangle Shafts, Press for, 40
Map, Ordnance, 58
Marble Clock Case, 284
Marjting Gauge, 133
Marlborough Easy Chair, 122
Mast in Canoe, Position of, 141
Mattress, Hair, 207
Measuring Wheel for Cart Wlieels,
347
Medieine Chest, 139
Metal Plates, Levelling. 208
Metalworkers' Mandrel Dolly, 113
Cyclopsedia of Mechanics.
-Metronome, Clockwoi-lc, 95
, Simple, 19
Microscope Cell 'Woilv, 43
Middjan Stead, Covered, 269
Mill, Saw, 257
Mirror for Bath or Lavatory, 1 86
Mitre Box, 136
Lines, Setting out, 239
of Raking Cornice, 122
'Mitring Cornice Moulding, 136
Model Brickwork Cloek-staud,
149
Pumping 'Windmill, 310
— - Yacht Sail Plans, 168, 184
Money Box, Brass, 42
Mortise-and-lenon Joints,
Oblique. 196
Mortising Wheel Naves, Horse
for, 135
Mortuary Bier Stand, 73
Moths, Cases for, 306
Motor, Clockwork, for Gramo-
phone and Phonograph , 58
,' Reciprocating Water, 258,
34'2
, Water, '39
Moulded Stone Cap, 236
Moulding-cutters, Machine for
Grinding, 216
Mouldings on Arches^ 146
, Circular, Working, 73
, , Router for Working, 78
, Intersection of, 197
, Mitred Cornice, 122, 136
for Railj^ay Carriages, 191
, Mitre Lines for, 239
— ~, Scratch Plane for, 163
, Burnisher
for, 29
Mounting Stereoscopic Prints, 63
Mounts, Silver, Burnisher for, 29
for Stag's Antlers, 77
Tobacco Pipes, 29
Music Shelf for Piaao, 338
Negatives, Diagrams Illustrating
Halation in, 313
, Hot Box for, 26
^— , Toorfor Retouching, 262
Net, Egg supported in, 254
, Landing, 157
Newspaper-rack of Bamboo, 123,
134
Nook, Ingle,- 382
jpak, Wainscot, 224
Octagonal Fountain for Green-
- house, 340
Ogee Roof, Lead Bays for, 280
I Oil Burner, Incandescent, 151
- — '■ Filter, 100
- — ■ Filtration by Heatj 125
Oil-colours, Box for, 190
Omnibus XJnder-carriage, 231
Opal Printing Frame, 236
Opera Glass Lens, Photography
with, 336
Optical Square, 114
Work, Brass Cells lor, 43
OMnancc Datum, 58
Map, 58
Oval, 66
Baskets, Repairing, 309
Cask Joints, Bevels for. So
Frame in Cement, 221
Top Wooden Box, 266
Oven, Bakdr's Steam-heated, 37
foi' Case-hardening, 107
, Hot-air, 132
Oxford Picture Frame, 247
Panel Plane with Side Slip, 117
Panelling with Veneers, 126
Panels, Cart, Router Planes for
Boxing out. 243
Paper, Apparatus for Applying
Bromide Solution to, 166
, Photographic, Method of
Preparing, 233
ParafRii Blow-lamp', 151
, Air Pump for, 73
■ Blowpipe Reservoir, 323
I Parisian Phaeton, 197
Pasteboard Tube Umbrella-
stand, 252
Pattern for Compassed Bed nf
1 Brougham Under-carriage, 79
I . Conical Rim, 45
Pattern for Fountain, 340
Saddle Boiler, 56
Tuyferc Bend, 284
- — ■ Wronght-iron Cone, 87
Pavodilos' Joint in Flooring, 93
Pedestal for Table, 120
Pen, Ruling, Setting, 47
Pencil Marking Gaugd, 133
Pehscopio Lenses, 327
Perpetual Calendar Watch, 44
Perspoctive Drawings, Archi-
tect's, 138
Phaeton, Parisian, 197 -
Phonograph, Clockwork Motor
for, 58
Photograph Frame, Carved, 60
Photographer's Dark Room, 213
_£ Lamp, 189, 233
■ ■ , Ventilating Sys-
tem lor, 181
■ Hand Feed Arc Lamp, 344
Photogr.ipliic Camera (see
Camera)
■ Developer, Apparatus for
Mixing, 263
Doubles, Camera Shutter
for Taking, 212
Enlargements, 121, 127
Enlarging Camera, 275
Lantern, 31, 277
. ^ Kodak as, 68
Lenses, 324
■ Negative, Halation in, 313
— '- Negatives-, Hot Box for, 26
, Tool for Retouching,
262
Paper, Preparing, 166, 233
Plate-changing Anungement
in Hand Camera, 175
Print Washer, 126
Printing Frame, ^-plate, 203
for Opals, 236
Prints, Apparatus for Test-
ing, 275 '
, Vignetting, 14
Shutters, IS, 79, 93, 169, 187,
212
Stereoscopic Prints, Method
of Mounting, 53
Studio, 274
Camera, 267
^ , Temporary, 345
Photographing Cyclists, Block
used in, 337
Photographs, Postage Stamp, 305
P)iotography, Stereoscopic,
Camei-a for, 22
with Telescope, 336
, Wet-plate, Wire Rests used
in, 100
Piano Music Shelf, 338
Picture Frame, Cramping, 302
, Oxford, 247
Pictures, Triad, 75
Pig, Crate for cari-ying, 97
Pigeon Cote, 219, 296
Pile Driving, Engine for, 165, 316
Piles, Drivi^ig, on Batter, 346
Piles, Thermo-electtie, 90
Pillar, Turned, Cutting Slot in
Top of, 65
Pinhole Camera, 211
Pipe, Copper, Joint in, 62
, Hot-water, ^Joint for, 347
, Hydraulic, Mean Depth of
Liquid in, 68
, Lead, Joint in, 88
Pipe-mount, Silver, 29
, , Burnisher for, 29
Pipes, Tobacco, Rack for, 163
Pitch-pine Logs, Figured Boards
cut from, 15
Plane, Jack, with Side Slip, 117
, Router, 243
, Scratch, for Mouldings, 168
Plate Stand, 344
Plate-changing Arrangement in
Hauil Camera, 175
Plate-glass Silveror's Table, 72
Plates, Thin Metal, Method of
Levelling, 203
Plough, Sqow, 72
Plugs, Watch Cylinder, Puncli
fbr removing, 152
Plumber's Underhand Joint, 88
Plumbing Work on Board Troop-
ship, 341
Plush-covered Frames, lOS
Pointed Brickwork, 115
Polishing Glass, Wheels for, 314
Pony Cart, 96
Trap, 16
Porch, 33
Portiere Rod, 125, 145
Portraiture, Camera Swing Back
in, 338
Postage Stamp Damper, 276
, Photographs, 305
Pots, Flower, Window Board for,
326
Poultry Food Bin, 130
, Rack for, 334
Power Transmission by Leather
Belts, Diagram of, 99
Prawn Trap, 186
Press for Mangle Sliafts, 40
Ttcmsers, 154
Prints and Printing Frames,
Photographic (seo Photo-
graphic)
Pulpit for Small Chapel, 131
Pulsometer, 74
Pump, Air, for !Blow-larap, 73
, Centrifugal, 28
, Garden, 331
Pumping Windmill Model, 310
Punch for reriioving Cylinder
Plugs. 152
Purfling Gauge, 308
Purses, Leather, 261
Push, Double-contact Electric, 99
Putty Knives, 343
Puttying Window Pane, 109
Pyro Developer, Apparatus for
Making, 263
Rack, Bamboo, for Newspapers,
123, 134
for Books, 229
Boots, 313
^ Brushes, 206
Clothes, 331
Greenstuff Food, 334
Hall, 331, 346
for Hats, 331, 346
Poultry Pood. 334
Rifles and Belts, 260
Sticks, 346
• Tobacco Pipes, 163
Tumbler, 111
, Umbrella, 346
, Wall, for Clothes, 337
Rafters, Bevels for, 57, 165
, Jack, 209
, Valley, 209
Railway Carriage Doors, Sliding
Sashes in. 349
Moulilings. 191
Coupling Shackles, 67
Waggon Bi-ake Blocks, 303
Draw Hook, 297
Springs, Furnace for, 59
Ram, Hydraulic, 163
Reciprocating Water Motor, 298
' , Regulator foi:, 342
Rectilinear Lenses, 327
Reed-hook lor American Organs,
299
Reel for Fishing Rod, 237
Reflected linage, Obtaining, 162
Reservoir for Paraffin Blowpipe,
323
Retaining Wall, Diagram of
Pressure of, 166
for Sunk Roadway, 204
Retouching Negatives, Tool for,
262
Reversing Gear^ Stephenson's,
213 ~
Ridge Roll of Roof, 117
Rifle and Belt Racks for Tent
Pole, 260
Riffler, 325
Rim, Conical, Pattern for, 45
River, Method of Taking Cross
Sections of, 265
Roadway, Sunk, Retaining Wall
for, 204
Rocking Chair, Bamboo, 237
Roll-top Desk, Shutter for, 291
Roof, Corrugated Iron and Felt,
225
, Covering, with Zinc, 129
cutting into Side of Dome, 25
, Girders and Columns for
carrying, 226
Roof, Glass, Preventing Moisture
Dropping from, 299
Hip Rafter, Bevel of, 57
, Iron, 180
, Lead.Flashings for, 331
, Ogee, Lead Bays for, 280
, Ridge Roll of, 117
Slate, Replacing, 281
Truss, Hipped End of, 328
Ropes, Straw, Twisting Hook for,
309
Router Planes, 243
Ruling Pen, Setting, 47
Rush-bottomed Chair, 174
Saddle-shaped Boiler,' Pattern
for, 56
Sail Plans, Model Yacht, 168, 184
Salinometer, 119
Salmon Fishing, Gaff for, 179
Sample Case, Traveller's, 63
Sash Bars and Rails, 198
Sashes, Double, for Deadening
Noise, 287
, Machine for Grooving, 259
, Sliding, in Railway Carriage
Doors, 349
Saucepan Covers, 112
Saucer Ornamentation, 38
Savings Bank or Money Box, 42
Saw, Band (see Band-saw)
, Circular, arranged for Cut-
ting Floor Blocks, 330
, , Bench for, 285
, , Guard for, 52
Mill, 257
, Tenon, fastened to Tool-
chest Lid, 137
Vice, 60
Saw-sharpening Machiiip, 247
Scabbling Picks and Hammers,
61, 20.1, 232
Scent Cabinet and Jewel Box
Combined, 199
Scoop for Apples, 47
for Coal-weighing Machine,
342
Scotch Fir, ai5
Scraper, Cabinet-maker's, Method
of Sharpening, 134
Scratch Plane for Woi king Mould-
ings, 168
Screen Frame Hinge; 94
, Stephenson's Thermometer.
71
- — -, Vestibule, l&l
Scribing Block, 144
, Clip for, 156
Seat, Spring, of Armchair, 330
Seats for Shop, 144
Secret Drawers, Jewel Case with.
86
Segmental Openings, Splayed
Linings to, 350
Set-square, Bevel, 160
Settee, Divan, 335
Sewage Filter, Automatic, 203
Irrig.ition, 263'
Sewer, House Drain Connection
to, 23
Sextant, Box, 93
Shackles, Railway Coypling, 67
Sham Timber Building, 142
Sharpening Saws, Machipe for,
247
Shears, Hand, for Sheet Iron, 210
Sheath, Hand Ct^mera, 343
Shed for Storing Cycles, 170
Sheet-metal Fountain for Green-
house, 340
Letter box, 291
, Waggon, Side-tipping, 354
Shelf Bracket, Working Mould-
ing on Edge of, 78
for Piano, 338
Shields for Mounting Antlers, 77
Ship's Latrine, 341
Log, Working, 159
Slop Shoot, 341
Ventilator JPatterns, 1j7
Washhouse, 341
Watertight Sliding Door, 77
Shoe Finisher's Irons, 53
Sliooting Gallery Target, 97
Shop Counter, 312
Door Electric Alarm, 181
, Double Seats for, 144
Front, Section of, 34
10
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
Shutter, Camera, on Unicum
Priiiciiile, 79
, Everset Photographic, 93
for J-plate Cameia, 109
for Roll-top Desk, 291
, Silent, for Camera, IS
for talting Photograpliio
Doubles, 212
Side-tipping Waggon for Clav,
854
Sign, Glass-faced Swinging, 295
Signal Code Flags, 351 i
Signboards, Triad, 75
Silk Fibres, 106
Tassels, Apparatus for Mak-
ing, 274
Sills, Concrete, of Window, 111
Silver Pipe-mount, 29
■ , Burnisher for, 29
Silvering GFass, Table used in, 72
Singlestick Handguards, 308
Sky Shade for Camera Lens, 345
Slate Roof, Replacing, 281
Sledge, 54 \
Slide-rest, Tool-holder for, 191
Slides, Lantern, 95
, ; Hot Box for, 26
Slidipg Door, Watertight, 77
Sashes in Railway Carriage
Doors, 349
Slop Shoot on Board Ship, 341
Slot. Cntting, in Top of Turned
Pillar, 65
Smoker's Companion, 163
Snow Plough, 72
Soap Box and Tumbler Rack, 111
Solfit of Splayed Linings, 350
Sounding Tube for ^ Locating
Water Leakage, 271
Span Roof Fowl-house, 839
Specimen Woods, Set of, 271
Spill Cutter, 156
Spiral Curves, Projection of, 110
Flute on Column, 323
Spirit-level Tubes, 207
Splayed Linings tn Segmental
Opening.s, 350
Spokes of Wheels, Apparatus for
Holding, 103
Spring Seat of Armchair, 330
Springs. Waggon, Furnace for, 59
Spruce Fir, 315
Square Baskets, Repairing, 30!)
Square, Carpenter's, Testing, 50
- — , Optical, 114
Stag's Antlers, Mounting, 77
-, Mounts for, 77
Staircase Well Development, 187
Stamp Photographs, 305
Stamps, Postage, Damper for, 276
Stand tor Baby's Cradle, 41
, Bamboo, for Camera, 336
, Bier, for Mortuary, 73
for Flowers, 246
in Model Brickwork for
Clock, 149
for Telescope, 94
, Toast, 344 ,
, Tripod, for Plate, 344
Starling's Cage, 169
Steam Heating, System of, 228
Steam-heated IBaker's Oven, 87
Steel, Crucible Furnace for, 39
Scraper, Cabinet-maker's,
Method of Sharpening, 134
Stencil Plate, 82
Step Ladder, Side of, 30
Stephenson's Reversing Gear, 218
Stephenson's Louvred Ther-
mometer Screen, 71
Steps, Balanced or Dancing, 177
, Stone, Repairing, 218
Stereoscope, 51
Stereoscopic Camera, 22
Prints, Mounting, 63
Stick Hack, 346
Still for Water, 108
Whisky, 204
Stock Hoops for Wheels, 262
Stocks for Shoeing Kicking
Horses, 43
Stone Cap, Circular-moulded, 236
— ^, Lead Flashings " Burnt-in "
to, 229
Stone SLups, Repairing, 218
Stool, Foot, 281
, Three-legged, for Angler, 21
— , Upholstered Fender, 264
Stopcocks Key and Sounding
Tube Combined, 271
Stopping Knife, 848
Stove for Laundry Irons, 242
Rack for Drying Clothes, 3R7
Straw Band Twisting Hoolt, 309
Street Lamp Door Catch, 92
Stretchers lor Trousers, 84
Striking Movement of Vienna
Regulator, l23
Stringing, Gau^e for Inlaying, 164
Studio Camera, 267
, Photographic, 274
, Temporary Photographic,
345
Stump Moulding, Box for, 94
8ugar and Tea Case, 240
.Sulky, Trotting, 318
Survey, Method of Plotting, 185
Surveyor's Box Sextant, 93
Swing, Baby's, 205
Curtain Rails for Bed-
stead, 104
Swinging Sign, 295
Table. Bamboo, Legs of, 128
, Bedroom, 36
, BiUiird, Corner of, 153
, Folding, 148
Fi-amework, 223
, Glass Silverer's, 72
, Kitchen, 171
' , , Folding Leaf and
rrupports of, 179
Lamp, Sheet Brass, 212
Pedestal, 120
Stand for Plates, etc., 844
Top, Detachable LaUi for, 56
Trestles, 289
-, Writing, 105
Tank, Chemical, for Magic Lan-
tern, 61
Pleasuring Liquid from, 203
, Systeraof Boiling Water in,
200
Target for Shooting Gallery, 97
Tassels, Silk, Apparatus for Mak-
ing, 274
Tea and Sugar Case, 240
Tea-table Trestles, 289
Telescope Cell Work, 48
, Photography with, 336
TriiJOd Starxl, 94
Telescopic Beam Compass, 321
Tenon Saw fastened to Tool-chest
Lid, 137
Tenons for Entrance Gates, 124
Tent Pole, Rifle and Belt Racks
for, 260
Tester Head for Bedstead, 198
Testing Brougham Under-car-
riage, Metliod of, 79
Carpenter's Try-square, 50
Thermo-electric Piles, 90
Thermometer Screen, Stephen-
son's, 71
Thread, Waxed, Bristle on, 104
Thru.sh, Cage for, 169.
Tile Hearth, Removable, 244
Timber Buildings, Sham, 142
, Diagram showing Strength
of, 208 .
Tinmen's Workshop, Plan of, 84
Toast Stand, 344
Tobacco-pipe .Mount, 29
, BurnMher for, 29
Rack, 163
Tool Cupboard, Caipenter's, 317
Tool-chest for Electrical Engin-
eer, 35
Light Coach Body
Maker, 65
Lid, Tenon Saw fastened to,
1:I7
Tool-holder for Slide-rest, 191
Tools for Dressing Granite, 205,
288, 282
Retouching Negatives,
262
Top, French Whip, 286
Towel Airor, Hot-water, 179
Tracery Window, 287
Trammel Heads, 218
Trap for Prawns, 186
Trap for 18-lmnds Pony, 16
Travellers Sample Case, 63
Trav, Washing, 206
Trellis Work, 145
Trestle, Builder's, 314
Trestles for Tea-tables. 289
Ti'iad Pictures, 75
Signboards, 75
Tripod Plate Stand, 344
Stand for Telescope, 94
Troopship's Latrihe, 341
Slop Shoot, 341
Washhouse, 341
Trotting Sulky, 318
Trousers P;'ess,.154
Stretchers, 84
Truss, King-post, Hjpped End
or, 328
Try-square, Method of Testing, 50
Tubes, Brass, Bending, 316
, , Machine for Bending,'
286, 816
, Pasteboard, Umbrella-
stand made from, 252
— , Spirit-level, 207
Tuck Pointing of Brickwork, 115
Tumbler Rack and Si tap Box, 111
Turned Pillar, Cutting Slot in
Top of, 65
Wood Clock-case, 52
Tuyere Bend Pattern, 284
Twisting Hook for Straw Bands,
309
Umbrella Cover Pattern, 82
Rack, 340
Umbrella-maker's Stock Knife,
164
Under-carriage of Brougham,
Compa^^sed Bed of, 79
, 'Bus, 231
Underhand Joint, Plumber's, 88
Underpinning Chimney Breast,
260
Unicum Type Camera Shutter, 79
Upholstered Fender Stool, 264
Upholstery, Gauge for Marking
Positions of Studs in, 210
Valley Rafteis, 209
Vase foi- Garden, 228
Veueer Panels, 128
Ventilating System for Dark
Room, 181
Ventilator, Glass Louvre, 34
, Ship's, Patterns for, 157
■ in Shop Front, 34
Vestibule Screen, Removing, 101
Vice for Saws, 60
Vienna Regulator Striking Move-
ments, 123
View-finder for Camera, 148
Vignetting Photogi-apiis, 14
Vinegar Making A])paratus, 265
Violin Bow, Head and Mount-
ings of, 214
Purfling Gauge, 308
Waggon Brake Blocks, 308
, Side-tipjiing, 354
— - Springs, Furnace for, 59
Wheels, Method of Setting
out, 178 (see also Wheels)
Waggonette Head, 279
Wainscot Oak, '^24
Walking-stick Rack, 346
Wall and Curbing, (Jurved, 217
, Curved Wing, '264
Racks (see Rack)
, Retaining, Diagram of
Pressure on, 166
, , for Sunk Roadway,
204
Washer for Photographic Prints,
126
Washhouse on Board Ship, 841
Washing Copper, Pksh-nue, 283
Tray, 206
Watch Cylinder Plugs, Punch for
Removing, 152
Watch Depth, Testing, 200
r Lever Escapement, Method
of Deptliing, 173
, Perpetual Calendar,Mech^n-
isiii of, 44
Staff, Method of Drilling, 42
Watch-case Galvanometer, 66
Water, Aerated, Machine for
Making, 329
, Apparatus for Boiling. 'iuO
, Distilling, 10s
Filter Beds, 21.5
Leakage, Instrument for
Locating, 271
Motor, 39
, Reciprocating, 298, 342
— - Supply System, Temporary,
230
Watercourse Gradient, Setting
out, 324'
Watertight Sliding Door, 77
Waited Thieart, Bristle on, 104
Weighing Machine, Coal, Scoop
for, 342
Wells Apparatus for Measuring
Distances, 294
Wheel, Measuring, for Cart
Wheels, 347
Naves, Horse for Mortising,
135
— I- Spokes, Apparatus for hold-
ing, 103
Wheelbairow, Child's, 216
i Frame, 32
, Small, 176
Wheels, Bevelled Stock Hoops
for, 262 ^
r for Bevelling and Polishing
Glass, 314
, Cart, Measuring Wheel for,
347
, Machine for withdrawing
Axle Boxes fj'ora, 126
, Putting Felloes on, 81
, Waggon, Setting out, 178
Wheelwri^lit's Horse for Mortis-
ing Wheel Naves, 135
Whip-top, French, 286
Whiskey, Apparatus for Distil-
ling, 204
Wicket Gate, 320
Windmill, II ode) Pumjiug, 310
Windiiw Board for Flower Pots,
826
Box for Flowers, 311
Pane, Glazing, 1C9
Sashes, Double, for Deaden-
ing Noise, 287
Sills and Heads, Concrete,
111
, Tracery, 287
Windsoi- Chair fitted as Barber's
Chair, 98
Wing Wall, Curved, Projection
of, 254
Wiped Joint on Copper Pipe, 62
■ Lead Pipe, 88
Wire Blind, Frame for, 64
■ Rests used in Wet-plate
Photography, 100 '
Wood Bedstead, Child's or
Doll s, 70
Block Floor, 245
Blocks, Apparatus for Cut-
ting, 330
Chuck in Sections, 14
■ Panelling with Veneers, 128
Seasoning Apparatus,! '107
Woodcarving Knife, S25
, Specimens, Set of, 271
Woodworking Lathe, Beading
Spindle for, 288
Wool Fibres, 100
Workbox for, Beadwork, 49
Workshop, Tinmen's, Plan of, 84
Worm Screws on Banjo, 115
WringiuLT Machine, 2'r
Writing Table, 106
Yacht, Model, Sail Plan for, 168,
184
Zinc, Roof covered with, 129
iSinc Stencil Plate, 82
CASSELLS
CYCLOPAEDIA OF MECHANICS.
Refilling Fitzroy Baronreter.— It Is not an easy
matter for an Inexperienced person to till a barometer
px'operly. The tube and mercury must first be made
, warm. The mercury may be heated to the boiling point
of water In an Iron vessel ; a. vessel having tin in its com-
position must on no account Ipe used. The glass should be
warmed sufficiently to ensure the evaporation of all,
moisture. Make a paper funnel having but a very small
aperture and pour in the, mercury, whose impurities
will cling to the paper funnel, and test tor correct
amount with a standard barometer. Be careful that
air does not enter with the mercury. If ^.n odd air^bubble
appears, send up a little more to collect, and send up
to the top what has already entered.
, Making Lantern Slides.— Lantern slides are made
from prints, photographs, etc., in the following way.
MaKe a negative of the subject by copying in the
camera in the usual way. Eoeus the picture sharply
within a square 3iin. by 31 In., leaving iin. each way
for binding and masking. Copying is merely photo-
graphing, at close quarters. If the camera will not
, extend far enough to obtiiln a picture of the required
size, the lens , and front can be removed from the
camera proper, and the camera lengthened by attach-
ing ,to it a box at one end of which the lens and front
can be fitted, the join between the box and the camera
being covered with a dark cloth. From the negative
>thus obtained a lantei'n slide may be made either by
contact or through the camera. Making slides by
, contact is the simpler plan if the lantern plate is
large enough to contain the whole' of the picture.
Place the lantern plate in contact with the nega-
tive (film to film) in the dark room and expose, to
. , the light of a gas ilame -, a thin image is developed.
Bromide plates are the least troublesome to use,
and a simple developer is metol and soda. After
development, the plata is fixed and washed as usual.
Vhen the negative is dry a mask |s laid on the film
side, and over the mask is placed a carefully cleaned
cover glass; the two glasses are then bound together
with strips of black -gummed paper. The glasses should
be gripped firmly in the centre with the thumb and fore-
finger of the left-hand, and the moistened paper laid
along the top edge in position and smoothed gently
•towards the two ends, when dry, do the opposite side,
then the remaining sides. Juastly, clean oft any gum
and finger marks. For copying throught the camera,
the negative should be fixed in the bottom of the box,
glass side out (so that the sides bf the box shade the
film), and either .placed on, a slanting board pointing to
the clear sky^ or set up on a table in front of -a lamp
shaded with a sheet of, ground glass. The picture Is
then focussed to the desired size, and the exposure is
made by daylight, if possible, or by artificial light, such
as a lamp or a Jiiece of magnesium ribbon burnt behind
ground glass. Masks can be bought; they are used to
define the extent of the picture to be shown on the
screen.. The cover glass protects the film of the negative.
The binding strips can also be bought;, their lise is
obvious. A white spot (a smaU circular piece of white
paper) is placed in each of the top corners of the nega-
tive as a guide to the lantern operator. When photo-
graphs or book prints are to be copied on to slMes the
grain of the paper may be got rid of by wetting the
print or photograph and squeCgeeing it on to Clean
glass, carefully stroking out the air bubbles between
the print and the glass. If it is not desirable to wet
the photograph it may be put in a printing frame
with glass befoi'e it and then exposed before the
camera. A line drawing may be copied the same size
by ooatmg a piece of glass 3iin. by 3Hn. with a. weak
solution of gelatine. The glass should be placed over the
design and a tracing made on the gelatine film^with pen
and ink (Stephens' ebony stain answers well). When yel-y ,
fine lines are required, the film may, be rubbed with
medium and a retouching pencil used. This tracing can '
be used as a lantern plate. The masking, binding, and
fixing of the cover glass are described above.
Making Socket Joint In Steam Pipe.— The propor-
tions for a cement for the socket joint of a steam pipe
are, by weight, 1 part of powdered sal-ammoniac, 2 parts of
fiour sulphur, and, 80 to 100 parts of borings ; the borings
should be pounded it large. These ingredients must be
well mixed and moistened with water, and will be ready
tor usein from one to two hours. Cattlk the socket two-
thirds full of yarn, and finish with one-third of borings.
The less borings used the better, for a slight expansive
action occurs in the boritigs when setting, and this
causes the splitting of sockets; If there are only one or
twd joints, get some white lead and add sutficient dry
red lead to make a' stiff putty; thin a little of this wita •
boiled oil, and paint inside the socket first. Then caulk
in alternate layers of yarn and putty, commencing
with the yarn and finishing with the putty. This cement
is longer in setting than the former one. ,
Stching on Steel.— All processes of steel etching '
■ depend on the coating of the steel with a -resist, which
is scraped away from those, portions to be etched
or bitten into by chemical action. The resist or
etching ground is made by melting together over a
slow fire black pitch, white wax, Burgtindy pitch,
asphaltum, and gum mastic. Other etching groilnds
are (1) asphaltum varnish ; (2) yellow beeswax, dissolved ,
in turpentine and continuously , decanted until no
sediment remains— to 6 parts of this add 1 part bf
japan varhish; (3) asphaltum, Burgundy pitch, and
beeswax melted together. The resist may either be
melted and then brushed on, or the steel may be warmed
so that on rubbing it with the resist the latter will melt
and leave, a thin film. The resist is allowed to becolne
cold and h^rd, and is then drawn on with needles or,
preferably, with a stick of steel of f-in. diameter round or
square section tapering to a fine point ateachend; the
weight of this tool is sufficientto penetrate and remove the
resist as it is drawn along, thus leaving the hand more
at liberty to draw freely or form letters as the case may
be. It the steel is in the form of a plate, it now has a
Willbf wax built around its edges, and into the shallow
dish thus formed the etching acid is poured. Knife .
blades and similar small articles having beeh pro<)erly-
coated with resist, may be dipped into the acid, or the
latter may be applied to the portions to be etched by
means of a camel-hair pencil or a stick, at the end of
which is mounted a little ball of tissue-paper. Eemember
that 'all p'drtions not cover-ed with the resist will be
etched. The etching'acid may be.any of the following mix-
tures. (1)' Pyroligneous acid, nitric acid, and water ; (2)
diluted nitrous acid ; (3) 2 oz. of copper sulphate, J oz. of
alum, ioz. of salt, i pt. of vinegar, and 40 drops of nitric
acid; (4) 4 pai-ts of glacial acetic acid and 1 pirt of
^absolute alcohol; allow to remain tor thirty minutes,
and add" gradually 1 part of nitric acid; (5) 1 part of
fuming hydrochloric add and 7 parts of water; add
boiling solution of potassium chlorate and dilute with
,water. When the acid has bitten sufficiently deep,
pour it off or remove it, and wash thoroughly in
clean water. If it is required to etch more deeply certain
portions, cover up the rest with a stopping ground of
lampblack and Venice turpentine, or with any of the
above etching grounds, and apply the acid again. When
the etching is complete, wash off all traces of acid.
12
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
Dyeing Pampas Grass.— To dye pampas grass, place
it ill fairly strong solutions of aniline dyes, ami heat
until sufficiently coloured. The most suitable dyes are
soluble bine, picric acid, fast s'ellow, eosine, magenta,
methyl violet, malachite green, Bismarck brown, and
acid brown. If, however, only small quantities are to be
dyed, use Judson's or other dyes, which may be obtained
in packets.
Mltrelng Cornice Moulding.— In marking off the
ends of two "pieces of cornice moulding which are to be
i'oined at right angles, the procedure Is as follows,
iet the section of the moulding be as shown in
Fig. 1. Draw the plan of the mouldings and mitre as
perlence, but the following will serve as a guide. Put
luib. of white lead, Iqt. of raw linseed oil, and about
i lb. of patent driers in a large pot and mix wejl together,
adding suftioient black to produce the desired tint.
Strain through a piece of canvas and add just suiHcient
turps to make the' paint work smoothly. The quantity
of driers will vary according to the state of the surface
to be painted and the quality of the material. The tint
used must be made to accord with the finishing colour.
For instance, if a light colour is desired, the priming and
following coats must be light, so as gradually to lead to
the finishing tint. For the second coat, the same colour
may be used as for the first. For the third coat, oxide
red, linseed oil, and terebine as a drier may be used.
Fig. 3
Mltreing Cornice Moulding.
at Fig. 2. Then set a bevel to the mitre line C D. This
will be the bevel to apply to the top edge, as indicated
by the line D (Fig. 3) . For the bevel for the sloping
back, through the angle at A' (Fig. I) draw A' B'. With A'
as centre and C as radius, draw the arc C B'. Now draw
B' B parallel to the lines in the plan, as shown, and C B
parallel to A' B' ; then join B to A. Set the bevel as indi-
cated, and apply it to the sloping back of the moulding
and mark it. .This will give a line as indicated bjr A
(Fig. 3). As A' E' is a vertical surface, the line A E indi-
cated at Fig. 3 can be drn.wu square. This principle
can be applied for mouldirgs meeting at any angle. If
there are several mitres to be made and all meet at the
same angle, a simpler plan, and one that will save much
time, is to construct a mitre box which will hold the
moulding to the exact angle, as shown at Fig. i, and
the mitres can be cut in the manner illustrated and
described on p. 136.
Fainting Kailway Wagons.— The first or priming
coat on railwa.y wagons is made of tub white lead, r.aw
linseed oil, patent driers, a little common black, and
turpentine. The quantities may bo best judged by ex-
For the fourth coat, half oxiae paint and half varnish
may be used. For dead colours, the dry paint Is ground
In turpentine ; a little gold size and varnish are then
added and the paint thinned down to a working con-
sistency with turps. Boiled oil may be used if desired
with the finishing coats. It is necessary to remember,
however, that only very small quantities of boiled oil
should be used if the best results are to be gainedHn
finishing. Either terebine or gold size may be used as
driers with delicate tints sucli as would be injured by
usingp^tent driers. Copal varnish may be mixed with the
finishing coats, or it may be used by itself as a finishing .
coat over the last coat of colour. The materials used
will vary according to the finishing tint. For instance, a
blue wagon would be finished as follows. The priming
coat would be lead colour, rather dark, as described
above i the second coat would be the same with a little
blue mixed in ; t bird coat, ultramarine or Prussian blue
as a dead colour i fourth coat, the same, with halt its
bulk of varnish. The writing and picking out would
then be put on with two coats of dead colour, the last
coat being clear varnish. The usual practice is simply
to paint with three coats of lead colour.
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
13
Blackening Aluminium.— The troiize known in tho
trade as " arsenic bronze," diluted with an equal ciuan-
tlty ot water, is used for ■blackening aluminium.
First the exposed parts ot the surface should be curled,
not straigHt-grained, with emery-paper ; then the metal
should be qiiickly dipped into the fluid and as sharply
withdrawn, and drained. If on the first immersion the
bronze has not taken well all oyer, the process should be
repeated. If the preparation is too strong, there is a
danger that tie acid will eat away the metal. A
recipe for arsenic bronze is hydrochloric acid, 121b.;
sulphate of iron, lib. ; pure white arsenic, lib. To this,
for aluminium, must be added an equal quantity of
water; and, when the metal has blackened, it should
be dried in a mixture of blacklead and sawdust. Only
-sufficient sawdust is required to soak up the moisture.
The exposed parts then may be lacquered.
Elliptical Headed Door Frame.— In commencing to
set out and construct an elliptical headed door frame,
^idth 5 ft. 6 in., rise 1ft. 3 in. inside measurement, to
be made in two thicknesses of 24-in. and ii'-in. stuit screwed
together, first set out the head full size on a board as
shown in Fig. 1. A mould should be made for half the
inside thickness, and one for the outer thickness ; from
these moulds the stuff should be marked out. It will be
For pink, add to a solution of cobalt nitrate or cobalt
chloride sufficient sesquiearbonate ot ammonia to dissolve
the precipitate first formed. Porjiurpte, (a) mix a solution
of 2 dr. of sulphate of copper in 2 oz. of water with a
solution of 1 dr. ot French gelatine in 2 oz. of boiling
water, "land add 2pt. ot liquor of potassa; shake a tew
times during ten hours, decant, and dilute with water ;
(6) dissolTe 1 oz. of copper sulphate in 1 ijt. of water, and
add lioz. of sesquiearbonate of ammonia: (c), add sulli-
cient carbonate of ammonia to an infusion of logwood ;
((J) dissolve 3 oz. of lead acetate and Idr. of cochineal in
sufficient water; or (e) add sulphate of indigo, nearly
neutralised with chalk, to an infusion of cochineal. For
red, (a) dissolve 10 gr. of sulphoeyanide of potassium to
1 gal. ot water, and add 10 drops of a solution ot per-
chloride of iron ; (b) dissolve carmine in ammonia and
dilute with water; (c) dissolve cochineal in a weak
solution ot ammonia ; (cJ) dissolve madder lake in sesqui-
earbonate of ammonia and dilute with water ; or (e) dis-
solve cochineal in sal-ammoniac and dilute with water.
For violet, mix together solutions of nitrate of cobalt
and sesquiearbonate of ammonia, and add sufficient
ammonio-sulphate of copper. For yellow, (a) dissolve
,11b. of sesquioxide of iron in 2qt. of hydrochloric acid,
' and dilute with water ; (b) add a little alum to a strong
decoction of French berries; (c) dissolve either the
seen from the drawing that the outer part ot tfte head
is made of three pieces— that is, from A to B, B to C, and
C to D ; the inside is constructed of four pieces— from A
to E, E to P, F to G, and G to B. The dii-eotiou of the
grain for the outside pieces is indicated in the illustra-
tions. The connection between the head pieces and the
posts is fully shown by Figs. 2 to 5, as also the general
construction of the head. It will be a stronger job if
the pieces are glued as tyell as screwed together.
Chemists' SUow Bottles. — For an amber-coloured
liquid for use in chemists' show bottles, dissolve 1
part of coarsely powdered dragon's blood in i parts
of oil of vitriol, and dilute with cold distilled water.
Blue liquid may be a diluted solution of (a) 1 oz. of
copper sulphate in i oz. of sulphuric acid, (b) soluble
Prussian blue in oxalic acid, or (c) indigo in sul-
phuric acid. Crimson liquid is a diluted solution of
30 gr. each ot iodide of potash and iodine in 1 dr. of
water; or an infusion ot 1 oz. of alkanet root in 20 oz.
of turpentine. For green, (a) dissolve 1 dr. ot copper
sulphate and 30 gr. or bichromate of potash in 2 oz. ot
liquid ammonia, and add 1 gal. ot water; (b) dissolve
2 oz. of copper sulphate and 4 oz. of sodium chloride in
1 pt. of water ;- (c) dissolve distilled verdigris in. acetic
acid and dilute with water ; or (d) dissolve blue vitriol
in water and add nitric acid until ot the right tint. For
magenta, dissolve acetate ot rosaniliue in water. Orange-
coloured liquid is (a) a solution of bichromate of potash
in water io which is then added a little sulphuric acid,
or (b) a dmits solution of gamboge in liquor of potassa.
chromate or bichromate of potassium in water; or. (d)
dissolve, equal parts of nitre and potassium chroinate,
in water. Multi-coloured or variegated show bottles are
formed by employing a number ot liquids liavmg
different speoiflo gravities and different colours. Pour
in the following solutions in the order mentioned, using
a funnel and allowing the stream to fall upon a fioating
cork. (1) Chemically pure sulphuric acid tinted blue
with indigo sulphate, (2) chemically pure and untirited
chloroform, (3) glycerine tinted brown with caramel
(burnt sugar), (4) castor oil tinted red with alkanet root,
(5) 40 per cent, alcohol tinted green with aniline colour,
(6) cod liver oil containing 1 per cent, of oil ot turiien-
tine, and (7) 94 per cent, alcohol tinted with aniline
_ violet.
Precautions in Making White French Polish.—
To protect the shellac, from atmospheric influences it
should," when at the merchant's, be stored in water;
neglect of this precaution causes the shellac to lose its
nature, and it will not then dissolve by simple immer-
sion. The lac, when purchased, should be at once broken
up small, spread on clean paper, and set aside in a warm,
not hot, place, and frequently turned over till it feiels
quite dry. It should then be placed with the spirit in a
stone or earthenware pickle .iar, over the top of which a
piece of rag should be tied. Then set the jar in a sauce-
pan partly filled with water, glue-pot fashion, and place
in an oven or on a gas or oil stove, and gradually bring
up to blood heat. If tbe iajp does not then dissolve, it
should be thrown away as worthless.
14
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
Polishing Curling Stones.— Ab a rule, curling stones
are made oi granite or ti-ap, a ihixture of felepar and
hornblende ; therefore to polish them without machinery
is very laborious work. Rig up a vertical lathe similar
to those used by lapidaries, and place the stone on it,
and, while revolving, put coarse emery and water on It,
pressing a piece of smooth iron on the stone as it
revolves. When all pits and unevennesses are removed,
carefully wash away the emery grains and go through
the same process with fine emery, removing all scratches
left by the former treatment. This process must be gone
through with care, as if scratches are not removed it
will be impossible to get a good polish. When an even
grain, dull polish is obtained, carefully wash again,
removing all traces of emery. Fasten a piece of felt to
a piece of wood and on it put some putty powder slightly
wetted, and apply to the stone until a good polish is
obtained. A deal of the rough work might be done in
bringing the stones into condition for further grinding
if In the first instance they could be slung in front of a
grindstone.
Vignetting Photographs.— If It is required to make
a vignette photograph without showing much dai'k
around the head and neck proceed thus. Cut in
cardboard (old plate boxes answer well) a vignette con^
siderably smaller than the desii-ed vignette & (Figs. 1 and
2), and fix about J in. from the negative by fastening with
drawing pins. To do this, it may be necessary to nail
some strips of wood B around the outer edges of the
printing frame. Fig. 1 shows a perspective view and
it on a piece of boxwood, file it to a gentle taper until tha
end just enters the hole in a screw-plate j the wire may
then be screwed into the latter, plenty of oil bein^
used. When it goes hard,' turn it back, halt a turn,
then forward three-quarters of a turn, back half a
turn again, and so on, advancing slowly until a full
thread is cut for a sufllcient distance. The,n file three
flats upon it for the whole length of the thread, taperlhg
the flats to the end, where they should meet in, a knife
edge and show only half a full thread. Harden the
tap by heating to a red colour and plunging in cold water.
Brighten one flat and heat it over a flame until it is of a
pale straw colour. This renders it lessbrittle, and is called
"tempering." Then carefully smooth all three flats on
an oilstone so as to leave good cutting edges. Finally,
file some nicks in the soft end to indicate the number or
the hole in the screw-plate to which it belongs.
Making a Wcod Chuck In Sections.- A section chuck
in wood, suitable for spinning a silver jug In the lathe,
may be made in this way,. Fix a piece of hornbeam of the
requisite size on the mandrel and turn it to the shape of
Fig. 1; AB is the height of the jug, Op the diameter at its
|q
B-
$m
E>r
1 A
;$
P!
i
A
;^\'
1
i^l
^'^f
Fig. I B f^iG 2
Vignetting Photographs.
Making a Wood Chuck In Sections.
Fig. 2 a section of the Vignetted frame. Cover with
cotton-wool A any thin portions of the negative coming
near the margins— such as may occur with a black coat-
or the light will creep too far and the shape of the vig-
nette be spoilt. The wool must be pulled out very loose
and soft, or a hard line will be shown by the shadow it
casts on thS negative. In cases where the negative Is
rery thin it is advisable to cover the vignette with tissue
paper. Vignettes should always be printed in subdued
light. A vignette card must not be cut too closeiy
around the figure, nor its outline repeated too decidedly,
as the effect thus obtained will be quite as inartistic as
the stereotyped egg shaped pateta. To produce a success-
lul vignette, a light background must be used. With a
dark background it is all but impossible to get a soft
vignette. The farther the hole is from the plate and the
darker the background of the negative, the larger will
the vignette be, and the softer will be its outline. During
early attempts 8,t vignetting the print should be examined
from time to time to see that the vignette is going on
satisfactorily.
Straightening Brass Curtain Poles.- '^o straighten
a brass curtain pole that has been used for a bay window,
first anneal the tube where bent, then load it with lead
and, alter cooling, pass it through a hole in a firmly
fixed bench until the shoulder of the bend rests against
the shoulder of the hole. Then pull the tube until it is
quite straight against the wood shoulder. Finally^melt
out the lead and repolish and lacquer the tube. When
lacquering the tube, first gently heat it, then apply
with a brush lan even coat of lacquer, and stand it
aside free from dust until dry.
Making Taps for Watch Screw Threads.— Taps for
watch screw threads may- be made from needles, but
prcbd,bly they would not last long. A tap should be made
from the best steel ; therefore get a length of tool steel
wire of the correct size. From this cut off a suitable
length, say IJ in. Soften it by heating to a dull red and
allowing it to cool slowly. Hold it in a pin- vice and, resting
narrowest point, and A C the profile of its upper part. The,
diameter of the long cylindrical part C B should be as
large as possible without weakening the chuck. Next join
a number of wedge-shaped pieces of hornbeam, as shown
in Fig. 2 ; one of the wedges marked 1 should be so shaped
that its broadest part turns away fi'om the outside,
while the opposite is the case with the other wedges.
The joints must be perfect, and are best finished on their
joining surfaces with a toothed plane, being so glued
together that a piece of brown paper is inserted between
each p^r of wooden surfaces. Joip 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 together ;
next 6, 7, 8, and 9. It jvill now be seen that if the free
surfaces of 1 and 5, and 6 and 9, are lying in one plane,
the last joining will be fairly easy to accomplish. The
better plan is to make a drawing, plan down the shape
of the wedges, and work accordingly. When all are
joined and dry, chuck the roughly cylindrical pieces
bore it out, and turn a ring on one end which will fit
nicely in the annular recess shown at D (Fig. 11, the
cylindrical pa.rt B fitting tightly in the hole bored
without forcing the wedges from one another. When
this is accomplished, the chuck can be finished to tem-
plate as Fig. 3. Now separate the wedges, first marking
them with lead pencil so as to secure their proper posi-
tions. Eemove the loose part of the chuck, insert a thin
knife blade in any of the glued joints, and tap gently
with a mallet on the back of the knife. The wedges,
owing to the brown paper inserted between them, can
easily be separated ; tuese nine wedges, when placed on
the fixed part of the chuck in their proper -rotation, will
appear like one single piece. When the metal has been
spun home and is removed from the lathe, it is evident
that all the wedges are inside the bowl of the jug ; but
when this is released from the fixed part of the chuck,
piece 1 (Fig. 2) can be pushed towai'ds the centre and
drops out, the, other pieces following. Take care
that none of, the wedges are of larger transverse
dimensions than will permit of them passing easily
through the narrowest part of the jug's neck i a
drawing of the sections should be made before joining
them together.
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
15
Determining Grate Area, etc., of Vertical Boilers.
—To determine the grate area of a vei-tical boiler,
take the diataeter of the firebox at the bottom of
the firehole and obtain the area. For instance, in a
boiler 6tt. 6in. high by 3ft. diameter, the firebox at
the bottom Is 2 ft. 5i in-. At the firebar level, how-
ever, this diameter is about li in. less, viz. 2 ft. i in.
The area of circle of this diameter = 615-75 sq. in. =
4-27 sq.. ft., which is the area of the grate. To obtain
the approximate heating surface, multiply the grate
area by 10, the ratio of heating surface to grate sur-
face in these boilers being about 10 to 1. Thus, the
heating surface in the boiler in question = 4'27 x 10 =
42'7 sq.ft. An approximate rule for the horse-power is
to allow 10 sq. ft. of heating surface.per horse-power.
Cutting Figured Boards from Fltch-pine Logs.—
Some hints are given here on sawing up a pitch-pine log
so as to get the best variety in the figuring of wood to
be used for panels. It must be remembei-ed that the
amount of figure in .a pitch-pine log depends on
the amount of irregularity of growth in the
ti-ee. Curly figured pitch-pine cannot be
got out of a plain pitch-pine log. But even fii b
the plainest log will afford a good amount
of passable figure with judicious handling. «5
In the accompanying illustrations, which '
treat only of plain logs, the outer board A (
(Pig. 1> will have a large and open figure,
approximating to the type shown in Fig. 4,
and BO also would the outer boards on the
three other sides of the same log. From A
to B the figure narrows down considerably
it is lost altogether, the board E being shown in Fie. 6.
The reverses of figure shown at I, J, and K (Fig. 5) are
due to slight bends that occurred in the growing tree—
the saw, m its straight course, revealing outcrops of
lower layers of wood. The figure on any, given side of a
log may also be varied within certain limits by first
cutting a long wedge-ehaped slaji off the side and then
making all subsequent boards parallel (in thickness) to
the newly exposed surface. Closeness of ring will also
affect the figui-e to some extent ; but these circumstances
do not interfere with the general principle just given.
Recipes for Bottle capping Mixtures or Waxes.
—The following recipes are for waxes and mixtures
for use in sealing bottles. (1) Soak 7 lb. of good gelatine
in 10 oz. of glycerine and 60 oz. of water and heat over a
water bath until dissolved ;,the'mixture can be coloured
by the addition of pigments, and various tints can be
obtained by the use of aniline colours. The resulting
compound should be stored in jars. To apply, heat
the mass to a liquid and dip in it the cork and
, portions of the neck of the bottle ; it sets
very quickly. (2) Mix 1 oz. of gelatine, 1 oz.
of gum arable, and 20 gr. of boric acid -with
14 fluid oz. of cold water. Stir occasionally
until the gum is dissolved. Heat the mixture
to boiling point, remove the scum, and
strain. Then stir in a mixture of 1 oz. of
N starch and 2 fluid oz. of water until a uniform
' , - product results. As in the former recipe,
the composition may be tinted with any
suitable dye. Before using it must be
softened by the application of heat. (3)
Fig. I
FIG. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 6
Cutting Figured Boards from Fitch-pine Logs.
until when the position B is reached the amount
and proportion of the figure will be approximately
as shown in Pig.. 5. The figure in all the boards
vrill be symmetrical— that is to say, its climax, or
turning point, will be at the centre of every board. All
wi^l, therefore, be suitable for panels. The symmetry of
figure is due to the position of each board, relatively to
the annual rings of the log. Each board is tangentially
situated, the point of contact being near the centre of
its width. Thus, the board C (Pig. 1) , while inclined at a
different angle to the boards A and B, will still have the
same kind of figure on its faee^for the reason that it is
situated tangentially to the rings. Boards cut on the radii
of the tree, as D and E (Pig. 2), will have no fiower figure,
and except for the presence of an occasional knot or two,
perhaps, will have little of an ornamental chai-acter on
their sm-laces, excepting, of course, the straight or wavy
lines t];iat represent the edges of the yearly layers of
wood (see Fig. 6). Here again the board J (Pig.^) is dis-
posed diagonally to D and E, but the figures will be the
same, for all are situated on radii of the tree. To secure
the greatest amount of figure out of any given log, it is
therefore necessary to cut as many boards as possible
tangentially to the rings. In Pig. 3, for example, each
board will be ornamentally figured, and the width of the
figure will be proportionate to the -width of the board
throughout. It is unfortunate that ip securing this
result the boards will vary so greatjy in width. The sketch
is given here only as an extreme example of a means to ,
an end. In Pig. 2 the boards G and H are practically
halves of theboard A (Pig. I), and the figure in these will
therefoie be like the upper and lower half respectively
of the board shown in Fig. 4. Prom G and H, in towards E,
the figure at th« inner edges of the intermediate boards
becomes less and less prominent, until when E is reached
Dissolve 3 oz. of shellac, IJ bz. of -Venice turpentine,
and 72 gr. of boric acid in a mixtm-e of 12i fiuid oz. of
alcohol and 6 fiuid drachms of ether, colour with a
spirit-soluble dye, and add 3oz. of powdered talcum.
During use the 'mixture must be agitated frequently.
(4) For a black bottle wax, melt together equal parts of
common resin, pitch,, and ivory black. (5) Another, melt
together 201b. of eOmmon resin, 51b. of tallow, and 41b.
Of lampblack. (6) For a red bottle wax, mix together by
the aid of heat 151b. of common resin, 41b. of tallow,
and 5 lb. of red lead. (7) Melt together 6oz. of resin, '
2 oz. of shellac, and 2 oz. of -Venice turpentine, and add
9 oz. of lampblack or other colouring matter. (8) Bed :
Melt together 6i parts of resin, i part of beeswax, and
li parts of -Venetian red or red lead. (9) Eed ; Use 4 oz. of
shellac, 1 oz. Venetian turpentine, and 3 oz. vermilion.
Melt the laC in a copper pan suspended over a clear
charcoal fire, and pour the Venice turpentine slowly into
it, finally adding the vermilion, stirring briskly the whUe.
(10) Melt 21b. of shellac and 41b. of resin cautiously in
a bright copper pan over a clear charcoal fire. -When
melted, add 2ilb. of Venice turpentine and IJlb. of red-
lead. Pour into moulds, or form sticks on a warm marble
plate. Gloss may be produced by polishing the sticks
with a rag until they are cold. (11) The following recipe
is recommended by Shelrer ; Heat 2 parts of Burgundy
pitch until all the water is driven off, add 1 part of tur-
pentine and 4 parts of colophony, and when the whole is
liquid thoroughly -mix it -n-ith 2 parts of chalk, i part of
carbonate of'magnesia, and ^ parts of Armenian bole.
Making Coloured Crayons.— Coloured crayons may
be made by mixing pipeclay with water to form a stiff
dough. The material may be made harder by adding a
little soap to the water. For a blue coloui-, add common
16
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
ultramarine ; for red, use Venetian red ; tor brown, use
limber or vandyiie brown ; and for blacli, iise larapblaolt.
After standing two or three days it may be made into
balls, rolled into rods between two boards, then cut up
into lengths and dried, first in the air and finally in a
warm place.
Trap or Tub for 13-Hands Pony.— Pig. 1 is a sida
elevation and Tie. 2 a back elevation drawn to a scale of
I in. to 1 ft. of a tub or trap suitable for a 13-hauds pony.
The length on the seat is 3ft. 3 in. ; length of top rail,
3 ft. 9 in. ; depth of well, 11 in. ; depth above seat, 9 In. ;
length of bottom, 2ft. 6 in. ; width, 2ft. ajin, Greater
sail is given to the sides so that the top of the vehicle is
quite square. "Walnut should be used for the well if to
be finished in plain varnish. If the frame bottom be of
ash, a pair of fence routers for rabbeting on sides and
bottom will be required. Or the trap can be put together
by rabbeting the ends and using 1-in. deal boards for the
bottom, which can be nailed to battens running along
the bottom of the sides. The seat boards are of birch
12 in. wide, screwed on top of the well ; or the seats may
be all framed together similar to the bottom. The four
corner pillars andtop railsare liin. by li in. The sticks
are of ash, ^ in. sqiiare, finished black, the stained
mahogany panels being screwed on inside. The wheels
are 3 ft. 6 in. ; stocks, 6i in. diameter by 7 in. long. Front
hoop, 4 in. Inside diameter by 2 in. wide ; hind hoop, 5 in.
diameter by 1 in. -wide ; spokes, H in. ; felloes (cut from
2-in. ash plank) to finish about H in. square on thickest
part ; tyres, IJ in wide. The wings are 3 ft. 1 in. by 6i in.
the charge la too strongly heated the vessel might be
Eierced ; If there appears a likelihood of the latter
appening, add a quantit.y of cold saltpetre or withdraw
the fire. Continue stirring after the lead has been
added, and then, by means of a Iffrge cast-iron ladle, run
the melted mass into cold water and assist the solution
by constant stirring. The decomposition of the salt-
petre by the lead at from 420° 0. to 600° C. produces,'
besides the nitrite, about 1 per cent, of caustic soda,
which dissolves some of the oxide of lead formed; to
remove the latter, neutralise the solution with nitric
acid. In this manner saltpetre is re-formed, the oxide of
lead being pi-eclpitated as insoluble hydroxide. The
neutralising maybe effected either with nitrate of lead
or with dilute sulphuric acid instead of nitric acid;
of the two former, sulphuric acid is the cheaper, but by
its use sulphate of soda is deposited in the concen-
trating vessels in the form of anhydrous salt. There
are now in aqueous solution (1) nitrite, (2) unde-
composed saltpetre, (3) caustic soda holding oxide of
lead in solution, and (4) the soluble impurities of the
saltpetre, such as chloride of sodium, etc. The insoluble
residue which was pr'ecipitated consists of (1) oxide of
lead, (2) a very small quantity of metallic lead which has
escaped oxidation, and (3) peroxide of lead. The solution,
diluted to from 6° B. to 8° B., is neuti-alised again with
the same agent as was used before ; the oxide of lead in
solution Is precipitated, and the neutralising agent is
added as long as a precipitate will form. It may here be
mentioned that it is commonly supposed, and most
authors state, that nitrite of sodium has an alkaline
Trap for 13-Hands Pony.
by i in., and the raised backs 3 ft. 1 in. by 4 in. by 1 in.
The wing irons should be fastened on underneath raised
backs, and have 7 in. clearance of the wheels. Tlie
elliptic springs are 3 ft. I in. between centres of eyes and
have five plates li in. wide. The shafts are fastened
under the seats, and are 5 ft. 5 in. long in front of
splinter bar, and 21 in. to 22 in. wide where the tug stops
come about 15 in. from points. Breeching staples are
2 ft. frt>m splinter bar, wlaich is IS in. wide by li in. deep,
and let on tops of shafts | in., clearing the front of the
trap by an inch or so. The dash is 21 in. long and 12 in.
high ; axle, li in. at least with a 5-in. crank, and 3 ft. 7 in.
between shoulders, clearing bottom of tub 9 in. The
step is lOJ in. long, 6 in. wide, and 6 in. broad. The
door handle is of Sj-in. plain brass. The door is 17 in.
wide at the top and 15 in. at the bottom.
Tlie Manufacture of Nitrite of Soda.— The value of
nitrite of soda in the improved methods of dyeing fabrics
is increasing. Below is given a brief but authentic
account of the manufacture of that chemical. The
raw material, from which nitrite of soda is manu-
factured, is purified Chile saltpetre ; the sodic chloride
present in the latter lowers the value of the nitrite, but
the elimination of the sodic chloride is an expensive
operation not generally practised. The saltpetre is
melted in large cast-iron vessels, and this involves the
evaporation of the water and the decomposition
of a part of the iodides and iodates which are in the
saltpetre. The lead necessary for the decomposition
of the saltpetre must be pure, as the presence of small
quantities of other metals, especially of antimony,
might cause the decrepitation of the whole charge.
When the saltpetre, which melts at 310° C, has reached a
temperature of 420° C, 14 parts of sheet lead are gradu-
ally added foj' every 5 parts of saltpetre, the whole being
constantly stirred to obtain an intimate mixture. If
reaction, but this is not the case, the pure nitrite being
absolutely neutral. The neutralised solution is separ-
ated from the insoluble precipitate by any conven^nt
method, and is then concentrated in oast-iron pans until
it has a density of from 42° B. to 45° B. when warm.
The insoluble precipitated residue is thrown upon a
large filter of coarse sacking, where it is washed with warm
water and the wash waters are added to the principal
solution. The concentrated solutions are mixed together
in cast-iron vats and left to crystallise ; if the crystals
thus obtained are not pure, they must be re-dissolved
and re-crystallised. The pure crystals are separated in
a centrifugal machine, washed, and dried. The desic-
cation takes place in an oven at a temperature of about
50° C, andlthe crystals are packed in parchment-paper
cylinders of double thickness. The residuary oxide of
lead may be melted and east as it is, reduced to the
metallic state, or transformed into minium, a heavy,
brilliant red pigment which is used as a cement and
paint, and in the manufacture of flint glass. The lead
oxide can also be used in the preparation of white lead,
of lead nitrate, lead acetate, and other plumbic com-
pounds.
How to Produce Red Letters on Glass. — Ked
letters are produced on glass by a sand-blast process.
The glass used for this ijurpose is known as ruby
flashed glass. The letters that are to be produced are
first cut out in paper. These paper letters are coated with
a resist or protective covering composed of 1 part of
ordinary hot glue and 1 part of glycerine, mixed together.
The letters are then pasted on the glass, the resist
side outwards, and the glass is then ready for blasting.
The sand cuts away the unprotected surface of the glass,
the resist protects the paper letters, and, when these are
washed on the glass, red transparent letters will be
shown on a white opaque ground.
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
17
Preparing Tannic Acid. — An impure tannic acid
may be obtained Irom mjrobalans (a dried astringent
fruit resetobling a prune) by grinding them and
extracting in a boiler containing hot waters the
liquid may be strained and evaporated to dryness,
yielding a dry extract which is suitable for dyeing
or tanning purposes. A concentrated fluid extract is
often made by partial eTaporatioii. To obtain a pure
tannic acid, it would be necessary to treat the myro-
balans in the same way as nutgalls, i.e. extract by per-
colating a mbcture of alcohol and ether through the
\ powder. The percolate will separate Into two layers;
I the lower one is a watery layer containing the tannin,
' the upper layer contains the alcohol and ether, with
colouring matter, etc. The alcohol and ether can be
recovered largely by distillation ; the watery layer is
evaporated to dryness, and yields the pure acid.
Removing Stains from Linen.— Tea and fruit stains
are removed from linen by steeping the latter in a
chloride of lime solution (about \Vo. to Igal. of water),
or preferably in hypochlorite of soda,' which may be
made by treating i lb. of chloride of lime with i gal. of
water, dissolving |lb. of washing soda in igal. of water,
and mixing the two solutions. The solution should be
allowed to remain till clear, the liquid, which Is poured
off from the deposit, being used for bleaching.
Making French Cork Boot.— In fitting the second in-
sole of a French coVk boot where a box and rand are sewn
in, last the boot in the ordinary way, taking care that
the feather is nice and even, and thattheire is a good
innersole to work upon. For the box, apiece of first cut is
cut the required length, say from lain, to Win., and
about Jin. wide. Mark a line, as AB (Fig. 1), on the
grain side of the leather, i in. from the edge, and cut it
thitough a little way, then serve the reverse side in a
similar manner, as at C. The leather should be damped,
and the cuts made larger with a channel opener, a welt
plough or knife being used to cut a thin strip of grain from
another filling. Make this with 2 parts of linseed oil and
1 part of turpentine, and add a tablespoonful of sugar of
lead or of sulphate of copper driers to every pint of
filling i the lead does hot affect the colour of the filling
so much as the sulphate of copper. Wipe with rag as
before, and allow to stand for a day or two. If the
weather makes the oil sweat out on the surface, wipe it
thoroughly dry and then well brush on a light coat of
pale copal varnish, following in a day, or two with a
finishing coat of hai-d-drying copal varnish; The surface
of the first coat of varnish may be rubbed over with a
bunch of clean horsehair to remove nibs and to grain it
slightly; this dnlness favours absorption of the next
coat of varnish, which is a full flowing coat liglitly laid
on. Among the points it is necessary to remember are
these. Do not let the varnish flow into recesses ; let
there be at all parts only the amount of varnish laid on
with the brupn ; and always hold a small dry tool in the
, left hand with which to wipe off superfluous varnish.
The ironwork, if quite bright, may be varnished with
carriage copal varnish in which a little white lead,
thinned with turpentine, has been mixed (a tablespoon-
ful to 1 pt. of varnish) . The ironwork must be free from
grease or oil before it is varnished, or it will dry un-
evenly. Black japan Is used for common work such as
Ealli cars, but it does not harmonise with other colours.
Leather, if used for dash-iron or wings, should be red-
tan enamelled, or japan surface leather should be used ;
either of the leathers mentioned is more snitahle than
black leather for the purpose.
Gypsum, or Plaster-of-Parl?. — Plaster-ot-Paris, or
gypsum, is a sulphate of lime found at places in
Cheshire, Cumberland, Derbyshire, and Oxfordshire,
In England, and at many places in the neighbour-
hood of Paris, Prance, hence one of the names given
Fig. I
FIG. 2 F'Q- 3
Making French Cork Boot.
the narrow side as at D. Or the box can be worked
with one bevel edge (see E, Pig. 2). Instead of sewing in
a welt, the box can be sewn in, and in doing this the awl
will go in at A (Pig. 1) and come out at C. The piece taken
out at D will admit of the box lying close to the upper,
while the channel at C allows the stitch to sink in. If a
box like Pig. 2 is used, the awl should go in at the dotted
line on the bevel edge E and come out at P. This is also
shown by the dotted lines G and H in Pig. 3, which is a
transverse section of nearly the whole of the middle
portion of the boot. Thus the awl goes in the innersole
•at J just as for a welt. When the box Is sewn in all
round, it can be gently hammered down, trimmed, and
ironed up, as shown by the dotted line K. The welt; as
, shown at L (Pig. 3), is sewn in as follows :— Starting at
the heel, sew up the waist to where it meets the box.
Between these stitches put the awl under each loop,
letting it grip the Innersole and come out on the top of
the box, thus sewing in the welt, and on to this the sole
will be stitchied asatM, N. A very thin layer of felt is
put in, and the remainder filled up with sheet cork,
excepting another thin layer of felt to keep the boot
from creaking when the outer sole is put on.
Vamlsliing a Carriage In the Wood.— It is assumed
that the vehicle to be varnished is made of four-diiferently
coloured woods— ash, creamy white ; mahogany, reddisb
brown ; hickory, flesh-coloured drab ; and lancewood,
straw colour. The straw colour of lancewood contrasts
best with mahogany, so thetwo other light-coloured woods
have to be tinted to match straw colour. Por this pur-
pose coat with a solution of gamboge and turpentine, a
few drops of linseed oil being added to every pint of the
stain; test on any odd bits of a^h and hickory to make
sure the stain is of therlghttint. Prepared yellow stains
might be diluted to answer the purpose. The staining does
awaywith the patchwork look of the severallight-oolonred
Woods. The next process is to fill the wood grain. The
dense lancewood will not need so much filling as the other
woods. Ihe filling is a nearly colourless liquid made by
mixing together 2parts of turpentine and 1 part of palest
linseed oil ; apply it with a stumpy-haired brush, and
wipe off any superfluity with a clean white rag, rubbing
the latter well into the wood to smooth the grain which
the liquid filling has raised. After a day or so, brush in
to it. It is also found in (xermany,~Switzerland, Italy,
Spain, and North America. According to Burnell, it
occurs " either in contemporary strata of great thick-
ness (as near Paris) in the tertiary formations ; or in the
iridescent marls of La Meuse, or the Aveyron ; or in
masses of a subsequent date in ditterent secondary
rocks." The latter kind, being generally in contact with
igneous rocks, is associated frequently with the dolo- •
mites, rocksalt, bitumen, and sulphur. The better
qualities of gypsum have almost the hardness of cal-
careous stones, but after the evaporation of the water '
of crystallisation by burning they are easily powdered.
On being moistened with water gypsum reassumes the
hydrate form it possessed before it was burnt, and it
crystallises on and around the substances between which
it is placed, recovering its original density and strength.
It is for this reason that gypsum is so extensively used
in building. Gypsum is quarried underground and in the
otien either by cuttitig with picks and wedges or by blast-
ing yyith explosives. The gypsum stone is broken up fairly
fine and conveyed to the kilns, which are primitive struc-
tures, consisting of three brick walls supporting a tiled
roof in which are openings to allow the escape rif
steam ; one side of the kiln, which really is but a shed,
is open. The gypsum is piled up in the form of arches,
the larger stones being at the bottom, near the fireplace
formed by the vaults of the arches. In the latter a
wood fire is lighted, the flames rising through the
crevices left between the stones. A greater heat than
2(J0°G. over-calcines the gypsum, which then loses its
power-of combining with the water and reassuming its
hydrous sulphate form, A better kiln than the shed
form is that with its chimney passing round and round
■ the gypsum, which thus does not come in contact with
the smoke or fuel ; the latter in the ruder form of kiln
discolours the calcined article. Perhaps a still better
method is the one in which advantage is taken of the
fact that steam at very high temperatures is a gas
possessing great aflinity for water. The finely broken
gypsum is subjected to the action of steam of the tem-
perature of 205" C, and a pure anhydrous sulphate of
lime is produced. The calcined gypsum is powdered in
a mill, and is then ready for use.^lt is necessary to pack
it very carefully, as in contact with a damp atmosphere
it will rapidly spoil.
18
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
Keclpcs for Pottery Glaze.— Different clays have
different shrinkage, require different firing, or stand
a greater or less degree of temperature, hence the
glaze is a matter of trial. Glazes are coloured by admix-
ture of small quantities of metallic oxides. Common
clay vessels are painted over with red-lead, hut this glaze
is dangerous, as it is affected by acids. Borax will make a
glaze, and is used as a ilux. A white earthenware glaze
may be made from Cornish stone 35 parts, borax 20,
crystals of soda 10, red-lead 20, and blue calx i part.
Calcine and pulverise and grind with 20 lb. of white-lead,
101b. of Cornish stone, and 51b. of flint.
How to Make a Silent Camera Shutter.— A noiseless
shutter that worlts inside the camera and that will
glTe any length of exposure is ' made as described
below. Being perfectly noiseless, they are particu-
larly suitable when photographing children and
anim;i,ls. Exposixres as brief as a quarter of a second
may be giyen, which is generally sufficiently quick for
such work. Construct a box A (Fig. 1) of the dimen-
sions shown, dividing it lin. from the end with a strip
of the same width B, having a slot C. Through this slot
and also the holes D and E previously made in the frame-
work a roller r, about i m. in diameter, is passed (a
wooden knitting-needle answers well). In this roller
burn two holes 3iin. apart, and into them fix the wire
frame shown in Fig. 2 so that it hangs flat. Now cover
rod and frame with thin velvet, gluing to the rod and
sewing over the frame. Hake a frame 4 in, wide and
1* in. deep to fit the left-hand eompai-tment, as shown by
dotted lines. This frame is afterwards covered on its
inner edge with velvet, making a light-tight join. Around
the I'Ollei* F glue one end of a strip of tape, 2in. long, and
wind the remainder around free, joining the loose end to
a strip of wood G, about 3 in. long. G is hinged to the
bottom iyith a small piece of tape also. Next wind some
Fig 3
How to Make a SUent Camera Shutter.
fine wire around a small rod to form the spring H, and
fasten to this roller and the side of the framework as
shown. If now the strip G is forced down, the roller is
pulled round and the flap opens, but is pulled back by the
spring directly G is released, For this purpose an india-
rubber bellows I on a tube is fitted at J. It only re-
mains to fit a strip across the I'ight-hand compartment
with, perhaps, a wedge-shaped block (as in Fig. 3) to give
extra pressure to the bellows. A couple of bent plates K,
one a,t each side, are if or attaching to the camera front.
The tube J projects for the pneumatic release at X.
This should be fitted with a tap to keep the shutter open
while focussing. The catch L and the pin M are used for
the same purpose, or when long exposures are necessary
and a cap must be used.
Varnishing VioUn. — In preparing a violin for var-
nishing, commence by sandpapering It ail over with
No. 1 paper and freeing it from scratches. Go over
the entire surface lightly with a clean, slightly damp
sponge, and when the wood is dry it will be quite
rough again ; rub with No. paper till smooth, and
repeat the damping and papering vintil a dead smooth
surface is obtained, quite free fron' scratches. It is
not usual to stain violins, as a muon finer effect is
got by incorporating the colour with the varnish. .
The following process will give excellent results.
Dilute i parts of good copal varnish with 1 part (by
measure) of turpentine, and heat it quite hot, being
careful not to let it catch fire. Go over the entire violin
with this with a stiff brush, /tnd rub in as much as it
will take at one coat i this will not be much it the wood
was well finished. When it is quite filled, make a pad of
cotton-wool, done up in a fine cotton or linen rag,
moiuten this with turpentine, and clean the surfaces
of the violin as rapidly as possible ; then put on a coat
of spirit varnish, made thus : Colour i pt. of methylated
spirit with turmeric and red sanders wood. In anotheir
i pt. of methylated spirit dissolve 2 oz. of gum sandaraeh
(juniper gum). Mix the two together, add .two table-
spoonfuls of veniCB turpentine and 2oz. of white shellac,
and when dissolved, filter through cotton-wool or flno
muslin. This elastic spirit varnish gives the violin the
warm amber colour so m uoh sought for. Lay on the varn ish
carefully with a large, round, camel-hair brush, avoiding
streaks, and not going twice over the same place. It
will dry very quickly, and three or four coats may be
put on daily till the desired colour is reached; rub
' do'^vn with finely sifted pumice-powder and water and a
woollen rS.g after every third coat. When a good body
of varnish is on, the surface must be rubbed down with
the I pumice-powder till it Is dull and. smooth all over;
the pujnice is then thoroughly washed of. The final
polish is obtained with tripoli and water, or crocus and
linseed oil, on a rag, as before. After this is cleaned off,
a brisk rub with the heel of the hand will give a surface
like glass. The above instructions are applicable also
to re-varnishing an old violin i but then it is necessary.
In the preliminary sandpapering process, entirely to
remove all traces of the old varnish. When that has
been done, the work is identical with the above.
Coloured Printing Inks. — Printing Ink is not
usually made satisfactorily in, the absence of big
plant, but below are given some simple instructions
easily followed. Into a 5-gal. iron pot pour 6 qt. of
old linseed oil, and heat gradually over a fire to boiling
point. As soon as the vapours that arise from the
surface will catch fire when a light is applied, rendove
the pot from the fire and allow the oil to burn for
a time; smother, the fiame by placing the lid over the
pot. If the oil has thickened sufficiently, it will draw
out into threads i in. long when dropped on a cold
surface. If the oil is not thick enough, relight it, and
allow it to burn down. If the oil is all right, stir
till the frothing ceases, and put in gradually 6 lb. of
crumbled amber resin, and keep stirring till all is
melted. Then stir in IJ lb. of sliced curd-soap, ahd when
the frothing has ceased, place it on the fire, and bring to
boiling point, stiiTlng well all the time. Tills is printers'
varnish. Varnish is best made out of doors; it smells
unpleasant in boiling, and there is less risk of fire out
of doors. To make brown ink, add varnish to a powdered
mixture of 2oz. of burnt umber and loz. of rose pink,
and grind till smooth with a muller. Indian red and
Venetian red, toned with a very little lampblack, also
give browns. A fine black ink may be made with 9 oz. of
balsam of copaiba, 3 oz. of lampblack, 14 oz. of indigo or
Prussian blue, or i oz. of ^ach, i oz. of Indian red, and
8 oz. of dry turpentine soap. These are to be ground with
the varnish till quite smooth with pestle and mortar or a
muller and slab. For black varnish ink, 5 oz. of Prussian
blue or indigo, or Hi oz. of each, tlb. of mineral lamp-
black, andSt lb. of good lampblack, are mixed with warm
varnish, and the whole is well ground on a slab with a '
muller.
Primary and Principal Colours.— There are three
primary colours — red, yellow, and blue ; the ten princi-
pal colours are Chinese white or bai-yta white, yellow
ochre, Naples yellow, vermilion, Indian red, madder car-
mine, emerald green, ultramarine, Prussian blue, and
ivory black or Indian ink, j
Electro - brassing Solution. — For a solution tor
electro - brassing small iron goods, dissolve 1 lb. of
good yellow sheet brass in suificient warm dilute nitric
acid to dissolve the brass without leaving any fi'ee
acid; then add the whole to 8 gal. of rainwater. Now
add liquor ammonia until the brass solution assumes
a deep bitie tint, then add a solution of cyanide of
potassium until all the blue tint disappears. Filter
through calico and add an equal bulk of rainwater
to form the brassing bath. This must be worked with
an anode of good yellow sheet brass, which should dis-
solve freely to maintain the solution in good working
order. To obtain a uniform bright yellow deposit of
brass on small iron goods held in basinets, some sKill will
be required, as the character of the deposit is influenced
by the temperature of the solution, the density of tbe
current, the proportions of metals, the size of ttie
anodes, and the movement of the articles being plated.
Very thick deposits of brass might be dipped in acid to
improve their colour ; it is not sale to dip thin ones.
Glazing Torra-cotta Tiles.— A glaze tor terrarcotta
tUes requiring only a moderate heat can be made from
a solution of sugar of lead in hot water. Cover the tiles
with the solution and expose to a clear red heat, A coke
fire would probably be suitable, provided it does not
touch the tiles in any way. A sagger, or receptacle, to
hold the tiles may be made from a drain pipe. Limewash
the Inside of the pipe and set the tiles with the glazed
surfaces facing each other. Try Immersing them in salt
or borax, and then bake or paint over with red-lead ; thU
will give a deep red glaze.
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
19
Repairing garble Clock Case.— To repair a broken
corner of a marble clock case to Imitate grain, wbieh
is light green, white, and black, a hard-setting cement
can be iised which is made by mixing plaster-ot-Parls
with white of egg. This can be used for re-forming
the broken corners, and afterwards painted black and
gently rubbed with furniture polish.
Gum Bichromate Process of Photography. — The
gum bichromate process of photography is an, old pro-
cess, and is only suitable for large work, and for subjects
that do not need much definition. The process itself is
as follows. Gut some sheets of good cartridge paper into
pieces rather larger than the negative to be printed from.
Prepare "a 10 per cent, solution of potassium bichromate
and in it immerse the cut paper for from two to three
minutes, taking cai-e that the paper is cTenly wetted.
The immersion may be done in ordinary daylight, as the
paper does not become sensitive until it is iry. In a.
room fi-ee from dust pin up the paper by the corners tO'
dry. As soon as the paper is di-y it must be kept in
the dark, or as carefully guarded from actinic light as
silver paper would be. Make up a 40 per cent, solution
of gum arable and filter and mix with it the pigment
that is to be used, which would be either ordinary 'pow-
der colours as obtained from the oilshop, or the water
colours sold by artists; colourmen. The latter colours
are preferable, as they are usually in a finer state of
divisipn. A thin coating of the mixture is then evenly
applied to the paper, smoothing out with a large badger
brush; drythoroughly. The exposure may be timed by an
actinometer, but is practically a trifle longer than would ,
be requu-ed to make a print in albumen from a negative
of similar density. Lay the' print face downwards in
cold water for htil an nour and note the result. If
correctly exposed there will, probably be by this time a
dim outline of the principal objects. Kaise the tempera-
ture of the water and bathe very gently until the image
Is well out. Soak for a few minutes in alum and rinse
well to remove the bichi-omate ; this is all the fixing '
required. The paper should not be kept long after
sensitising. Some examples of the gum process have
been obtained by working up the softened gum with a
brush. Carboti tissue allows of similar modifications.
, Determining Contents ot Rectangular Tank.— To
' determine how manygallons of water would be held by
a tank of specified dimensions, first find the contents in
cubic feet, and then multiply by 6~'23. JChe contents of
a rectangular tank 6ft. by 9ft. by 4ft. Gin., eqvwUs
6 X 9 X 4i = 243 cub. ft., so that the water contained
should measure 243 x C'23 = 1,514 gal. (approximately).
Making a Theatrical Bald Wig. — In making a
bald wig such as isi worn on the theatrical stage,
a piece of stout calico should be tightly stretched
over a suitable dummy, whjch is generally a wooden
block, and the calico should be tied or tacked round the
neck of the dummy. Give the calico a coat of hot jelly
size, which should be followed by two coats of flake white.
The medium for applying the colour should consist of
copal varnish, linseed oil, turps, and a few drops of gold
size. Each coat must be dry and hard before the next is
applied. The flesh tints may be obtained by mixing
small quantities of, rose madder and Indian yellow witli
flake white, the medium being the same as before.
Simple Metronomes. — A metronome, a device fo)
measuring and beating time in music, may be made
with a piece of- tape and a weight, or it may be an
elaborate clockwork arrangement. For the tape and
weight metronome, the. distances from the centre ot the
weiglit to the point ot suspension should be as follow :—
No, ot Beats per Minute. ■ Distance in Inclien
60 39-14
70 2i■^o
83 22-01 .
84 U-87
86 19-01
> 90 17-39
100 14-09
105 12-88
110 U-64
120 9-78
126 8-87
130 8-34 I
, Slightly more advanced than the weighted tape in sus-
pension is the metronome illustrated by Figs. 1 and 2.
It is, however, of simple construction though it will
answer quite as well as a more elaborate arrangement.
01 the compound pendulum, A is the rod, B the bob, and
C a small supplementary weight which slides up and
down the upper part of the rod. With c at the top end the
pendulum, on beirife set in motion, will swing for twenty
minutes or more at the rate ot about forty-eight beats
to the minute ; when C is at the bottom end, near the
pivots, the pendulum will swing f Or a shorter time at the
rate of abotit 114 to the minute. These matters having
been determined by experiment, the intermediate speeds
are measured off on the rod; the divisions are closer
together as they approach the top, as shown at Pig. 1.
The pendulum should be cast in brass, and only the top
part of the rod, on which the weight is to slide, need be
tiled to vVin. in breadth and I'lin. in thickness. The
pivots are shown at B (Figs. 1 and 2) j they are two pins of
tempered steel filed to a sharp point and driven tightly
into holes drilled through the projections on the sides
ot the rod as sho-wn in Fig. 2. The points work on a
smooth piece of brass E (Fig. 2) which is slightly hollowed
out,on its top side in both directions for the purpose of
enabling the pendulum to swing Itself perpendicular
when set up on an uneven surface. A small steel spring
is screwed on one side ot the weight C to keep the latter
at any desired height, though it allows the weight to be
slid easily up and down the rod when required. The bob
:oii;£
!=■
f ,Q. 2- 1 1
■ [
I
A '
1
Q
A Simple Metronome.
E is placed slightly off the' centre (to the left) to com-
pv>nsate for the weight of the bend on the i-ight. The
nuand has a mahogany base' G (Fig. 2) 3 in. by 2 in. by J in.,
A-rtth two uprightsPSJin. by Sin.by Jin, and a cross-bar,
to support the brass plate E.
Cutting Tiles.— A white glazed tile may be cut into two
pieces bj' laying it flat on a soft wood board and cutting
very carefully with a chisel. To reduce the size of a tile, or
to take an irregular-shaped piece o'ut of it, break or pinch
off pieces with a pair or pincers ot about 7-in. size. The
edges can be rubbed down on a stone if required to
be very neat.
Cleaning Furs.- These are methods of cleaning furs,
■(a) Eub with hot roasted bran, allowing the bran to enter
the fur well. Then shake the fur and well brush, (b)
Moisten bran with hot water and well rub it into the fur
with a piece of clean flannel. Now take some dry bran
and a clean dry flannel and rub this well in until the wet
bran and the fur have become dry. To remove the bran,
give the fur a good shake, a sharp but light beating with a >
cane, and brush with a soft brush, (c) Mix and heat in
an oven equal parts of flour and fine salt, and thoroughly
rub the hot mixture into_ the roots of the fur. Now well
shake the fur, then throw it over the back of a chair, fur
side upwards, and brush out any of the mixture left,
using the end of a soft brush, and giving sharp " dabs ''
so as to get to the bottom of the channel formed by the
parting of the fur, blowing well all the time.
20
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
The Manufacture of Water Colours. — Oake and
moist watei' colours are made by grinding the dry-
pigments in a mill with gum water and a little
§lyoerine or honey to prevent them teooming too
rittle; the pasty material is rolled out and ovit into
squares, partly dried, and then pressed in moulds or
placed in tins. Por the moist colours more gum
water Is ussd than lor the cakes. The gum water is
made hy dissolving purest gum arable in twice its
weight of water and straining through muslin, then
adding a little glycerine and a few drops of oil of cloves.
Very little glycerine must he used or the colours
will tend to absorb moisture from the air and fade or
become bad.
Slaking Leather Case for CroQLuet Mallet.— The
leatlier for a croquet mallet case need not be very stout,
but it must not be fiimsy, unless it is backed with some-
thing, or It will wring in the sewing, and the handle por-
tion will be unsightly. The leather used for the straps of
bags, etc., will be suitable. Before cutting the leather,
cut from stout cartridge paper a pattern to the shape of
the mallet. Fig. 1 is the cover for the handle, which is 3 ft.
long and 5 in. wide j Pig. 2 shows the cover tor the mallet,
which is 12iiu. long by 13 in. wide; while Fig. 3 is a
Fig 4
Making Leather Case for Croquet mallet.
pattern for the two ends, which is 3i in. wide by 4i in. deep.
Two small arcs are cut out of I'ig. 1, as A, B, so as to fit a
hole li in. diameter cut in Pig. 2 after it is curved to the
outline of Fig. 3. In Pig. 2, li In. is marked off at one side
and the two corners are cut off, as and D. The circular
hole is then cut out, the centre being aboiit 4i in. from
the left-hand side, so as to be in the centre of the case
when finished. In Pig. 3, lin. is allowed on top for a
lap. The pieces E and r (Pigs. 2 and 3) will form them-
selves into flaps if a piece is grooved out along the dotted
line. To get the piece. Pig. 3, a good shape> cut an
oblong piece to the measurements given above and fold
it down the centre, and then cut off the corners G and H.
I'ig. 1 is now sewn imto cylindrical form so as to take
the handle, the cii'cular piece, H in. diameter, as cut out of
Pig. 2, being sewn to one end, the other end, with curves
^ and B (Pig. 1) , being fitted into the socket hole at J
(Fig. i), and the straps and buckles sewn on at K and L.
To give a good appearance to the case when finished,
a little plush may be fixed in with glue paste i if de-
sired, a cheaper lining can be used.
Notes on Re-paint)ng a House. — In commencing
to re-paint a house, begin in the upper rooms, first
washing off the ceilings, then stripping off the paper
from the walls by applying water just where it is
wanted, allowing sufficient time for it to soak, and re-
moving a piece at a time. It a little soda or lime has
been put in the water so as to more easily remove
the paper, wash the work with dilute caustic soda.
Contagious matter and certain insects are frequently
retained In the paper, and the caustic soda acts aa
a disinfectant. Eepair the bad places with plaster
and whiting ; and it is sometimes desirable to coat with
size to stop suction, and to put on lining-paper to make a
sound job and hold the plaster together. The next job
is to clearcole the ceiling. Put some whiting in a pail,
cover with water till the lime in the whiting is slaked,
pour off the water, and thoroughly mix in some hot size
and add colour at the same time, it the ceiling Is to be
coloured, or a little black if the ceiling is to be ctuite white.
The black removes the yellow tone or raw appearance of
the white. Strain the colour through canvas beloi'o using.
The first coat for the ceUing is used thin and hot; the
second is used with the chilled coloiir, so that it will go
on thick. Do not lay the colour off, as in oil-painting, but
put it on with short strokes, in varying directions, so that
the light from the windows will not catch the lines likely
to be made by strokes of the brush. The distemper has
to be put on filll, as contrasted with oil-colour, which
has to be spread, when the ceiling and walls have been re-
paired, and the ceiling coloured, the paintwork is washed
and rubbed with pumice-stone and soda-water, bad places
being afterwards filled up with putty. Sometimes panels
have to be filled up with distemper, and rubbed down
with a flat cork covered with glasspaper. This latter is
hard work it there was too much size in the distemper.
When the flUing-up has been brought to a surface, it
should have a coat of paint, which should be nearly all
oil. Door frames, window frames and sashes, and all ,
wood mouldings, should have their corners scraped and
brushed out. The mantelpieces should be well washed
with strong soda- and lime-water, which should be kept
on for atlme so that it may penetrate. The mantelpieces
can then be washed off with clean water and allowed to
dry. Having got the woodwork to a fairly level lace, coat
it with colour. Colour the door frames first, and then the
edges and panels of the door. After laying off the
latter, commence the rest of the door at the middle
upright stiles, afterwards doing the cross stiles. Finish
by squaring off the two outside stiles, always remember-
ing that the object is so to put on colour that an even
smooth surface is obtained quickly. Be careful of the
glasspaper, and bear in mind that its purpose is to make
smooth, not to take off paint. Also remember that a
brush mark in the first coat wUl show in the last one.
Commence priming and painting at the right-hand
corner of the house, doors, rooms, and windows, working
to the left all through the house. If convenient, leave
the staircase to the last, previous to preparing the skirt-
ing, for which sienna is the best pigment, as it does not
show the damage as much as other colours. The stair-
case stringing may be painted plain, coloured, or it may
be grained and varnished. It the outside doors are much
cracked or blistered, the old paint must be removed.
This may be done by brushing on a solution of 2 lb. of
washing soda in 3 gal. of water, thickened with Ume dis-
solved in hot water. When softened, the paint is scraped
off, or, instead, the paint may be burnt off with a flame.
The flame is the better method, as the soda-water may
leave moisture, which is the cause of bUsters. In painting
street doors, precautions should be taken against sub-
sequent blistering. On this account, it is wiser not to
use water or any stripping material whatever on the
door, but to burn off the paint with flame. Keep the
brushes in oil overnight— not in water. Of course oil, as
far as possible, should be kept out of the colour, as that,
as well as water, wUl cause blistering under the action of
the sun. In preparing the front of a house for repainting,
begin at the rignt-hand side, and clean out the spouting,
windows, etc. ; continue in the same way to the bottom,
rubbing downwards. Commence painting at the spouting,
window sashes, and panes. Then work down the front
with a coat of priming, taking doors and shutters in due '
course. For a black and dirty compo. front, it is best to
stain the lead with black to a light grey, as the next coat
will give it a solid appearance. In mixing colour for out-
door work, use principally or wholly boiled oU, unless it
be for decorative parts of the house, when the ordinary
method may be employed. The compo. front may be
repaired in places it necessary with Parian cement, as
this can be smoothed off and painted immediately.
Preparation of Selenium.— Selenium is a non-metal-
lic element with properties somewhat like sulphur.
Selenium in combination with oxygen forms several
acids, but cannot be said to form salts like thosB of
metals j it does, however, unite with chloriue in several
proportions. The best known chlorides are selenium
monochloride and selenium tetrachloride. These pro-
ducts are obtained by the action of chlorine gas upon
selenium.
Removing Wool fVom Sbeepskin.— Soak sheepskins
in lime water until the wool can be removed by scraping
with a two-handled blunt knife: or leave tlie skin in a
dark, warm, and moist place until sulBeient decomposi-
tion has taken place to enable the wool to be easily
scraped off.
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
21
Mounting Photographic Prints.— This is the plan
adopted by professional photographers for mounting
prints. Immerse the trimmed prints in water for a few
minutes and then place face downwards otie on the other
on a sheet of glass. Squeeze out the excess of water with
a roller squeegee and blot off the surface. Brush o-ver
the back of the print with cold starch paste, free from
lumps, takins care that the edges of the print are well
covered. Raise the print by the corners, lay it in
position on the mount, place over it a sheet of iluffless
blotting paper, and roll into contact. Continued or
heavy rolling is unnecessary. It too much starch is used
it will be squeezed put around the edges of the print i it
too little is used-the print may not stick at all. Should
any starch spread on to the mount it is sometimes
advisable to remove it by sponging over the whole
mount. In mountitig, first estimate the position of two
opposite corners, then lay the print down so that it
touches the mount diagonally. Starch paste more than
one day old should not be used, and aU lumps, even very
small ones, should be carefully removed. Platinotypes
require more starching, and do not stick it the undried
mounted prints are laid together.
Making Three-legged Folding Fishing Stool.—
Below are instructions <Jn making an angler's three-legged
folding si ool. Commence by marking out the section filll
size as shown by Fig. 1. Make a three-legged bolt out
of fs-in. iron, as shown at A (Fig. 1). Thread the ends,
and fit them with circular brass nuts B ^in. thick,
and square washers C and D. Each washer musi; be
drilled in the centre and the four corners. A hole must
be drilled to take a No. i screw. Three pieces of hickory.
under the footings of the wall and make It form part of
the same mass us the engine foundation, so that the
weight of the building helps to steady the foundation.
A stone bedplate should be provided between the con-
crete and the engine bed. For securing the engine to the
foundation, holding-down bolts with anchor plates at the
bottom ends may be buried in the concrete, being first
placed in their exact positions with the aid of a template
marked off the bed of the engine. The upper ends of these
holts are screwed to receive the nuts which hold down the
engine. Another method is to cast holes in the concrete
through wihich the bolts may be passed downwards, in
which case the heads of the bolts may be at the top and
the nuts are tightened up through hand-holes constructed
at the bottom ends, but this necessitates leaving a trench
for access to the hand-holes. Cotters at the bottom
ends of the bolts are easier to adjust than nuts.
Inserting New Wrest plank In Piano.— Wrest-
planks of pianos should be built up of three sections— a
beech centre, a maple or sycamore facing Jin. or jr in.
thick, and a pine backing. If the facing aione is split, it
is onijr necessary to replace that portion ; but if the
plank is so split that a new fane must be inserted, pro-
ceed as follows. First remove all the wires. If the
covered ones can be usedagain, thread them on a piece
of wire in the order in which they were taken off. Kemove
the wrest-pins, and with a stout piece of brown paper
and heelball make a cl^an imprint of the holes, bridge,
etc. Carefully remove the bridge screws or bolts;
Fig I
Making Three-legged Folding Fishing Stool.
ash, or lancewood about 18 in. long, and properly shaped,
can be used fox- the legs. Bore the centre of each leg
with a i>5-in. bit, and fit the washers on. Put the legs
on the centre bolt and screw up, leaving sufficient clear-
ance for the stool to open properly. The ends of the
bolts should then be cut off, .but enough should be left
beyoiflfc the nuts for riveting. Open the stool to the
required (width and cutoff the ends top and bottom to
the correct bevel, then take to pieces and finish with
sandpaper and French polish. , Three pieces of strong
webbing are sewn together at the corners (as shown at
Fig. 2) to form a triangle the size of the stool when open.
Put the stool together, rivet over the ends of the bolts,
open as at Pig. 3, and tack the webbing on the corners at
the top.
How to Make Dry Soap.— A good dry soap can be
made without the aid of expensive plant. To 40 gal. of
water contained in a steam-jacketed pan add from 2 to
2i cwt. of soap cut up as fine as possible. A white curd
soap with free lathering properties is best ; on no
account must a yellow soap be employed. Tbis mixture
is stirred until the soap has entirely dissolved and the
mixture is pasty. Now add, in small quantities at a
time, i cwt. of soda ash, stirring well all the time, then
run the sOap into shallow galvanised iron trays to cool.
When cold, the mass will begin to break up into' small
pieces. It should be ground to powder in a mill— prefer-
ably an edge runner mill or disintegrator. i
Foundations for Gas Engine.— A solid mass of Fort-
land cement concrete makes a good foundation for a gas
engine, and is easily constructed. Solid brickwork IS
also used, but the excavation required is more than with
concrete on account of working room being required for
the bricksetters. The best shape for the foundation is
as nearly cubical as possible ; it made long and narrow,
and deeper than it is wide, there is a tendency to, rock.
To prevent vibration being conveyed to the waUs of the
buuding-such foundations are sometimes isolated by
forming an open trench all round ; but it, the site of the
engine is near a wall it is better to lay a concrete floor
the old plank may then be chopped out with a mallet
and stout chisel. The prepai-ed plank should be cut
to exact length and secured in position with good
hot glue, and screwed up tightly tor several days
with iron cramps having deep jaws. When these are
removed, clean up the face for the bridge and holes
tor wrest-pins, their exact positions being deter-
mined by means of the brown paper, which is laid in
position, and secured, while a sharp tap is given with a
hammer and centre punch where the holes should be
bored. The bridge should be fastened with hot thin
glue and brass pins and the necessary bolts, screws, or
dowels, and a piece of mahogany or birch capping laid
on. But if the instrument is fitted with a half lid it
should have a final cleaning up, and several coats of
white hard spirit varnish should be applied before the
wrest-pins are Inserted.
Making Golf Balls.— GoK balls are made from pure
guttapercha, procurable In rods and ready for cutting
into pieces suitable tor the mould, which should be
of size 27i. To prevent waste, the cutting is done with
a knife operated on the guillotine system ; the pieces
should be slightly larger than will exactly fill the mould ,
the superfiuous guttapercha being afterwards pared off
with a very sharp knife. Before moulding, the gutta-
percha requii-es to be thoroughly softened in water
kept hot over a fire. The guttapercha is then placed in
the engraved mould, and subjected to great pressure.
After the balls are made they should be put away in a
dry, warm place for about three months to allow them
to become thoroughly seasoned. They are then given
three coverings of special paint, a small qua,ntity being
put on the palm of one hand, and the ball rolled between
the palms ot both hands. Two days should elapse
between each covering, and in a week after the last
covering the balls are ready for use.
22
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
Preparing Tartaric Acid,— Tartaric acid is largely-
made from wine lees, i.e. the deposit formed when
wine is kept in casks. Tamarinds may be extracted
with boiling water, the liquid being mixed with a little
pipeclay and filtered through animal charcoal to de-
colourise it. Powdered chalk should be added to the
liquid until it ceases to effervesce j the precipitate should
be collected on a filter cloth, and a solution of calcium
chloride ad-ded to the filtrate until it ceases to give a pre-
cipitate ; the precipitate is tartrate of lime, and should
l)e collected along with the first precipitate. The pre-
cipitate should be mixed with a Uttle water and dilute
sulphuric acid added in vei-y slight excess. The liquid
should then be filtered, evaporated gently to a syrup,
and left to crystallise. The crystals may be washed two
or three times with cold water, which may be added to
the next lot of acid required, and the crystals of tartaric
acid should be dissolved in the least possible quantity
of hot water, and the solution evaporated and allowed
to crystallise again to get rid of the sulphm-ic acid.
Stereoscopic Photography.— Stereoscopic effect or
the appearance of relief depends upon the combin-
ing in one in the stereoscope of two representations
of the same scene taJ^en from slightly different points
of view. Stereoscopic photographs, therefore, are
best obtained with a camera having a pair of lenses
fitted side by side. These lenses should be accurately
matched as regards focus, ratio, aperture, colour,
etc., and should be 2i Ih. apart, which is about the
distance between the eyes. With this camera two
pictures will be taken at the same time. Paired lenses
are sold for the purpose. A method of taking stereo-
scopic photographs with one lens only (a half-plate
camera being used) is to employ a couple of mirrors set
at such an angle as to have two points of sight. These
mirrors are placed in front of the lens and reflect the
ordinary device of using wire gauze, on account ^f the low
igniting point of mixtures of acetylene and air ; while if
high pressures are used so that the rate of flow shall be
greater than the propagation downwards, more air is
sucked in by the uprush of the gas and the velocity of the
explosion is again increased. The best results in acetylene
Bunsens have been obtained by takingaBunsen burner m
which a constric fcion in the air-tube creates a high velocity
at the particular point where the explosive wave starts to
propagate downwards.
Cleaning White Kid Gloves and Shoes. — For
cleaning white kid gloves, make a paste by boiling
1 part of white curd soap with i parts of water, and
adding a small quantity of ammonia ; place the glove on
a wooden hand and rub well with the paste, laid on
with a sponge, until the glove is thoroughly cleaned.
Any worn parts maybe improved by rubbing in a little
magnesia or white French chalk. Rub the glove dry
with a clean cloth, and, after removal from the hand,
work the glove about to render it supple again, then
press with a heavy weight. Kid boots can be cleaned
with the same paste, followed by the French chalk.
Removing Grease Stains from Wall -paper. —
To remove grease stains from wall-paper, make a thin
paste by mixing powdered starch or flour with ben-
zoline (petroleum spirit). In this mixture dip a sponge,
and with it make a ring around the stain. While the
ring is still wet, thoroughly soak the stained
parts with the mixture. Allow the paste to dry,' then
remove the powder with a clean soft brush. The object
of making the ring around the stain is to prevent the oil
being carried away from the spots and forming a ring in
the paper, as it does by the usual method of treatment.
Making Brass Dog Collar.— These are instructions
on making a brass collar for a dog. Cut a strip of
o
o
FiO. I
000
Sliding Front of Camera for
Stereoscopic Photography.
Fig. 3
image through the lens on to the plate. The instrument
is known as a stereoscopic transmitter. Still objects,
and ordinary landscapes in which there are no moving
figures, can be taken with only one lens if the
camera is fitted with a sliding front. Such a camera
must have square bellows. The above sketch explains
the construction of a sliding front. The first ex-
posure is made, and A is then pushed along> until
the mark B points to t^e mark C. The opening in
the front board of the camera is shown by dotted
lines. The distance between the two points may be
varied according to the distance of the principal
object. The farther the principal object is from the
camera the greater must be the separation between the
two points. Sometimes it is possible to obtain stereo-
scopic photographs by moving the object, as, for example,
a vase of flowers. In this case the camera and lens are
stationary and an ordinary quarter-plate camera can be
used. Such a camera may also be used if it is fitted with
a board as wide as the base from back to front and about
double the length of the original base. Two parallel
slots are made in this extra baseboard, and thumbscrews
pass through these into the original baseboard. The
camera may thus be slid easily from one position to the
other and clamped. A great deal depends upon correct
mounting of the prints ; this is a process that is described
on another page, but suffice it to say that the picture
that was on the left hand of the camera becomes the
right-hand print when mounted.
Bunsen Burner for Acetylene Gas, — To make a
Bunsen burner for acetylene the tube must be ex-
tremely narrow, and it is even then found to be very
liable to flash back, while it requires a high pressure
to bring about satisfactory combustion of the gas with
an absolutely non-luminous flame. One of the chief
difficulties to be overcome is due to the range over
wliich mixtures of air and acetylene are explosive, and
which lies between the limits of 3per cent, and 82 per cent,
of acetylene. The propagation ofthe explosive wave down
the burner tube cannot be satisfactorily stopped by the
Pro. 2
Making Brass Cog Cellar.
.ff?i_
-jQ
Pig. 4
brass IJin. wide, and equal in length to the circum-
ference of the dog's necK, with an additional allowance
for lap at the end, as shown at AB (Fig. 1). Punch
two small holes at the opposite end, into'*^ which
the ends of the wire staple (Fig. 2) will fit, and also
punch out the slots at the end AB. Now told over the
long edges along the dotted line shown, until the section
formed is as shown by Fig. 3. Then wire, along each
side in a crease iron j this would make the section as
shown by Fig. 4. 'lurn the collar round and solder the
staple firmly in position and flush on the inside. Any one
of the slots on the end opposite the staple end would
then hook over the staple, and the collar could be
fastened with a small padlock.
Use of Watch Depth Tool,— A depth tool is used
more in making than in repairing watches. It is
required lor scoring off the exact position of the
pivot holes upon the watch plates, previous to drilling
them. It consists of two parallel frames, hinged
together and capable of being adjusted by a thumb-
screw to any required distance apart. Each frame
is provided with runners like a small pair of turns.
In one frame a wheel is placed, in the other a pinion.
The frames are then adjusted to such a distance apart
that the wheel runs nicely with the pinion. The outside
points of the runners can then be used as a pair of com-
passes to transfer the exact distance to the watch plate.
Removing Varnish from Boots.— It is difBoult to
remove the varnish by means of a solvent from patent
leather boots ; it is better to tree these up tight and rub
down with No. 14 sandpaper, then with No. 1. and finally
with flour sandpaper, and when the surface is smooth, to
revarnish. The above process will also be suitable if
the boots are of calf. But if it is desired afterwards to
clean the boots with blacking, first soften the old varnish
with a little spirits of wine on a piece of good cloth,
and then apply a coat of dubbin.
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
23
Browning Bottoms of Boots..— To brown the bottoms
of boots, put some thin bx'own paste on the bottoms and
well sleek them just before they are auite dry ; lepeat till
an even colour is obtained, and finish with white heel-
ball and cloth. Or whiten theleather, and burnish with a
warm burnisher ; this will give a darker brown. Finjsh
as above. Another method is to rub a little of the colour
on a damp sponge, apply to the boot bottoms, and finish'
as above. Anjr brown colour will give the desired eHfect.
To gain an easier finish, instead of using white heel-ball,
make' some white or brown fake, and, after burnishing,
place a little on the boots with the finger, and when
nearly dry, rub off with a cloth.
Bleaching Straw.— Brown straw may be bleached
by boiling in a solution of washing soda, and, whilst
still moist, subuiltting it to the action of sulphurous
acid. To do this, the straw must be hung in a nearly
closed chamber ; a box or barrel will do if only a small
quantity of straw is to be bleached. , A pleca of roll
sulphur is placed on a saucer and set fire to by a hot
iron rod; the saucer is then placed in the chamber
(below the straw, but not too near it) and left burning
for some time. After bleaching, the straw should be
washed with warm water to remove excess of sulphurous
acid.
Photographing Several Objects at Different Times
on One Plate.— It is possible to take twelve different pic-
tures of various sub,iects on one 5-in. by 4-in. plate, one
lens only being used. A repeating back to the camera
the burner, otherwise the Bunsen flame will be one-sided
and cause the mantle to shrink more on one side than
the other; the result being that the mantle will be out
of shape after burning a few hours. See that all burners
are fitted perfectly upright and that the right-sized rod
is used wfth every burner. The rods should be fitted
into the burner pretty tightly ; it they fit loosely they
may be packed with a little asbestos. Also note that the
Bunsen flame of the Kern burner is quite different from
the ordinary "0" burner. The ring just above the
■wheel should be of a whitish-blue colour, not green. The
mantle ought to be fully incandescent from top to
bottom, and no flame should be visible outside or above
the mantle. Should the Bunsen flame of the new burner
resemble that of the " " burner it would indicalje
that the nipple on the burner is too large, or that the
flame when lighted on the nipple (without the Bunsen
tube) is not vertical. This should be remedied, as it
means a loss of forty per cent, of light.
Skeletonising Animals' Skulls The usual method of
cleaning animals' skulls is to soak the bones in water
frequently changed until the flesh becomes decomposed
and able to be removed with the fingers and small pieces
of wood. This takes some time and is disgusting work.
As an experiment, try some yood ashes in the water.
Begin by using, say, a handful of wood ashes to a gallon
of water, and increase gradually.
Connecting House Drain to Deep Sewer,— In laying
al-in. diameter house drain, which is 50 ft. long, to join
o r
Al
^s
= 1
Ao
i
B
o
"
JJ
O
U 1
c
D 1
"-3
B
o A
o
Double Repeating Back for
Camera.
is needed for such work.- But where mbre than one
row of pictures is taken, the back must have a vertical
sliding movement as well as a horizontal one. The
reversing back is made in two frames : the first or back
frame fastens to the camera back frame or into the
reversing back catches ; the second consists of two rails
A A, between which runs a sliding board B with opening
C of the desired size, say 1 in. square. Across from A to A
run the slide rails D, with a catch in the top and three
cuts in the slide to engage with the catch. For the first
exposure the slide is put in as shown in the sketch, and
is moved forward for each successive one. After three
exposures have been made, the sliding board is then
lowered to the next point and the slide pulled back to
the first position again. By lowering the board and
pulling back the slide twice more in this way, twelve
exposures, each about lin. square, may be made on a
5-in. by 4-in. plate, as has been stated.
Particulars of Welsbach Burner. — Mention is
made below of the principal points to be attended to in
order to get good results with the Welsbach burner.
The burners ordinarily supplied are intended for use
with gas of from fifteen to twenty candle-power, and
it is an advantage to know whether the gas comes
within this range, since it is generally necessary to
use slightly larger nipples for a poorer gas and smaller
nipples for a richer gas. It is also necessary to know the
average pressure during lighting hours, and to select the
nipple most suitable for that particular pressure ; if, for
instance, the pressure varies from 1 in. to 2J in. during
lighting hours, select a nippl^ most suitable for IJ-in.
pressure. Having decided on the most suitable nipple,
take care, that it is screwed into the socket gas-tight, as
the least leakage will cause a bad Bunsen fiame ; the
nipple itself should be examined to see that its interior is
quite free from dust, grit, or other foreign substance,
and on lighting the gas on the nipple (without the
Bunsen tube) the flame ought to be perfectly; vertical.
See that the wheel on the top of the Bunsen is exactly
centred, and lies evenly, perfectly flush with the top of
Connecting House Drain to Deep
Sewer.
ȣ;
a sewer which is 20 ft. below the level of the house, the
pipes should be laid at a reasonable depth, say, 2 ft. 6 in.
or 3 ft., with a proper fall to the intercepting chamber.
The drain should then either be taken down by a
quick fall (as in Fig. 1) , oi- by a vertical drop (as in Fig.
2). In the figures, S Indicates the sewer, and C the inter-
cepting chamber. Such a case as this is neither con-
templated nor provided for in the Model Bye-laws.
Watch Going too Fast.— A watch will sometimes
gain even when the regulator is pushed as far as possible
towards " slow." The regulator of every watch is pro-
vided with two curb pins, between which the outer coil
of the hairspring passes, and in the case mentioned it
may be found that the hairspring does not vibrate freely
between the curb pins, but binds against one of them.
If it already vibrates, opening the curb pins to give
more play will cause, the watch to go slower.
Varnishing Violin.- Both oil and spirit varnishes are
used on violins i the former give quicker results. Oil
varnishes should be allowed an interval of at least
two days between each coat; each kind of varnish
should be dulled with pumice before applying another
coat. Coating with boiled oil before varnishing is not
advised. A yellow tinge may be imparted by the aid of
gamboge and turpentine. A quantity of essential oil of
turpentine being put in a cup, it should be placed in a
water bath on a gas or oil stove and brought to a gentle
heat and as much gamboge added as the oil will take up.
Carefully strain, and apply witfi a camel-hair brush ; a
second coat may be given in three hoars' time. The
first coat of good spirit varnish may be applied the
next day.
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
Making Polishing Buffs.— Buffs tor polishing metal
are made by fastening thick buff leather with best
strong glue to the edges of wooden wheels, the ends of
the leather being secured by nails until firm. The edges
are then covered with glue and rolled in the emery
powder (which should be placed in a flat tray), making
sure that a good coating is on the leather. This
process must be repeated as found necessary.
Curing Sheepskins.— Below is given information on
curing and dyeing sheepskins. The skins should first he
" fleshed," tliat is, freed by a sharp knife from any fat or
flesh. They are then cured or tawed by placing in some
preservative •. a suitable one consists of 1 lb. of alum,
1 lb. of salt, about i peck of bran, and 1 gal. of boiling
water. This should be well mixed and covered for some
time to allow the bran to swell. The skins are left in the
preservative for a day or two, or until the tawing is com-
pleted, which may be known by a white line being left
when a part of the skin is folded and pinched. The skins
are now taken out, stretched on a frame or door, and
curried. This is done by scraping in every direction to
remove the inner part of the skin. Or they may he
curried and stretched after. They are nowdried and the
scraping continued, being supplemented by shading and
rubbing between the finger knuckles.
Setting Out Dovetailing.— In setting out dovetailing
first set out the shoulder lines on each piece ; if the ends
are shot true this may be done by a gauge. Mark off
the centre of each socket, and then half the breadth of
to a fine paste with water, and coat the suriaoe to
be bronzed thinly and equally. Build up a clear coke
fire on the forge, over which move the article about
until the paste is quite dry. Place some coal on the
fire to render it smoky, and expose the article to the
fumes till the sui-face is quite black. Blow up the
flre until it again burns clear and is free from smoke,
then move the article about over the fire and as close as
possible to -the red-hot coke until all the soot is burned
off. Allow the article to cool, and brush oit all particles
of crocus, soot, etc. Tie on the head of the smoothing
tool a covering of parchment, or one or two thicknesses
of lasting, and with the bright hammer go over the
bronze surface until it is smooth. An acid process for
finished work is as follows :— Dissolve in vinegar two
parts of verdigris and one part of sal-ammoniac. Boil
this solution and skim the surface clear. Add water to
the solution until no white precipitate remains at the
bottom of the vessel. Now thoroughly clean the article
to be bronzed, and immerse it in the boiling solution
until the desired shade is acquired ; then rinse in water
and dry with sawdust. If the solution is too strong, the
bronze will not adhere very firmly, and a little friction
will remove it ; if the article is not well dried a green
coating occurs on exposure to air. Both the above
methods require practice before the desired colour and
permanency can be obtained.
Permanence of Photographic Prints.— If the direc-
tions given by the makers of the paper are followed,
pure chemicals used, and separate toning and fixing
^'XT.;
FlO 3
the sockets on each side as at A (Fig. 1). Make a tem-
plate as shown at Pig. 2, the edge AB being square to
AC; AD and CE should be about 80" to the edge AC.
Then mark out the sockets with a template and a sharp
pencil (or awl) as indicated at Pig. 2. Saw carefully
in the waste parts; then place the socket piece on the
pin piece, and mark the shape of the latter by using the
end of a saw placed in the sockets (see Pig. 3). A, Pig. 1,
F, Fig. 2, and A, Fig. 3, refer to the same side.
Cleaning Coral.— Coral that has become very dusty
may be cleaned in this manner. In a large pan full of
soapsuds hang the coral in a net so that it is submerged,
but does not touchelther the sides or bottom of the pan,
and place the pan on the fire and boil. Then take it off,
throw away the water, wash the coral in clean water,
replace it in the net, and put it back in the pan as be-
fore ; fill up with clean water and again bring to the boll.
Remove coral, rinse In clean water, and .allow to drain.
Dressing Tarpaulins,— Eailway companies generally
vise a prepared sheet dressing tor yellow tarpaulins. For
a yellow dressing, use boiled linseed oil coloured with
yellow ochre ; if it does not dry quick enough, add a little
patent driers. First give the canvas a good dressing
with plain boiled oil ; when that is dry, coat both sides
with the coloured dressing. The dressing should take
several days to dry j it it dries quickly it will be liable
to crack.
Bronzing Metal Urns and Other Vessels.— Metal
tea-urns, spirit measures, etc., are usually bronzed after
all seams have beeff brazed and .the metal has been
worked to shape. One method of bronzing is as
follows. First pickle the article in spirit of salts,
then scour it quite clean and tree from grease with
sand. Procure some crocus of the dfblred shade, ml:£
baths, there is little danger of P.O.P. prints fading.
It is perhaps in the fixing and washing of the prints that
errors are likely to be made. The fixing bath, which
must not be in an acid condition, should be atthe normal
temperature and suflloiently strong ; it either of these
points is neglected fading of prints may result. The bath
should be made with warm water, as there is consider-
able loss of heat in dissolving hypo, and when the
temperature is low the bath does its work too slowly.
■When the prints are put in the hypo the unaltered
silver is changed into silver thiosulphate, which is
insoluble, and then into a double thiosulphate of silver
and sodium, which is soluble. Unless the bath is strong
enough to form the double thiosulphate, stains and
fading may result. The proper strength for P.O.P. is
. hypo 3oz., water 20 oz. For albumen prints use a lO-per-
cent. solution of hypo. The prints must be kept moving
while they are in the fixing bath. It Is important that
after fixing is completed every trace of hypo should be
removed from the print. For this phrpose a mechanical
washer may be used; this keeps the prints moving
round the washer whilst the hypo sinks to the bottom
and is syphoned off. Or the prints may be transferred
by hand backwards and forwards between two dishes
alternately filled with clean water. Atter about forty
minutes' thorough washing the prints should he free
from hypo. A test, however, should bo applied. Put a
small quantity of starch into a test-tube and add a few
drops of a solution of iodine, thus forming blue iodide
of starch. Pour half of this blue iodide into another
test-tube, and, lifting one of the prints from the wash-
ing water, hold it by one corner ahd allow the last few
drops of the drainings from it to tall into one of the
test-tubes. If any hypo is present in the drainings it
will turn the blue solution wliite. Compare the colour
of the solutions in the tubes by holding them side by
side against a sheet of white paper.
Cyclopaeclia of Mechanics.
25
Making Bar Soap.— Ag a preliminary trial in soap
making, try the cold process. Cocoanut oU should ,
be used to the extent of from 23 to 50 per cent, it
possible, as it not only rapidly saponifies but ap-
pears aiso to hasten the saponifloation of other oils
mixed with it, and forms an easy lathering soap.
For trial, dissolve in li pt. of water i lb. of caustic
soda (that in hermetically sealed tins for preference) ;
place the lye in a jug:. Now raise the temperature of the
oUs to 110" F., pour into a large bowl, and add the lye
very slowly, stirring well with a stick. When the lye has
been thoroughly mixed with the oils the mixture may be
poured into a mould. An efttcient temporary mould may
be made by lining the inside of an old box with a piece of
old cotton cloth, wetted, and folded in several thicknesses.
Pour the mixture into the cloth, cover the box over, and
place it in a warm place for from twelve to twenty-four
hours. If the mixing has been properly performed, a
block of hard soap will be prodxiced, which may be out
into bars with a wire.
Boof Gutting Into Side of Dome.— It is required to
obtain the proper sweep for the plate that runs up the
slope o( a roof which cuts into the side of a dome.
It the dome is a semi-sphere, then the section of the
dome formed by the plane of th^ roof passing through
a minute, and when this speed is obtained let go the
shutter. BTow make a time exposure on the same image,
but on another plate with the wheel at rest. The first plate
on development will show a blurred arc where the image
of the bright tinfoil moved across the plate. The propor-
tion the movement bears to the complete arc is the speed
of the shutter expressed-in fractions of a second. To find
the degree of movement, measure on the negative show-
ing the wheel at rest the width from side to side of the
tinfoil, and subtract this from the extension of the arc.
Now ascertain with the compass howmany times the
remainder is contained in the oircumterence ot the
wheel image and the answer is the traction ot a second
exposure that the shutter gives.
Mixing Oil-colour Paint.— For painting any surface
that has to stand the stress of weatlier the paint should
be of as good quality as possible. For a good oil paint take,
for each pound of colour required, ilb. genuine white-
lead, 1 oz. of patent (paste) driers, or a small quantit j- of
terebine, and mix it to the required consistency with a
mixture of raw linseed oil 2 parts, turpentine 1 part. If it
is required to dry with a good gloss, replace half the raw
Boof Cutting into Side of Dome.
It would be a part of a circle. Produce A B, the plane of
the roof (Pig. 1) , until it joins the plan at A' j bisect A' B
to give the centre O', and then draw a line at right angles
to the ground line from A to cut the plan at C. The dis-
tance AC would be half the width of the section's base.
To draw the section, set ofl^ a line at right angles to, and
on both sides of, AB (Pig. 3). Make AC on both sides
of AB equal to AC (Pig. 2), also make AB (Pig. 8) equal to
ABCPig. 1). Then mark oil from A, AG' on the section,
equal to AO' (Pig.l). liseO' as centre, and with radius to
B draw the arc shown, Pig. 3, and this would be the part
to be cut from the plate, so that ib would fit the dome.
Making Stannate of Soda.— To make stannate of soda,
proceed thus. Melt together 2 parts of caustic soda and
1 part of finely powdered tinstone (native oxide of tin).
Add to the melted mass a small q uantity of hot water, allow
to settle, and pour off the clear liquid ; this can be evapor-
ated to form the liquid stannate. On further evapor-
ation the liquid will commence to crystallise, and after
cooling the crystals may be strained off, washed once or
twice with a little water, and dried. The liquid poured off
from the crystals should be evaporated to dryness and
added to the next melt ; the part insoluble in water may
also be added so that there may be no waste. Tin
crystals (stannous chloride) are formed by boiling tin
with hydrochloric acid until no more will dissolve, and
then evaporating and cooling the solution ; the tin
ci-ystals will then separate out.
Testing the Speed of a Camera Shutter. — A
method ot estimating the speed of a camera shutter
is as follows. Attach to the side rim of a bicycle
wheel a piece of tinfoil. Invert the bicycle, place it
in the sunshine, and fpcus this wheel sharply. Put
a plate in the camera ready for exposure, and set
the shutter at its lowest speed, using as large a stop as
possible. Revolve the wheel so that it makes one revo-
lution per second, or fifteen revolutions in a quarter of
oil with boiled oil. If a tint is wanted, work In the
requisite quantity of pigment ground in oil ; ochre
for cream, Venetian red for salmon, middle Brunswick
green for pale green, ultramarine for grey, burnt sienna
for a reddish buff. Por dark coloured paints, replace the
white-lead with a similar quantity ot pigment ground
in oil, and use more boiled oil, or else add a little good
oak varnish.
Determining Superficial Surface of Steam Pipes.
—The rule most usually adopted for detei-mining the
number of square feet of heating surface of diiferent
sized steam pipes is to calculate that a foot leugth
of 4-in. pipe has a superficial,, i.e. square, foot of
sui'face. Then the areas of other sizes can he readily
estimated. A 1-in. pipe, for instance, has one-fourth
of a square foot ot surface per foot run, or a square
foot to 4 ft. run. This would also apply to bends,
fittings, and other hot parts of the installation. These
calculations are based on the interior diameters of
pipes. Often the exterior is taken, by which a li-in.
pipe, I ft. long, would be said to have half a square foot of
surface, because it is of 2in. exterior diameter (nearly).
This, however, is not a correct way, for it gives a certain
size of pipe a variable super surface according to the
thickness of the material ot which it is made, whereas
the thicker material would deoi-ease heating' elficacy
rather than increase it.
Manufacture of Condensed Milk.— In making con-
densed mUk, milk is mixed with sugar and then evapor-
ated by steam in a vacuum pan, in which a reduced
pressure may be kept in order that the milk may lose its
water at a much lower temperature than the boiling
point under ordinai-y pressure. The temperature em-
ployed is about 100 deg. P., and the vacuum is kept as
good as possible. The plant required consists of one or
more vacuum pans, a boiler for supplying steam and fo'
pumping, suction pumps, etc., and canning outfit.
26
Cyclopaidia of Mechanics.
Making Sugar Fign res.— Sugar flgurea are made by
placing about 2 lb. of sugar in a ran and adding barely
sufficient water to cover it and a little cream of tartar ;
melt down by a gentle heat, and boil to the degree known
a8 " ball," i.e. about 250° F. Rub the pan briskly with a
etlck until the sugar thickens, then fill the moulds as
quickly as possible through a funnel. Objects that are
flat on one side may be moulded in starch powder,
shaped objects in plaster-of -Paris moulds, while laige
objects are usually made hollow, the moulds being filled
with the sugftr, and the unsolidifled portion being poured
out after a few minutes.
Hot BOX for Pboto Negatives and Lantern Slides.
—An aid in varmshing lantern slides made from negatives
or in varnishing photographic negatives themselves is
Dlustrated by Figs. 1 to 5, the letter references in these
figures being similar. It is usually advised to heat the slide
before a fire or lamp before flowing the varnish on and
off ; in too many cases this means unequal heating and
burnt fingers, with this hot box it is only necessary to
lay the slides on the top, fill the box with water (boiling
or cold) , and light the spirit lamp, and in a short time the
slides will be heated equally all over. After varnishing,
out one on the other side, and both together are use-
less without holes through the cross walls to allow of
a through draught. If the joints of the floorboards are
open, a little ventilation may be afforded by currents of
air finding their way through. If the upper face of the
boards is expoaed, the fungus cannot thrive on itj its
ravages will be confined to the lower side of the floor,
and it will make its way through the boai-ds slowly.
Obviously that part of the floor which is covered with
loose-textured carpet has the better chance of holding
out, but that which Is covered with oilcloth, and thus
cut off above and beneath from all supplies of fresh air,
has everything against it. As regards the moisture,
the fungus is greedy for this, although it has to take
its supply in very minute quantities from the air or
from objects with which it is in contact. _ So much
moisture, indeed, does it succeed in taking in that it
has to discharge an excess, which hangs on its surface
in clear sparkling drops, hence its name, Meruleus
lachrvmwns (laohrymans being the Latin for weeping).
The remedy is to remove the whole of the floorboards,
joists, and other timbers. Every vestige of fungus In
any form should be scraped or brushed off the brick
or plaster work. Examine the skirting, and remove
Pig. 2 FIG- 5
Hot Box for Photo Negatlres and Lantern Slides.
they are left on the top untU thoroughly hard and di-y.
The box consists of eight pieces of wood screwed together,
supporting a zinc box with an iron top. The front and
back pieces A and B are each 17 in. by 6 in. by Jin. The
two side pieces C and D are each M in. by 6 in. by J in. These
four pieces are mitred at the angles, chamfered on the
top edge, and screwed to the angle pieces E, P, G, and H,
each 4 in. bjr lin. by lin., on which rests the zinc box.
The front piece has an opening cut in it to admit the
lamp L, and the back piece has two pieces cut out to
admit the water inlet J and the steain vent K. The hot
box is 15 In. by 12 in, (this allowing i in. space between It
and the wood) and 2in. deep. It is made of stout zinc
with an iron top iVin. thick soldered on, forming a level
bed for the slides. The water inlet discharges on the
floor of the box, and the steam vent is taken from under
the top plate as, shown. Steam issuing from the water
inlet indicates that more water is needed. This box
will take one do^en lantern plates and, as has been
stated, is equally as well adapted for use in varnishing
ordinary photographic negatives.
Dry Rot In Floor Boards.— The coi-jditions most
favourable to the germination of the spores of the dry
rot fungus and to Its subsequent growth are (1) a still
atmosphere— no draught, (2) a little moisture— not too
much, (3) a little warmth, (1) a little ammonia. An
air brick on one side of the house is of no use with-
any that has any suspicion of the growth on it, even
the white mould. Clear the ground and take off an inch
or two of its surface to ensure getting rid of every trace
of the disease and its spores. In some cases an appli-
cation of fresh limewash to the surface of the walls
has prevented further development. Vitriol hUs also
been applied with ^ood effect. If not too expensive,
cover the ground with hot lime 'concrete. Break holes
through the cross wall, preferably at the ends, as the air
is apt to become stagnant In' the corners. Put at least
one air brick at the hack of the house, and above all
things see that the new timber used is not Infested with
incipient dry rot before it is used.
Action of Steam In Locomotive. — A locomotive
usually, though not always, has a pair of simple
engines. These act as ordinary horizontal steam
engines, steam being admitted and cut off accord-
ing to the notching-up. It then expands to fill the
cylinder, pushing the piston before it. Just before
the end of the stroke the exhaust port opens and
steam is exhausted from one side of the piston up the
chimney, its pressure, which now is a back pressure
or resistance, falling and the piston being pushed by
fresh steam in the opposite direction. The motion
of the piston Is transmitted through the piston
and connecting rods to the crank, and thence to the .
wheels.
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
27'
A Simple Level.— 'With the simple level illustrated
the proper grade and levels for drains, ditches, road-
ways, concrete flooi's, foundations for houses, and
for bridges, etc., can be laid out. In fact, all sorts
of levelling can be easily and readily done -with
this Instrument. Pig. 1 shows an elevation of the
complete instrument; A is a builder's ordinary level
fitted with 'a pair of Stanley's improved level sights
BB. The level is placed on a table c that can be set
level by means o£ four thumbscrews D and sighted in
any direction. In the figures, B is a triangular block of
hardwood to which are fastened the parallel plates 0, and
also the three legs by three screws G; H is a small
brass eye screwed into the centre of the underside of
the triangular block to suspend a plumb-bob if it should
be required to place the instrument over a point. Fig. 2
is a section showing dimensions of the parallel plates.
The top plate should be of two pieces glued and screwed
together, cross-grained to pi'event twisting. In the
centre is fastened, by means of a brass screw, the ball J
ior the ball-and-socket joint. In the centre of the top
piece of the bottom-plate a hole is made to fit the ball to
Fig. 1
A Simple Level.
form the socket of the joint. Before glueing the two
parts of the bottom-plate together, the triangular block
of hardwood (3iin. long with 2-in. sides) must be screwed
to the bottom-piece on the under-side. The thumb-
BorewB on the lower plate are equally spaced Jin. from the
outer edge. On the under-side of the top-plate over the
point of the thumbscrews, and for them to bear against,
small brass plates K K, Fig. '2, should be fixed. The
levelling stafi: can be made by painting the divisions on
a strip of f-in. board, or, if preferred, papers printed with
the dfvisions can be obtained and pasted on the board.
The instrument is set up and used in the same way -as
an ordinary dumpy level.
Cod Liver Oil Emulsion.— To prepare an emulsion of
cod liver oil, triturate together in a mortar 2 oz. of gum
arable and 3oz. of water, then add 802. of cod liver oil -,
slowly beat the whole together until a smooth cream is
formed. 'Now dissolve 128 gr. of hypophosph/te of lime
d.nd 96 gr. of hypophosphite of B,oda in 3 oz . of water,
and beat this up with the other Ingredients. To disguise
the flavour of the oil, add 1 oz. of sugar syrup (1 part
sugar to 1 part water) or glycerine, and a few drops of
essence of almonds ; mixthese with the other ingredients
as before.
Working and Polishing Ebony.— Ebony must be
selected for colour, grain and texture first, as these vary
very much ; the cuts near the bark or outside surface
often contain sand and other foreign substances which
dull the edges of the tools employed. Ebony may be
turned in the lathe, using, for small work, two gouges,
one for roughing out and the second for finishing. The
tool is held above the centre, a high speed is employed,
and light cuts are continually taken, the finishing cut
leaving a dead polish which only needs a handful of
turnings held against the work whUe' revolving to
brighten it. A piece of blanketing with a few drops of
linseed oil finishes the work. More elaborate forms of
eboii.7 work are cut with a revolving drill in the lathe ;
and there is also an automatic lathe for turning out
handles in quantities. Ebony in the flat Is first sawn
with a fine circular saw into slabs or veneers. Further
shaping may be done with a hand or power fret-saw.
The finishing is done by fine rasping and filing, ahd the
polishing is began by scraping with a sharp knife or a
proper scraping tool, always scraping in one direction :
the polishing is completed by dollying off on a felt
dolly driven by power, the dolly being kept moistened
with linseed oil.
Making a Wringing Machine.— A simple wringing
machine can be made in this manner. Obtain two
indiarubber rollers mounted on spindles ; remove the
cogs, as these are not used. Also obtain twd slotted
plates as A (see sketch) , made from IJ-ln. by tVI". i™" !
the slots in the plates must be of a size to fit easily
on the spindles of the rollers, the distance apart being
regulated by the diameter of the rubber. Also make two
Making a Wringing Machine.
springs from 1-in. by tj-in. steel, shaped something like
B. Two clips, as C, will also be wanted ; the top part
must be drilled to take a bolt D, a corresponding hole
being made in the two springs. One leg of each of the
clips must also be drilled and tapped, and a thumbscrew
fitted, as E. To fit the parts together, first place the two
roller spindles in the slots in plates, then spring on the
impression springs, one on each end. Now measure the
distance from centre to centre of the two springs, and
drill a piece of flat iron so that it will fit between the
springs and the clips, as shown at ]? ; this will keep the
springs rigid sideways. The clips with thumbscrews are
for fixing the machine to the washtub, and, being fixed
by one bolt onljr, will swivel roilnd so as to be used at
either angle. One of the roller spindles should be
squared or threaded for a winch handle. All the iron-
work must be well painted or given two good coats of
bath enamel.
Bending and Canvassing Landau Panels. —
It nailed fiat across the boot-side, with the top edge
rounded down, or overhung to form a bead in the neck,
the panel should be bent and canvassed before fixing.
This must be done very carefully, or the panel will split.
To canvass a panel after it is bent, place it on a wide
board, round side up, and drive in a draw-bove pin at
each outside corner ; this will prevent the panel s&g- '
ging'inthe centre, which would split it. If the panels
are boxed in fliish, canvass them after they are pinned
in. Quarters and back panels should be canvassed a
day or two before they are wanted ; there is then less
danger of breaking them when fitting them in the
grooves. This only applies to panels with a sliRht single
sweep i where there is a return or chair-back sweep they
must be canvassed after they are in.
28
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
Noise in Hot-water Tank.-It is sometimes the case
that a hot-water apparatus worlts well until the water
reaches the boiling point, when a rumbling sound at the
tank is heard. This noise is merely tlie sound ot the water
boiling. The remedy is to regulate the boiler damper so
that the water sball not boil. "When the noise occurs, it
can be silenced by drawing off some water at one Sf the
hot-water taps. This causes cold water to flow into the
tank and reduce the temperature. The fact that water
the first as small as possible at the tapered end of the
mesh, the last two being worked loosely at the broad
end i the first stitch ol the second row will then be nearly
regular in size, and In the third row all will be even. But
in this row, if the net was commenced on six meshea
only, stitches must be added ; to do this, work two
meshes on each loop ot the former row, or two on every
other loop, according to the shape ot net required. In
this way add meshes in any row where it is desired to in-
crease the diameter. It is not often wished to decrease
the diameter of a round net, but if required to do so,
pick up two meshes on the needle at once and hitch
together in one ; each time this is done one mesh less
will, of course, follow in the succeeding row.
Manufacture of Calcium Carbide. — Calcium car-
bide may be made by heating an intimate mlrtui'e
of finely divided coke or carbon and lime in an electric
furnace, using a current ot from 4,000 to 5,000 amperes.
The furnace used by Willson in America consists of an
outer coating of firebrick lined with carbon or
graphite, a tap hole being placed near the bottom ; the
furnace is covered with carbon plates, through which
passes a thick carbon rod reaohiiig nearly to, but not
touching, the bottom of the furnace ; the carbon rod and
the inner carbon layer are connected to the dynamo.
1,2001b. ot fine coaldust and 2,0001b. of quicklime yield
2,000 lb. of carbide in twelve hours.
Centrifugal Pump. — Herewith are dimensioned
drawings of a centrifugal pump designed to lift
150 gal. per minute at 20 ft. head. To enable the
volute to be correctly foiTued the case Is in two
halves. To avoid end thrust and to ensure an even
balance ot the disc, the infiow takes place on each
side, each inlet having a diameter of 3 In. Pig. 1 is a
side elevation and Fig. 2 one half of the case showing
the depth of the volute and dlpc with angle of vanes.
The volute, to obtain a good flow, must Increase
evenly to Its discharge. The discharge ^ipe should In-
crease In area to reduce the velocity considerably. The
flange of the casing Is lln. wide, drilled to takej-in.
-r-
Centrifugal Pump.
has a tenrlency to boil Indicates either the use of a more
powerful boiler than the apparatus requires, or want of
attention to the damper. The latter is the more probable
fault, causing the boileri to become overheated and fuel
to be wasted.
Making a Bound Net. — In netting a round net,
the loop upon which the first meshes are made can
be afterwards tied up tightly to form a bottom. Or
the first meshes can be cut away, the short cut
ends pulled out through the inner bights of the second
row (that is, the now inner row of whole meshes),
and a grommet worked if a circular hole Is wanted ;
or the ends can be drawn together and tied with
a separate piece of string. To prevent crowding ot
meshefl at the bottom ot a round bag it is usual to com-
mence with about six meshes for the first row, making
bolts. The diameter of the disc is 9 in., and Is arranged
for six vanes, having an angle ot 80" at the cire^aifer-
euoe. The shaft is J in. diameter, and the approximate
speed ot disc is 650 revolutions per minute. Kg. 3 Is a
section showing side Inlets, disc, and brackets, and
Fig. i is a section ot half of the disc showing dimensions
of the vanes.
Glazing Clay Tobacco Pities.— A simple lead glaze Ib
generally used for clay tobacco pipes. The following may
be taken as examples, (a) Ilead oxide (litharge^ , 45 parts :
sand, 35 parts j common salt, parts, (b) white lead, 53
parts i Oornish stone or felspar, 16 parts i white flint glass,
5 parts. The glaze may be melted In a crucible, ana the
stems ot the pipes (which should have been previously
burnt) dipped in. For green colour, use 5 per cent, of
oxide of copper -, for red, 5 per cent, of red oxide of iron.
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
29
PoUshing Turned Wood.— Soft woods may be turned
so smooth in the lathe as to rectuire no other polishing
than that produced by a few line turnings or shavings
,of the same wood applied while revolving in the lathe.
Mahogany, walnut, and some other woods may be
polished by the use of a composition made by dissolv-
ing by heat so much beeswax in spirit of tui-pentine
that the mixture, when cold, shall be of about the
thickness of honey. Or instead, dissolve 1 oz^ of san-
daraoh In i pint of methylated spirit, and mix the
solution gradually with loz. of beeswax in sufficient
turps to make it into a paste. Apply with a woollen
cloth whilst the work is still in motion, and polish
with a soft Unen rag or chamois leather. The work
thus treated should have a highly varnished appear-
ance.- Hard woods may be readily turned very smooth,
and fine glasspaper will sufgce to give them a very good
surface; a little linseed oil may then be rubbed on,
and a portion of the turnings of the wood to be polished
may then be held against the article whUe it revolves
rapidly. By this means a fine gloss will be imparted. '
Scenting Powder.— To perfume a .powder with otto
of roses, place it in a mixing machine, i.e.. a revolving
cylinder or ban-el provided with ribs internally. Spray
the scent into the powder and set the machine in motion
until the scent has been disseminated through the whole.
To disseminate the sc6nt better, dissolve 1 part of the
otto in 6 parts of spirit of wine, and use the mixed
essence in place of the pure oil.
Making Silver Mounts for Tobacco Pipes.— In
making an ordinary pipe mount, a plate of silver
has to be prepared to fit .tightly round the two pieces
be trued on the triblet previously mentioned with a
smooih-faeed mallet. The work could be more easily
done in a lathe, which would also be useful in the subse.
quent polishing. If the metal is so thin that the triblet
and mallet or hammer ai e of little service, use a ribbed
burnisher (Pig. 2) , with which it is quite possible to rub
the thinnest of collars true and smooth. The burnisher
may be from Tin. to 10 in. long, lin. wide, and Win.
thick, and can be made from an old flat file. The ribs or
ridges should be quite smooth, and should be of the size
shown in Fig. 2. When the mount is in shape, and fits
the pipe, it will have to be smoothed and polished. Ee-
move hammer marks, etc., by filing, and not by the use
of glasspaper or emery-cloth ; by the latter means the
corners are rounded instead of being left sharp. The
next thing is to polish the mount. The principle under-
lying most polishing processes is a simple one. It is the
application by friction of abrasive materials in stages of
gradually increasing fineness. It that is understood, it
wUl be an easy matter to make shift with materials that .
may be handy, though those mentioned here may be
obtained in small quantities at oilshops and of dealers
in jewellers' materials. As the mount to be polished
may be thin, and therefore likely to get out of shape, a
piece of wood should be fitted to it, and this will both
support it and allow it to be handled with comfort.
First is used a stick of water-of-Ayr stone with water, a
damp sponge being employed to remove the mud-like
stoulngs as they are produced. This is followed by
pumice powder and oil, and this by crocus and oil (or
rotten-stone or Tripoli powder and oil). These may be
applied by means of buffs made by glueing strips of buff
leather to pieces of wood. Next softly brush the mount
with damp whiting, and then wash it in hot soda and
water to remove all the contained grease in the polishing
materials. The final'polish is given with rouge, applied
by a buff at first, and then by the palm of the hand or
the ball of the thumb. Wash off all rouge, and the
Making Silver Mounts for Tobacco Pipes. '
of the pipe to be joined by its means. The easiest way
to obtain a pattern of this plate is by wrapping a
piece of smooth paper round the place on which the
mount is to go, and very carefully cutting all the surplus
away with a pair of scissors until one thickness of the
paper is all round the pipe. If this is done carefully and
due attention is paid to the straightness of the solder-
ing seam and of the ends, the silver can be out to fit
exactly. The plate must be flattened, and then turned
up into a tube quite free from bruises or kinks. For
this is required ,a " triblet," which is a tapering piece of
smooth round iron or steel; a bending block is also
Tsquiredl A mallet also may be necessary/ if the silver
is thick ; thin metal will come up by the pressure of the
hand almost, and may be worked with a pair of half-
round pliers in place of the block and mallet. With a
' knife or a scraper made from a three-square file, make
- the edges to be soldered together quite level and true
with each other ; see that no burr from the file is left
on the metal when tying with wire. Should the mount
be long, it is desirable to file small nicks in the edges
that form the seam a a (Fig. 1) , so that the solder may
hold better ; the seam will not be so likely then to open
during the subsequent operations. When fitted, the tube
is tied with iron binding wire so that the edges remain in
the proper position whilst soldering. Thin wire should
be used, as thick wire on cooling and shrinking may
bruise the work. The tying of the wire is not a difficult
job, but with a veiT tapering mount means have to be
taken to prevent the binding wire slipping down (see
Fig. 1) . In soldering, which is the next process, brush the
flux on the edges to be united, which previously should
have been scraped clean. The flux is borax rubbed up in
-water. Lay some pallions (small pieces) of silver solder
along the seam, and with a gentle heat from the blowpipe
flame evaporate aU moisture. Then, if the soluer has not
been shifted, apply the full heat. When cold, pickle in a
mixture of 1 part of sulphuric acid and 40 parts of water,
and file off any pieces of unflushed solder. The mount
now is sure to be more or less out of shape, so It has to
mount is then ready for fixing on. It is important in
using the rouge that the hands, rouge, and everything
by which the mount is touched be quite free from grit.
Jewellers' i-ouge is not that sold as face powder, but is
peroxide of iron specially prepai-ed. The best quality
has a red colour having a decided purple tinge. Kouge
varies in colour from the one mentioned to a deep red.
Ball Clay for White Enamel Body.— Ball clay used
in the pi-eparatiou of white enamel body may have
a composition of Cornish stone, 40 parts; Cornish
clay, 10; and blue clay, 20. , Or Cornish stone, 80
parts ; Cornish clay, 20 ; blue clay, 40 ; and flint, 20.
Or Cornish stone, 100 parts ; Cornish clay, 20 ; blue clay,
18 ; and flint, 40. Or Cornish stone, 30 parts ; Cornish
clay, 10 ; blue clay, 17 ; and flint, 8. The colour can be
rendered bluish-white by the addition of a little cobait
blue. The non-fusible materials added to the glaze are
barytes, bone ash, and oxide of tin ; the latter is put
into nearly all enamel glazes. The clays are mixed with
excess of water, passed through a fine sieve, and then
boiled down to a paste. Here are recipes for white
Blazes. White glass, 100 parts ; white sand, 60 ; salt, 40 ;
litharge, 120 ; and oxide of tin, 60. Or lead and tin -ashes,
44 parts ; sand, 44 ; soda, 2 ; common salt, 8 ; and red-
lead, 8.
Pressure of Water.— A pressure is often stated as
being equal to so many inches of water. If the height
of water were H in., the expression would mean a pres-
sure equal to that caused by a column of water liin.
high, or, in other words, the weight of such a column. On
the square foot this will mean a pressure of 7'794 lb. ; on
the square inch, tI, of this, or 'OoUb. The higher
pressures are usually measured by a Bourdon or other
pressure-gauge ; the light pressures are ascertained by
inserting a tube and measuring how many inches of
water in the tube are required to balance the pressure
—thus the terra, a pressure equal to so many inches of
water.
30
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
Cement for Jointing Hot-water Pipes.— Cement tor
making joints in hot-water pipes contains HO to lUO pai-ts,
by weight, of iron borings twhioh must be pounded ll
coarse) , 2 pai-ts of flour sulphur, and 1 part ot jjowdered
sal-ammoniac. Tlie ingredients must be well mixed and
moistened with water, this being done Irom half an
hour to two hours before use, according to the weather.
The joint is first caulked a little more than half 'lull of
yarn, then finished with the prepared borings. The
borings must be caulked in carefully, or the socket will
be split as the joint sets, for the borings expand a
Little in setting.
Faint Blistering on Front Door.— The blistering of
paint is caused by the presence of water either In the
paint or in tlie substance to which the paint is applied,
greatly aggravated by the action of the sun upon the
door. The old paint should be burned off with a spirit
lamp, and the surface of the door well rubbed down with
glasspaper. Then give a priming cpat made of 21b. of
white lead, .3 oz. of red lead, and 3 oz. of yellow ochre
(note that the red leadisadi-ier). Thin with one-third
raw oil and two-thirds turpentine. Finish in any desired
colour, using as little oil as possible, or turpentine
Instead of oil. Varnish on a dry day with a good varnish.
It is better not to buy the varnish from an oilshop.
Clean all water out of the brush before painting ; a dirty
brush — i.e. one with water in it— is often the cause of
I paint blistering.
Gilding and Silvering Leather. — Gum mastic in
fine powder is first dusted over the surface to be
gilded. An iron or brass tool bearing the design upon
its face is then heated to the proper temperature
and gently pressed on a piece of leaf gold, which
adheres to the tool. On pressing the tool lightly
to the surface to be gilded the mastic softens and
retains the gold. The loose gold and powdered mastic
are then brushed olf . Gold leaf will adhere to leather
without mastic, but not so firmly as with it. To apply
tinfoil or silver leaf, place on the part of the leather to
■be covered some size or white of an egg, and after press-
ing down the metal aid drying. Wash over with gold-
colour lacqtier. The following tools, etc., will be re-
quired. A long,' thin knife, sti-aight, and not too sharp ;
a wide thin brudh, with camel hair about Sin. broad; a
Ead for cutting the gold leaf, and a dabber, a small soft
all of cotton-wool enclosed in a square ot muslin with
its edges drawn together and tied to form a handle, and
wheels and stanips of the shapes required.
Cleaning Briinze Chandelier. — To clean a bronze
chandelier that is con-oded by damp, take the chandelier
to pieces and carefully remove all pins, screws, and
other iron parts. Then place about ilb. of potash
in Igal. ot water, and in this boll off all the old
lacquer. Allow the various parts tp remain in the
solution for about twenty-five minutes ; then take them
out and well wash in clean cold water. They should
then be dipped in aquafortis, and allowed to remain
sufBciently long to become bright. Each part should be
held in the acid bath by means of a copper wire twisted
round, or by holding with a small pair of brass tongs.
Then well rinse in several changes of clean cold water,
either by having several vessels or by well rinsing in
running water. Transfer to the sawdust tub, dry, and
relacquer.
Making Warner Wheels,— Procure a pair ot Warner
stocks and set of spokes to match ; these are sup-
plied with the ii'on band mortised the' exact size of
the bottom part of the spoke just above the shoulder,
which is sunk or housed in lull i in. from the face
of the iron b^nd, the shoulder of the spoke resting
on the wood centre ot the stock. To fit the spokes
into this part, the mortises already made must be
eased out to ensure a good fit to the tenon of the
*poke. Before driving the spokes into the stock, clean
off the front end of the stock quite level, and fix with a
coach-screw, dead in the centre, a strip of wood called a
set-stick ; this must be perfectly straight and parallel,
2 in. wide by 1 in. thick, and a little longer than the
spoke. Measure the distance from the front of a
mortise to the set-stick. In the set-stick, at the height
of the shoulder of the spoke, bore a hole, and insert a
piece of cane or whalebone, keeping it as much shorter
than the distance from the mortise at the bottom as the
dish required in the wheel. In wheels of this description
J in. is Bufflcient when made, as they go more in tyreing.
Drive all the spokes in, so that they touch the peg in the
set-stick. To get the tongues all alike, plane a small
piece of panel board to such a width that when held
against the inside of the set-stick the opposite edge of
the board comes on the spoke full i in. Mark all round
by this. Now set off the size of the tongue with com-
pafises, and cut down, sawing the shoulders on the front
and back only, pulling out the sides with the draw-knife.
Tn large firms, the tongues are made with hollow augers.
which cut a square shoulder right round the spoke ; but
this method is not so strong as that described above. In
cutting in the felloes or rims, see that the joints are
square and true, and bore the dowel holes parallel with
the face of the felloe ; also bore all the holes for the
tongues exact, as when they are bored through at
different angles it is impossible to get a true face on a
wheel i undue strain is also put on the tongues of the
spokes, so that they soon break off short at the
shoulder.
Darkening Cement for Pointing.— For darkening
C'Jment to be used for pointing brickwork bricklayers use
smithy ashes, which can be procured from any blacksmil h .
The ashes should be ground or crushed to the size of sand
(not crushed to powder) and used instead of sand, or some-
times a small quantity ot sand is mixed with the cement
and cinders. The wearing qualities of the cement
are not Improved by the use of cinders. Lampblack is
occasionally used as a colouring agent, and when it is
used sparingly the wearing qualities ot the cement are not
lessened.
Setting Out the Sides for a Step Ladder.— In set-
ting out the sides for a step ladder, first set up the
vertical height C B (Fig. 1) to a convenient scale, and
divide for the number ot steps required (the usual dis-
tances, as shown at F, Fig. 3, being from Tin. to 9 in.).
Setting Out the Sides of a Step Ladder.
Next set off the splay AB (Pig. 1). Join A to 0; this
will be the pitch of the sides. -Draw a horizontal line
and set a bevel to this and the pitch llhe as shown
at K (Fig. 1). Now draw a horizontal line D E, then AE
will be the distance apart of the treads measured along
the edge of the strings (sides). Set a pair of compasses
to this distance, and step them along as near as possible
to the outer edge of the string and mark off with bevel as
shown at Fig. 2. nig. 3 shows the visual section ot steps
which are often wedged into the housing of the string
as indicated at "VV. This would have to be allowed for as
shown at i, 5 (Fig. 2) .
Bricks for Cupola of Furnace.- For lining cupolas
for blast furnace or other cupreous slags, nothing is
better than Dinas bricks unless it be ganister bricks
as made at Lowood near Slietlield. The only difference
between the two is the quantity ot silica contained in
each. A good Lowood brick has assayed out at the
following proportions: Silica, %'i; alumina, 1; lime,
I'25 ; sundry oxides, 1'35 ; while a best Dinas brick from
Wales assayed out as follows: Silica, 9.5'75i alumina,
•i ; lime, 3 ; sundry oxides, 'So. Ganister bricks do not,
on cooling, crack so quickly as Dinas bricks, because
Dinas bricks, having a higher percentage of silica, are
practically Infusible and unaffected by the great heat.
The bricks, eitlier Dinas or ganister, should be set in the
very thinnest ot ganister cement, the xisual plan beln^
to dip the brick in yery thin cement, and when the work
is finished to slurry over the surface with thin cement.
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
31
Determining Discharge of Water through Pipe.—
The watei' velocity in feet per second corresponding to
a given pressure can be calculated by multiplying the
square root of the pressure in pounds per square inch by
12'19. The velocity being thus obtained from the effective
pressure, multiply It by thfe area of the pipe in square
feet and by 6'23 to determine the quantity discharged in
gallons per secpnd.
Lines on Picture Mounts,— There are several methods
of placing gold lines on mounts tor pictures. First
make small pencil dots where the lines are to end.
If gold powder is used, make the lines with a strong
solution of gum, and when this is " set " breathe gently
on the lines, and dust on the powder. White lines ai'e
made by means of white ink, a heavy mixture of Chinese
white. A common pen kept well charged will answer
admirably as a means of applying the ink.
Putting Felloes on Wheels.— Herewith la an illus-
tration of a device for pulling towards each other the
spokes of cart and carriage wheels.. This dispenses with
the lever and other tools used in some methods of doing
this work. Having fitted the spokes and holed the feUoes
to suit, tie the ends of about a yard of tough cord about
tin. in diameter to form a ring, which is slipped over two
spokes, and then twist this with the handle of a hammer
until the spokes come to position. Then by a piece of
angle of 75" with the vertical. The tables on the in-
strument show the place of the centres of the arcs of
fianks and faces upon the scales for wheels with teeth
numbering 12 to loJ, and foi- racks, the pitches varying
from 1 in. to 3 in. Other pitches may be found proportion-
ately j thus, lor a J-iu. pitch, take out halt the tabid
value for a pitch of 14 in. To use the instrament, one halt
the pitch is marked along the pitch circle of the wheel
to be set out at each side of a radial line. From the two
points thus found radial lines are set off. Then the
sloping line ot the instrument is placed so as to coincide
with one radial line, with the edge ot the scale over the
point on the pitch circle. Then consult the table of
' centres for flanks ot teeth; the number in the table,
which varies with the pitch and 'the number of teeth,
shows the point on the scale line above at which the
centre of the curve tor the flank ot the tooth Is situated.
Similarly for the centre of the face ot the tooth set the
sloping line on the other radial line with on the pitch
circle. Then the table shows the position of the centre
on the scale measured downward from 0.
How to Make an Knlarglng Lanteru.— Below are
particulars on the construction ot an enlarging
lantern. Make a baseboard A, and to this attach the
frame B of three sides, with a circular opening' in
front tor a condenser at B'. Above and below this opening
fasten grooved rails P and G to take the sliding negative
frame. Join up tour mitred pieces to form a frame K,
and make the lens-board P. Connect the two - with
bellows. Bore a hole through K and P to take a brass
rod M. Fasten K to 1? and G, and tlx a turn-pin of stout
wire at N to clamp the rod M. Fit up the negative frame
Putting Felloes on Wheels.
lath, as shown in the figure, keep them up as long as
required; by removing the hammer and undoing the
running knot the appliance is ready for another pair.
Removing Paint from Floor Boards. — Freshly
slaked limewash, to each bucketful ot which is added
at least 21b. ot common washing soda, makes a good
ptiint remover, li should be applied by means of
common fibre brushes— not bristles ; several applications
may be necessary to remove the paint. The latter should
be removed by scraping when so'lt, then swillefl olf witii
plenty of clean water, and finally brushed oyer with
common malt vinegar. It is doubtful whether, after this
treatment, the boards will be sufficiently clean to be left
as white without bleaching. For the latter, frequent
applications of oxalic acid— 2oz. to Ipt. ot water— will
generally suffice. Partially to remove the black so as
to gain an old oak effect, try equal parts of turpentine
and methylated spirit. If this can be made hot with
safety it has greater penetrating power. Liquid ammonia
is also efteotive, but is best handled if diluted with an
equal bulk ot water.
Willis's Odontograph.— The Odontograph, invented
in 18:i8 by Professor 'WiliiB, has been used to determine
the radii of arcs of circles that shall approximate to the
epicycloidal and hypocycloidal curves which should be
used if perfect forms are wanted for the teeth of
wheels. The Instrument consists of a scale and a
table. The first may, be set out as follows on a piece
of cardboard about 14 in. high by Ik in. broad. At
the right-hand edge, and about 2J in. from the base,
take a point. I'rom this point divide the edge into
lengths ot «in. and number the divisions 10, 20, 30,
etc., both above and below the point first marked,
which should be numbered 0. Then subdivide each
4-in. division into ten equal parts, and from the point
first marked (0) set off a line towards the base at an
A SG"Y"R a
An Enlarging Lantern.
to go in S, with ah opening 4 in. by 3 in. and 4 J in. by
3tin. rebace. Sink the rebate deep enough to allow of
the turn-buttons which hold the negative coming ilush
with the surface. The condenser Q is fitted in a block R.
Inside B is a second frame X of iiussian iron. Tlie holes
- in this (see dotted Hues) are not opposite those in B, so
that ventilation withoub outside light is secured. Short
rails are fitted on A, between which ttie lamp with refiector
runs. A four-wick paratfinl^imp will be best. Fit a door
H. The base is hinged at Y. This lantern could also
be used as a magic lantarn.
Repairing Broken Rib of Ivory Fala. — The mend-
ing ot the end rib ot an ivory tan containing a
fracture about an inch long, is a rather difficult job,
as the joining up must be done from the back. Pro-
cure a thin veneer ot ivory 2 in. long and rather
wider than the rib of the tan. Scrape the surface of
the veneer and the back of the fracture and fasten
together with cement. When set, dress off the sliarp
edges with a file, and reform the edges of the carved
surface' by filing aad" scraping, taking particular
notice that the strengthening piece does not cause
the fan to bulge when shut up. It the rib is saw-
pierced as well as carved, the holes may now be
drilled to admit the saw, which must be carefully worked
round the original piercing. A more substantial job, if
the fan is valuable, would be to procure a veneer of
African ivory about Jin. thick, the carving and dressing
of which would bring it dowu to ^, in., the relative thick-
ness of the end ribs. For convenience of handling, this
veneer may be tacked down by the four corners on a flat
piece of wood. The design may now be drawn on the veneer
with pencil and the pattern cut with sharp gravers sui-h
as engravers use. To get the stuff out cle^n and smooth,
each out , must be repeated till the proper depth is ob-
tained. If the work is merely an incised pattern, filled in
with either black or red-pigment, the engraving is done
with a well-whetted lozenge graver, the work being
dressed ott' when the engraving is done and tho-fiUing set
by iDrushing with wet whiting and then with a softer
brush and dry whiting to give the finishing polish.
32
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
The Preparation of Kaolin.— Kaolin or China clay Is
the basis of porcelain and many pottery clays, and is
produced by the decomposition of felspar. Kaolin oc-
curring in the position o£ the original lelspar is called
residual kaolin, and frequently it happens that this is
carried away by the streams and deposited as sediment
in a distant locality, when it is known as transported or
sedimentary kaolin. The residual kaolin is likely to
contain fragments ot crystalline quartz, mica, and un-
decomposed spar, with smaller quantities ot other
minerals ; wliile the transported kaolin is likely to con-
tain iron oxide, lime caroonate, and other impurities
intimately diffused with it. The residual kaolin furnishes ■
the purer grade, as its impurities may be washed
out; whilst the impurities in the sedimentary kaolin
are not of such a nature as to be washed out. The
common method of mining kaolin in the United
States is by means of vertical shafts '25 ft. or 30 ft. in
diameter, lined with pieces of wood, each Sin. by lOin. or
12 in. by 21 in. The ends are bevelled, so that when the
pieces are laid end to end around the sides of the ver-
tical shaft they form a strong wall capable of resisting
the great pressure from the clay. As the shaft is sunk,
the. walls are added to by building from below. Some-
times the clay is mined fi'om open pits, and in a few in-
stances it has been obtained from underground galleries
by using heavy timbers, but in most cases the shafts
lined with wood are found to be the safest and most
economical method. The ditfei-ent methods of washing the
kaoli u to I'emove the coarse impurities are allbasedonthe
same principle, that of flotation. The material Is thrown
into water, and the particles of the clay, being liner and
lighter than those of the impurities, remain longer in
suspension: hence it is only necessary to increase the
length of the troughs through which it is carried or to
decrease the x"ate of ilow, or both may be done, to get the
required degree of fineness in the kaolin, and remove
practically all the foreign ingredients. One method
fial
Setting Out Frame for YTheelbarrow.
commonly employed is to feed the crude material with a
current of water into an ordinary log washer! this con-
sists of a horizontal beam from 10ft. to 25ft. or more in
length, revolving in a horizontal, rectangular, or semi-
cylindrical trough of about twice the diameter of the
beam. Mounted on the beam are numerous short arms
or knives which cut and stir up the lumps, and at the
same time carry it slowly to the other end of the trough.
The current of water carrying the clay passes from the
log washer into a trough or a zigzag series of troughs.
The length traversed by the current in the washing
troughs and the rate of flow may be varied to suit the
character of the material used and the grade of kaolin
required. The greater portions ot the coarse sand and the
larger particles are dropped either in a log washer or
close to it, and sand wheels are used to remove this and
prevent the troughs from being clogged. The finer
sand and the mica flakes are deposited in the zigzag
troughs, which are usually about 700 ft. long; they a,re
opened and the deposit is scraped out at intervals.
The kaolin carried in suspension by the water flowing
through this long zigzag channel is run into larger vats
or settling tanks. I'rom these, after a time, the clear
water is drawn off and the mud is pumped into a filter
press and squeezed by hydraulic pressure. The presses
consist of a series ot flat iron or wood frames, strung on
a central iron pipe. Bags of heavy cloth are placed in
the spaces between the frames and connected with the
central pipe, which is connected with the pump. The
kaolin comes from the filter press in large cakes either
round or square, and so that they may dry, these are
exposed in racks to the air for several weeks, or put on a
floor or in a tunnel and heated by steam or not air.
The cheaper grades of clays are not put through a filter
press, being either dried in the settling tanks or
transferred to a drying floor directly from the tanks.
Another method of washing is to put the clay with
water Into vesBels, where it is thoroughly disintegrated
by means of plungers. It is stirred up into a slip
which is run off through troughs to settling tanks,
made preferably of cypress wood. The kaolin slip is
carried thence into the other tanks, whence it is pumped
Into the filter presses. The clay is removed from the
press to the drying floor, heated by exhaust steam.
To obtain high grade kaolin, such as that used in
making paper, it Is usually easy to get rid ot grit by
elutriation and settling In the washing troughs, vats,
etc., iron being avoided by the proper selection of nia-
terial.' The chief trouble is often the pi-esenoe of almost
microscopic plates ot mica, which the washing process
often fails to eliminate, and which have to be removed
by passing the wet material through a very fine silk
mesh.
Cleaning a Varnished Map.— To remove dirt from a
varnished map, rub the map with a damp cloth or sponge.
Most of the dirt can probably be removed by placing the
map on a table and rubbing stale bread-crumbs over it
with the palms of the hands.
Painting Staircase hung with Wallpaper.— The
course to be adopted in painting a staircase hung with
wallpaper is as follows. The first thing is to remove
the paper with water containing a little soda, and to
rub down the walls afterwards vrtth pumice-stone and
water. Then fill up with distemper paint, and, when
dry, rub down with glasspaper. Give two good coats
of size, one hot and thin, the other chilled, to stop
suction, make good any defective parts, and again
glasspaper down. Coat with colour, nearly all oil and
very thin, and follow with, successive coats of paint
until a satisfactory appearance is gained. Over dis-
temper filling the first coat should be oily ; over wood-
work it should be fiat— that is to say, it shciuld contain
a oompaTatively large quantity of turps.
Setting Out Frame lor Wheelharrow.— This is an
easy method of setting out the frame tor a wheelbarrow.
Make a drawing of the plan of the framing, as shown
Fia2
FiaS
at Figs. 2 and 3, to a large scale, or full size. IText set a
bevel to the angle ot the mortises and shoulders as shown
at Fig. 3. Then the exact length ot cross-bearers or
rails can be taken direct from the drawing, and the
shoulders can be set out with the bevel as shown at
Fig. 1.
Fainting Concrete Surfaces.— For painting concrete,
four or five coats of paint should be applied, the first and"
second coats of white lead well thinned with oil, and the
later coats mixed with equal quantities of turpentine
and oU. Every coat must be allowed to dry before the
next is laid on ; on no account should the concreiie be
painted before it is quite dry.
Measuring Land.— In ascertaining the contents of
land, it is usual in measuring on a sloping surface to make
allowance for the difference between the sloping length
and the true horizontal distance, the latter being the
length for buying or selling and lor plotting on paper.
There are various instruments and tables for giving this
allowance, or it may be calculated thus : A fall of 5 ft.
vertical in a length of 80 ft. on the slope would give a
horizontal distance of Vao^ - 5' = 79-8ift. A tal l ot 10ft.
in 180 ft. would give a horizontal distance ot VigO' - V?
= 179'72ft. Usually, the measurements are taken with a
chain of 66 ft., and an allowance per chain, according to
the slope in degrees, is made by pulling the chain tor-
ward ilink, or whatever the requisite allowance may
be, beyond the arrow, and then shifting the arrow
forward.
Method of using Bnamel.— Patent enamels should
be used with the same precautions that are adopted in
the case of any other enamel. Enamelling should be
done in a warm room. GJet a clean flat ground on the
work, give one coat ot enamel, and do not retouch it.
If the first coat is not satisfactory, rub off the gloss,
or flat it, because enamel should never be put on a glossy
ground; then give another coat. Enamelling should not
be done when the weather is damp or foggy.
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
33
Polish for Mangle KoUera. — To make a polish
ror the rollers of mangles and wringers use 1 pt. of
methylated spirit, 2 oz. of gum sandaraoh, 2 oz. of
seed lac, 2 oz. of gum benzoin, and 2 oz. of best
beeswax. Dissolve the wax by gentle heat in sufBcient
turpentine to make a thin paste, and add It to 'the
above after the gums are dissolved and carefully
strained. Mix well together, and apply with soft flannel
01- a wadding pad as used by polishers. It the mixture
IB too thin, or seems a long time in giving a good result,
or IS to be applied by means of a camel-hair brush
instead of pads, add more seed lac.
Design for a Small Porch.— The addition of a porch
roof over the door of a workshop or tool house may
be made both useful and ornamental. Eigs. 1 and 2
illustrate a design in which the porch roof is covered
with imitation tiles cut out of oilcloth. This porch
roof is suitable for fixing over a door 3 ft. wide. The
(ramework is made of yellow or red pine, IJin. square,
passing nails or screws through the vertical posts, the
root must be placed in situ so as to have an equal overlap
a,t each end, the loose tiles being temporarily removtd
for this purpose. The top edge of the root can be neatly
finished oft by nailing on a strip of wood 1 in. wide, i in.
thick, bevelled on the front edge, and painted to match
the tiles. If the upper edge of the roof is in C(?'>staot with
a brick wall, it is advisable to fiash the joint with sheet
lead or zinc ; but if the eaves of another roof pass over
the door this flashing is unnecessary.
Details of mariner's Compass. — The compass
bowl is suspended in gimbals in order to allow it to
retain its horizontal position independently of the
fship's motion. From the centre of the bottom of the
bowl is a vertical steel-pointed pillar ; the compass
needle is fitted with a brass cap, in which is fixed
an agate bearing that rests on the steel point. The
compass card is divided on its edges into degrees, the '
degree circle occupying about J in. of the card edge ; the
De8lg:ii for a Small Porch,
II
: 31 ,
■ ^f
kn
^V
Fio. 3
of which 16 ft. will be required ; the various lengths
being cut oft in accordance with the dimensions
shown in Pigs. 1 and 2. Only one side of the porch
Is shown in Fig. 1, the other side being exactly
uniform. The horizontal piece is mortised into the
vertical one, and wedged at the back, all the .joints
beingclosed with paint and secured by nails or screws.
For Gutting out the tiles, obtain some odd pieces of
oilcloth of any pattern desired. Cut out of sheet zinc or
tin atemplate of the pattern and size considered suitable,
(Fig. 3) , and from this template cut the tiles out of the oil-
cloth, care being taken to discard all pieces having holes
in them. "When a sufficient number of oilcloth tiles
has been prepared— the roof under consideration re-
quires filty-flve— paint them red on both sides, two
coats i If only the upper side is painted, the sun and rain
will cause them to curl up. Then nail them on to some
thin wood, matchboard being preferable, using tinned
tackB. Before commencing to nail the tiles down to the
boards, a slip of wood Jin. thick, Jin. wide, the length of
the roof, must be fastened along the bottom edge to
form an eaves plate, as shown at A (Pig. I). Commence
nailing the tiles on along the bottom edge, driving a
tack in each top corner. The tacks holding the end
tiles on each row must not be driven home, as it will be
necessary to take these off in order to fasten the roof on
to the framework. It is easier to paint the frame of
the porch (giving it two coats) before fastening it over
the door. After securing the framework in position, by
next circle contains the numerals of degrees marked
from at the north and south points to 90° at east and
west. Thus the reading in degrees at sea is taken from
the south point for the southern semicircle- e.17. what a
surveyor reads as 120° the helmsman reads S.6()''E. The
Soints, thirty-two in number, are as follows. North,
■. by E., N.N.E., N.E. by N., N.E., IT.E. by B., E.N.E.,
B. by K. ; East, E. by S., B.S.E., S.E. by K, S.E., S.E. by
S., S.S.E^S. by E. ; South, S. by W., S.S.W., S.W. by S.,
S.W., S.W. by W., W.S.Wy W. by S.: West, W. by N.,
W.TS.W., W.W.by W., N.W., N.TV. byis., N.N.W., N. by
W. These letters are printed radially towards their
respective positions at lli° apart, which equals 1 point-
that is, 363° -?- 32. The central portion of the card is de-
corated with a star to help in distinguishing the points
at a glance. The card is cemented to the needle and
adjusted to hang horizontally by dropping sealing-wax
on the under side where required ; the glass lid screws on
to the bowl, which is of copper.
Reducing Paper to Pulp.— Boil the paper with a,
solution of caustic soda, using some sort of stirring
or beating arrangement to break up the felted fibres.
It should then be turned into a tank and washed
with water until free from alkali. It a flexible
material is desired, add some soap to the pulp and
boil, then add alum solution until the soap.7 feel has
been destroyed; this will produce an alumina soap
which will bind the fibres.
34
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
Chrome Tanning. — A chrome tanning tath is
made, according to an American Jiatented prooees,
in tliis manner. Twelve pounds of chromic acid
are dissolved in gal. oi liydrochlorio acid of a
speciflo gravity of 1"U6; 50 lb. of chrome alum are
dissolved in about 20 gal. of water; thirdly, 75 1b.
of washing soda are dissolved in about 10 gal. of
water. The soda solution is now slowly poured into the
chrome alum solution until the result appears cloudy
and a sparkling silver mist Is seen on the surface,
wlien water is added to make up the liquid to 44 gal.
The solution is now run into the chromic acid solu- >
tion and the whole allowed to settle. A li per cent,
solution of this liquid is used for the chrome bath (i.e.
ligal. of the liquid to 98igal. of water) for tanning,
and the hides are hung in this. As the tanning proceeds,
the strength or the bath Is made up by more liquor to
4 or 5 per cent., and the temperature of the bath is kept
at 80° F. When the thickest parts of the skins show a
bluish-green colour, the tanning has proceeded far
enough ; the hides are then washed in water containing
1 oz. of borax in 20 gal. The time of tanning is for sheep-
skins about one hourj goat-skins aboiit one and a
half hours ; calf-skins two to four hours ; and heavier
materials ten hours.
Arrangement of Tinmen's Workshop.— A workshop
of convenient size for four tinmen is shown by the accom-
panying diagram. The benches B, made of beech-wood,
should be firmly built, and secured to the iloor by
Iron brackets. Racks for small tools could be placed
on the wall at the back of each bench, and the pipes
from the stoves S carried to the chimney over the forge F.
add Infusion of 6oz. to 9oz. logwood chips previously
made, and re-dye at a lower temperature (122" P.).
Madder might be tried alone ; it is, however, used prin-
cipally In cotton dyeing, and the operation is a very
complicated one. For sallron, use a tin mordant
followed by an infusion of saffron. The latter sub-
stance is much too expensive to use for commercial
dyeing. Turmeric in powder must be dissolved in
methylated spirit, and the solution filtered ; the
feathers are then dipped in, removed, and dried.
Preventing Steam Condensing on Shop Windows.—
The chief cause of steam condensing on shop windows
is insufBcient ventilation. In constructing shop fronts
provision should always be made tor an iron ventilating-
grating at the top of the sash as at A (Fig. 1) ; also toi
a fanlight over the door as at B (Fig. 2). The grating
may be fitted with a hinged flap on the inside so that it
can be closed when not required ; the fanlight is hinged
to the transom to fail inside on quadrants, or is Jitted
with gearing. The siU of the sash is prepared for the
Plan of Tinmen's Workshop.
Hooks for carrying bundles of wire might be placed on
the wall behind the rollers. The larger sheets of metal
could be stood on their long ends in the racks L, M,
and B, and the smaller plates in boxes on the top of the
racks. The letter references not already mentioned are
as follow : A B, angle bender ; A P, ash pan s C P, coke pan j
H B, hollowing block ; E, rollers ; and T B, tool rack.
Faint for Mirror Back.— The silvered back of a
mirror may be protected by applying two coats of a
mixture of Jib. of red lead ground fine, 2oz. of paper
varnish, and 4 oz. of turpentine. Allow twenty-four hours
to elapse before applying the second coat.
Dyeing Feathers.— Feathers are now dyed almost
entirely with coal tar or aniline colours, these being
very brilliant. Although most of them fade, some
stand exposure to light extremely well. Previous to
dyeing, all feathers should be soaked in a hot bath
containing a moderate quantity of Castile soap,
followed by a second bath of washing soda or car-
bonate of ammonia-, these remove aU grease and
soften the feathers so that the dyes penetrate
better. It is dilBcult to advise with regard to colours;
experiment with the recipes that are given below.
Cardinal : Boil I lb. of ground cochineal in 1 gal. of water,
filter, and, while hot, steep the feathers for one hour;
remove, add to the bath 2i 11. oz. of tin solution, replace
the feathers, and keep the bath hot for several hours.
To prepare the tin solution, dissolve 8oz. of tin in 6oz. of
hydrochloric acid and 3 oz. of nitric acid. For indigo,
boil for half an hour in a bath containing 4 oz. alum, 2oz.
«.r«[ol. and 11 oz. extract of indigo ; run off half the bath,
Fig 3 Fie. 4
Preventing Steam Condensing on Shop Windows.
escape of condensed moisture (see D, Pig. 1) ; the bead
which fixes the glass will intersect with the bead on
the Bill in the hollow, and from the outside a hole is
bored and a zinc tube about | in. diameter is inserted
(see dotted lines) ; this will carry away any water that
may collect and prevent it running on to the show-
board. Pigs. 3 and 4 show, open and closed respectively,
a glass louvre ventilator for fixing on to the plate-glas»
in the sash ; these ventilators may be effectually used
when there is no ventilator at the top of the sash.
Staining Tonquln Canes.— The hard, crusty surface
of canes renders them practically impervious to water
stains. A brown tone may be gained by scorching the
canes in a gas flame— a gas-stove fiarae for prel:erence.
Bamboo workers generally colour up the articles after
they are made. This is done by mixing suitable pig-
ments, as Vandyke brown, brown umber, or black, with
French polish or spirit varnish thinned out with
methylated spirit, a coat of clear varnish being applied
afterwards for finish. If the canes have been stored
in a damp iilace to render them soft, try a stain made
by mixing Vandyke brown with American potash an<J
hot water.
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
35
RenderSns Wood Fireproof. -There have heen a
great number of compounds or mixtures pi-oposed for
tlreproottng wood, fabrics, and other iniammable
materials. Among the beat of these may be mentioned
ammonium chloride, ammonium phosphate, ammonium
Bulphate, alum, borax, boric acid, calcium chloride,
magnesium chloride, sodium silicate, sodium tungstate,
stannous chloride, and aluminium hydroxide. Any of
these may be applied in solutions of 5 to 10 per cent,
strength, except the last ; aluminium hydroxide is
formed as an insoluble substance in the fibre by
soaking first in aluminium sulphate solution and after-
wards in ammonia. Alum is very often used, and by
some sodium timgstate is considered the best preventive
of fire. A gooii mixture is ammonium chloride 15 parts,
bono acid 6 parts, borax 3 parts, and water 100 parts,
heatedjto boiling, and the wopd or fibre plunged into it.
Electrical Engineer's Tool Chest,— The accompany-
ing drawings show the construction of a suitable tool
chest for an electrical engineer. The sides, lid, and
bottom should be made of wood about | in. thick when
The lime should always be freshly burnt, as stale lime
loses the power of setting firmly. For the very best
lime mortar, hydraulic lime should be used, stone or
gi-ey lime being used in cheaper mortars. Hydraulic
limes should be finely ground, otherwise they are liable
to slake when thej' have been built in the work, and the
sjrelling which ensues will crack and spoil the wall in
which they have been used. Also hydravilic lime mortars
niust be used immediately they are made, as they set
rapidly as .compared with the stone or grey lime mor-
tars. Chalk lime should never be used for building
purposes, except in smaU sheds where cost prohibits
the employment of a better lime. Chalk limes must
not be used In making mortar for dwelling-houses.
All limes before being mixed with sand should be
thoroughly slaked. This is generaily done by measuring
out the required quantities of lime and sand, and
forming with the sand a ring in which the Ume is placed,
water being added in suificlent quantities to slake the
lune, and care being taken not to add more than ie
necessary. The slaking commences by the lime absorb-
ing the water, and the swelling of its bulk, accompanied
Electrical Engineer's Tool Chest.
ftnished: the trays can be of thinner wood, about
i in. or j in. finished size. In the isometric view, part of
the top tra.y is shown cut away, and also the front of the
box, so as to show more clearly the construction of
the interior.
Clock Striking too Quickly.— To prevent the striking
train of a clock running too fast, it is controlled b.y a
"fly," which is a small fan fixed to the last^ pinion of
the train. The fly should be sutBciently tight to turn
when the pinion turns. If it is loose, the pinion is
liable to run round quickly while the fly stands still
and allow the clock to strike too rapidly. Therefore,
sen that the fly is tight upon its pinion. If it is,
and the clock still strikes too fast, try extending the
surface of the fly as much as possible by gumming paper
to its edges.
Sliiclng and Preparing Mortars.— Often a wall has
its strength estimated by the amount of power necessary
to crush the bricks, instead of by the forces or influences
that will render the mortar unflt for its purpose. The
mortar should be made from the very best materials
that can be obtained, as practically the strength of
the mortar determines the strength of a brick structure.
by hissing and giving off of steam ; the purer the lime
the more violent is the slaking process ; hydraulic limes
sometimes take hours to commence, whUe chalk Umes
start immediately. The sand is shorelled over the
slaking lime, and the whole mass is left for a sufBcient
time, after which the lime and sand are thoroughly
incorporated, making the required mortar. The sand
used must be free froip all earthy material, pit sand
being considered the best; if the sand does contain
organic or clayej^ matter, it should be washed before
use. The proportion of sand and lime used in forming
mortar are stated on p. 89.
Recipe for Branding Ink To make a branding ink,
saturate water with 1 oz. of either gum tragacanth or
gum arable. Work up bone black into a stiff paste
with the gum solution, and incorporate with a small
quantity of soluble Prussian blue or indigo: add a
few drops of creosote, and press into boxes. Glycerine
may be used in place of the gum solution, and makes a
very nice ink, but it does not dry vei-y quickly. Another
method is thoroughly to work up equal parts of soluble
Prussian blue and lami)black or bone black with a little
glycerine. Then make it into a paste of suitable stiffness
with solution of gam arabio.
36
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
Making Upholsterers' Pom-poms.— One way of mak-
ing the pom-poms u sed by upholsterers is to lap a wood or
cardboard washer with three or four thicknesses of fibres,
which may be of silk, worsted, or cotton. Out all
the fibres at the outer edge of the ring with a pair of
pointed scissors ; this will release the ring. Bind the
tuft In the centre with fine silk twist, and trim the
pom-poms to shape. Another method is to Itnock two
smooth spikes into a hoard, say 1 ft. apart, wrap the
materials round the spikes to the required thickness,
and tie up every li in. Cut off (in the centre of each tie,
which will make eight pom-poms. Flatten with a blow
from a mallet or by pressure. Por fine work a rough
creel could be fitted, and ten to twenty of the strands
wrapped at once. A vandyked edge could be given to the
pom-poms by trimming with a mattress tuft punch.
Iflght Table for Bedroom.— Figs. 1 and 2 are end and
front views respectively of a light table that might
stand by the bedside for the convenience of an invalid.
For the ends, procure four pieces of wood each 2 ft. 6 in.
long, and planed to IJ in. by J in. These are fixed per-
manently together In pairs with screws (not shown) . Only
two connecting bars are required, these being 1 ft. Si in.
long, planed to 1 In. by ^iu. Fix these to the ends as iu
Kg. 1. For the foundation of the top obtain a board
about 2 ft. long, 1 ft. 3 In. wide, and i in. thick, either in one
piece or by glueing two pieces together. This may be
covered with oilcloth of the chequered Indian matting
halt of the mould is made. This method obviates
making an odd - side. Probably an iron moulding
machine, similar to those used in wheel moulding, etc.,
would be an assista.iice, as the moulds could be more
quickly made by using machine pressure. If using the
above-named machine, the pattern plate, which sei^re»
as the parting plate, has halt the pattern projecting
from each side, as previously stated. The mould is
formed in sand contained In two moulding boxes which
are placed on the pattern plate, one over and one under.
The sand is pressed within the moulding boxes by the
action of rams, which serve also, upon the removal of
the pattern plate, to eject the sand moulds from the
boxes. The advantage of the machinejs that mouldb
may be made iu one-eighth the tim^used in hand
moulding.
Preserving Clay Figures.— If the clay figures have
been painted with ordinary oil paint It would be im-
possible to fire them, for the heat would immediately
burn away the,colours. Besides, the heat of an ordinary
oven would have little effect on the clay except to
dry it. To preserve modelled objects without casting,
model them in plaster-of-Paris. A little glue added to
the water when gauging the plaster will prevent it
setting, with the result that the plaster may be
handled like clay. Cream of tartar will also retard
the setting properties of plaster. When q,uite hard, the
modelled figure may be dipped in melted paraffin wax, so
Light Table for BedroonL
pattern, which Is easily washed, and which may be fixed
down with thin glue. Fig. 3 shows how the bars on the
under side are arranged. They are all of 1-in. by J-in.
material. First glue and screw on those marked A, B, and
C (Fig. 3), and then by long screws fix those markedB and
E to the tops of the pieces forming the ends, shown by
black rectangular patches. Now place the top in
position and glue securely to the bars D and E, and screw
from the under side. Eun a piece of stop bead li in. by
}in. round the top and mitre it at the corners. This
gives a good finish and prevents anything sliding ofE the
table. Two co^ts of blue enamel paint may be given
to the article; or, if made In hardwood, it might be
polished.
Stump Moulding, — The term stump moulding is
generally applied to ironfounding, iu which parts of
cast-iron are add^d to other castings or to wrought-
iron work, as in bedstead work, where the cast-iron
knuckles are cast on the angle-iron forming the side-
stays. This operation is done In the same way as
ordinai-y founding, by placing the part to be inserted
In the finished mould and pouring the metal on It.
In brassfounding the term denotes the method used
iu cook-founding known as plate casting. In this
method the patterns are specially made and fixed on
a metal plate in a frame, which is reversible. Instead of
the moulding tub, use brackets on the wall or other
stand in the shop. The mould is made to one side first
by applying the peg-side and making the mould in the
ordinary manner. The peg-side is removed, the plate
frame is reversed, a, hole-side is put on, and the other
that it becomes susceptible of a high polish, and by the
addition of certain pigments to the wax a colour may be
imparted to the figure. For instance, a little yellow
ochre will give the appearance of old ivory. Drapery
may be represented by dipping strips of cloth in the
plaster and arranging them on the figure. To judge the
afnount of size water to be used when gauging the plaster,
dissolve some good glue in water aud measure a certain :
quantity of this with a certain quantity of water. With
the mixture gauge a small quantity of plaster to dis-
cover how long the mixture takes to set. Small clay
models, if varnished, may be preserved for an indefinite
time, but, being simply dry clay and not having been
burnt, they are easily broken.
Colouring Gold Articles. — Gold alloys of not
less quality than 15 carat may be made to assume
the colour of fine gold by carefully boiling them
in a mixture of nitrate of potash 16 oz., table salt
7oz., alum 7oz., and spirit of salts loz. The work
must be previously annealed aud boiled out in aqua^
lortis pickle, and wired with platinum wire. It niust
only be exposed to the colouring mixture for five
minutes at a time, and well rinsed in boiling water
between each operation. If 18-oarat gold alloys are
employed, the colouring mixture may consist of 1 oz.
more of each of the above ingredients, omitting entirely
the spirit of salts, and making the other powders into a
paste with hot water. In all cases it is advisable to thin
the colouring mixture with hot water as the process
of colouring progresses, so as to avoid overdoing the
work.
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
37
Making Red Stencil Ink.— Below are instructions
on makiug a red stencil ink for marking boxes, etc.
Get 3 lb. of pure pipeclay (not a mixture of pipeclay
and whiting), and crush or scrape into a fine powder.
Make a stiff mixture of Indian red in water, scrape
a few shreds of soap into the Indian red, and mix well.
Now gradually add the pipeclay until the mixture is
of the consistency of putty. Then make it into cakes,
and dry with gentle heat for use.
Determining Diameter and Fitch of Rivets.—
For single riveting up to 1-in. plates the diameter of
the rivet may equal one and one-fitth times the square
root of the thickness of the plate, the rivet hole being
one-twelfth larger. The pitch may equal I'O!) in. plus the
diameter of the rivet hole. Tor a }-in. plate the rivet
by this rule would be 1<^ in. in diameter and the pitch
about 24 in.
Baker's Steam-beated Owen. — The accompanying
sketch shows the piinciple ot improved decker ovens,
heated by steam, tor baking bread. It should not be
taken as a working drawing, as the erection of such
ovens must not be undei'taken without previous ex-
perience, or working to a, maker's particulars. The
ovens are heated by a row of tubes running from back
to front, the back ends starting from the furnace flue
as shown, whence they slope' upwards. The tubes
are each separate and have their ends welded up, but
preyious to being closed they are about one-flfth filled
Baker's Steam-heated Oven.
with water. The sloping position of the tubes causes
the water to come where the heat is felt, with the result
tha;t the tubes get quickly filled with high-temperature
steam. It will be noticed that the furnace comes at
the rear of what may be considered the front of the
ovens, and all stoking is done away from where the
preparation and baking are done.
Chinese Lacquer Work.— The red gold and pale
yellow effects seen on Chinese lacquered cabinets, etc.,
are produced by the aid of lead, tin, or silver foil laid
upon a smooth surface, and coated with various gum
Tarnishes. Very effective panels may be made upon
this principle, and these may be utilised in the con-
struction of screens, cabinets, etc. When sheet metal
is used it should be perfectly free from marks of any
kind, and should be highly polished. If wood is em-
ployed it must be planed very flat and then smoothed
with fine glasspaper, being afterwards sized and primed
with two coats of white lead and yellow ochre mixed
with drying oil and a little oil size ; rub down each coat
with pumice powder and water. Next coat with flat black
and rub down, first with finest sandpaper, then with a
dry cloth, and finally with the palm of the hand, taking
preat care that particles of dust do not remain. Now
give an even coat of a mixture of 2 parts of black japan
and 1 part ot gold size, and after rubbing down,
when dry, with pumice powder and water the panel is
ready for the silver leaf. The portions to be treated with
foil are then coated with gold size to which has been added
a small proportion of linseed oil, and when these parts are
of the proper "tackiness" the leaf or foil is laid on, as
in gilding. When dry and the surplus metal removed, the
subjects are toned, shaded, and tinted ; for the darker
shades, di agon's blood mixed with turpentine is used ;
gamboge lorms the lighter shades. All the transparent oU-
colours, as used by artists, may also be used for various
effects upon the foil. In say a landscape, the figures,
sun, and water may be covered with loll, whilst the
other portions ot the landscape may be executed in oils,
and should be suggestive rather than detailed. When
dry, wash with water ocntaiuiug a very little soda, and
finish by varnishing.
Making Wrought-iron Cone.— Below is explained
how to make from J-in. thick plates a wrought-iron
cone of a rather pronounced slant. The lath being so
freat, the flange may be thrown oH, and the seating at
he small end of the cone worked in after the cone has
been bent to shape and the seams made. To cut the
pattern for a cone made in this manner, first draw an
elevation of a section through the centre as A B C D.
Produce the sides of the cone, and make the length
to A' B' equal to the length necessary for the flange,
and also make the length to 0' ebual to the length to be
worked in to form the seating. Where the lines produced
intersect at O is the apex of the cone. Use this as
centre, and with the radius O A' draw an arc of a circle.
Now djvide the quarter circle 0' B' E (using 0' B' as radius)
into any convenient number of equal parts, and set off
a corresponding number of similar divisions on the
curve of the pattern, as A' 1. Now take the distance A' I
Pattern for Wrought-iron Cone.
and set off from 1 to give the point 2; if a line were
drawn from 2 to the centre O this would give one-half of
the pattern. If it is found convenient to cut the pattern
in one piece, set off two other divisions as 3, 4. Join -t
to the centre O, and then with O as centre and O 0' as
radius, describe the arc of a circle shown to form the
small end of the cone. The cone could be partly bent
to shape in the roUei's, and then worked round true
upon a mandrel. Braze the seams, and then throw off
the flange with a stretching hammer, working it to an are
of a cil"cle first upon the mandrel, and then working it
down flat afterwards upon the flat end of the anvil. The
small end could be set in by woming overhand upon an
upright circular stake with the edge bevelled off. First
tuck the metal in round the edge- with cross blows from
the stretching hammer, then set it in on the shoulder of
the head a short distance down from the part first tucked
in. Now work from this furrow up to the top edge, beat-
ing the metal over while working upwards to form the
shape required. Again tuck the metal in at the top, and
repeat the process described above until the work is
brought to the desired shape.
Re-blackening Thermometer Scales.— The best way
of re-blackening the impressed figures and divisions of
thermometer scales on boxwood is to use a drawing pen
filled with japan black ; this would of course be a rather
tedious operation. Another method, but not so good, is
to paint the boxwood scale all over with japan black,
making sure that it enters all the lines and figures ;
then roll up a piece of smooth cloth into a ball, damp
it with turpentine, and with this remove from the
boxwood all the japan black with the exception of that
in the depressions. This should not be difficult If the
rubber is used gently and the impressions are deep.
38
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
How to Clean Engravings.— The following method
of cleaning engraTinga has heen found eft'eotive when-
ever dirt and faint stains were to be removed, though
probably it is not so elBoient as the chloride of lime
process (described on p. 206) in dealing with stains of
long standing. The specimen to he cleaned should,
It possible, first be detached from its mount. Lay
it face upwards on a clean, Smooth board In the
sink, or similar place, and sprinkle it with ordinary salt
till thinly covered^ Then take a lemon, cut it, and
squeeze the juice over the engraving so as to dissolve
the greater proportion of the salt. Then raise one end of
the board to slant at an angle of about 25% and flood it
with nearly boUing water until all the salt and lemon
juice are washed away. Drying must he allowed to pro-
ceed spontaneously.
Transferring Design to a Saucer.— If it is wished
merely to fit the design to the concave face of the saucer,
to be painted over by hand afterwards, fold up the
drawing which it is desired to transfer as shown
at Fig. 1 in such a manner as to fit the curved surface.
colours composing the design there is a certain amounl.
of oil, which stains the biscuit ware ; this oil has to be
burned o£C before the glaze is applied. This is done by
placing the ware in a heated kiln. When the oily uiatter
has been expelled, the saucer is dipped Into the liouid
glaze, which is a solution of borax glass containing lead
salts and silica. The saucer will be dry in about flve
minutes, when it looks as if It had been whitewashed,
the design being completely obliterated. The saucer is
now put in an earthenware sagger, or crucible, and
heated to a white heat for sixteen hours in the kilu,
during which period the glaze has fused and turned Into
a transparent glass through which the design is visible.
The saucer is now finished.
Polishing Ebony Mirror Frame.— Unless the ebony
is of a particularly good quality there will be a brown
or greenish tinge that should be overcome by wiping
the frame with a good quality ebony stain, which
can be bought re^dy made. The frame may then be
finished by polishing with white or transparent polish.
Or a combined ebony stain and polish mav be used.
P^P F,c.3,
FlCu,2
and adapt the drawing to these folds. Fig. 2 shows
the drawing arranged to suit the folds. Manufac-
turers, however, adopt a different method. Fig. 3
shows the pattern repeated three times round the
circle. It will be noticed that the design does not
entirely fill the circle, but that a small olank space
has been left. In the necessary folding of the draw-
ing to fit a circular concave surface the diameter of
the circle on which the design is drawn must be con-
siderably larger than that ut the saucer— that is to say,
in a saucer of 6-in. diameter. It will be necessary to draw
the design on, say, a 7J-in. circle. The spaces marked
+ + + in Pig. 3 are left vacant, so that there may be as
little distortion as possible when transferring the printed
pattern on to the saucer. Fig. i shows the appearance of
the paper containing the design when stuck on the
saucer. The following is the process employed in pro-
ducing these designs. When a design has been drawn,
the engraver outs it out on a copper plate, making the
incisions deeper where' a darker shade is required. On
to this engraved plate paint is rubbed to fill the lines,
all superfluous colour being carefully cleaned off. A
i-heet of thin tissue paper is laid over the plate and
jiressed into it by means of an iron roller covered by
three or four wrappings of felt. The print is then cut
out with scissors, laid round the saucer, and worked into
place with a dabber made of rolled flannel. The transfer
18 left on the saucer, which is in the " biscuit," or half-
fired, state, for half an hour or so, when the paper is
washed off, leaving the design on the saucer. In the
This is made by mixing with the polish sufBolent gas
black or Frankfort black to gain the tone desired. An
aniline spirit dye is used in most good shops, for the
reason that it does not thicken the polish. In any case
the best results are gained if the black i's used thinly In
the preliminary stages, and the final bodying up and
finishing out are done with transparent polish. As ebony
is ^a close-grained wood, no grain filler is required, and
only a small quantity of polish. To apply the polish
use wadding pads, slightly moistened with Unseed oil.
Bemovlug Varnish from Oak Carving.— To remove
varnish from an oak cai-ving a solution made as follows 1b
used. Put equal parts of turpentine and methylated spirit
into a stone jar and place the latter in a saucepan partly
filled with water— glue-pot fashion. Put this in an oven
and bring up to blood heat ; then brush the solution ovei
the carvings. As the varnish softens take it off with a nail
brush. When all the varnish has been removed, apply
several applications of oxalic acid- 2oz. to 1 pt. of water.
SwUl off with plenty of clean water, and finally bruM
over with common malt vinegar to kill any trace of acid.
Faint for Leather Trunlis.— To paint leather black,
first coat it with a solution of alum 1 oz., and water
Ipt. The next coat should consist of drop black lib.,
ground in turps, and terebine Joz. Thin with turps,
when this is dry give a final coat of drop black and
Coburg varnish, mixed to the consistency of cream.
For white paint use zinc white Instead of black, and
sugar of lead, ground fine, instead of terebine.
Cyclopsedia of Mechanics.
39
How to Fix MCarqtueterie Transfers.— Marqueterie
transfers as used by French polishers tor decorating
furnitiire are fixed as described beiow. The design,
with a fair margin of paper aror.nd it, is cut from
the sheet, and is laid, face upwards, on a sheet of
newspaper. A thin, even coat of good quality spirit
varnish is then applied with a camel-hair brush and
allowed to stand tor a tew seconds till the varnish
becomes stioky. The design is then laid in the desired
position, face downwards, and pressed well down so that
all parts thoroughly adhere. After an interval of five
minutes the back of the paper is damped with warm
water and pressed down again. The paper, is then
saturated with water and allowed to stand for a few
minutes, after which the paper should glide off, all
surplus moisture being taken up with a clean moist
washleather. The work is then set aside in a warm
place. The best results are gained if the design is fixed
after the work is merely bodied up. The subsequent
bodying up and finishing will enable a fair body of polish
to be applied, thus gaining solidity and appearance of
inlay. To ensure accurate fixing of the design, tally
marks should be made at its chief points, corresponding
marks being made on the article to be decorated.
Crucible Steel Furnace.— The sketch herewith gives
a sectional view of a crucible steel furnace. The melting
chamber A should be 3 ft. high from the grate bars B;
oval in shape, 26 in. by 19 in., and lined with 6-in.
li'Vin. in diameter; mark off twelve equal parts on the
edge, and from these draw tangents to the guide circle.
With a shai'p chisel mark in the lines to about iin.
back from the jim, and mark lines across the rim join-
ing the marking on both sides. Saw these lines in about
iin. with a sharp hack-saw, for j-ecelving the cups.
From i^-lu. sheet brass stamp the cups with the punch
(Fig. 3) and trim off with shears. Then place the cups
in position, tin the joints with a soldering bolt, and
place the cup disc on a fire to sweat. Castings for the
bearings should be turned to dimensions (see Fig. 1),
-J , * ' U
^'r,if I'll,'"
Crucible Steel Fdrnaoe.
canister. The flue E leads from the melting chamber A
> into the chimney stack F. The cold-air fiue M leading
from the cellar D is used to regulate the draught. The
chimney stack P, lined with firebrick, should be from
35 ft. to 40ft. high. Kisthe cover of the melting chamber;
I the shelves for drying crucibles ; N the chamber behind
the stack for drying crucibles, storing charcoal, etc. ;
and Z, Z the annealing ovens.
Recipe for Saddle Soap.— To make saddle soap,
fently neat over a slow fire, constantly triturating till
horoughly incoi-porated, lib. of beeswax, 8oz. of soft
soap, 2oz. of linseed oil, and 4 pint of oil of turpentine ;
put in pots or tins. Kub a' very little well into the saddle
and polish with a soft brush.
Small-power Water Motor. — The i motor shown
in plan by Fig. 1 and in elevation by Fig. 2 will
develop J^ brake-horse-power with a fall of 30 ft.
through a 2-in. pipe, and i brake-horse-power with
a fall of 50ft., the speeds being about 3,000 and 5,000
revolutions per minute. To make the wheel, get a brass
casting A (Fig, 1) to be turned to 2|in. diam. by iin.
wide. Fix centres in the disc and scribe a guide circle
Small-power Water Motor
making the groove in the centre an exact fit for the
A-in. sheet metal, of which the casing is constructed.
Obtain a casting for the gland to whinh the nozzle is
fitted, and turn this inside an exact fit for the nozzle.
From i-ln. sheet iron cut out and bore the two flanges
(Fig. 1). The lower half of the casing is worked from
A-in. sheet iron (blued) . First cut out two pieces to shape
B (Fig. 2) . At each top edge file out a central semicircle
exactly the diameter for the bushes. From the same
metal cut two stripe l^jin. broad and 6 in. long, and bend
them to shape D (Fig. 2).' Fix the whole of these parts by
twisting thin wire round them and solder all together.
The top cover is next made in the same way. The nozzle
gland la then carefully fitted and soldered or brazed
on. As a caution, do not make the nozzle of a high-speed
motor more than i-in. bore at the opening, but make it
larger for a slower speed.
40
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
Press for Mangle Shafts.— The accompanying dru.w-
Ings show, with scale, a machine for pressing shafts in
mangle rollers to be driven by steam. Two belts, one
open and the other crossed, drive the pulleys P, L, I", and
L', and by means of the striking gears P and Q the pinion
A can be made to revolve in either direction, orthe straps
can be moved to the loose pulleys. As will be seen, the
pinion drives the tooth wheel B, and the latter, being
Keyed on the same shaft as the pinion C, the tooth wheel
D is driven in either direction as rectuired. D has a thread
cut in its boss and works the screw E, causing it to move
backwards or forwards through the thrust block X. The
plain parts of the screw shaft at F and G are for the pur-
pose of preventing accident in the event of the striking
gear not being moved quickly enough. Thus, when the
tooth wheel D gets on the plain parts it will simply
revolve without causing any movement of the screw;
then the screw can be turned into the thread of D by the
hand wheel H. It will only be at si;ch times as these
that the screw shaft will revolve, as the hand wheel H
will be locked to the driving head K as indicated.
The driving head K works between the planed sides M
and N. The fixed head at O is simply for holding the
mangle shaft S in position and tor adjusting the
mangle roller Z; this latter is held in position by
means of the four cramps 1, 2, 3, and 4 as shown. The
on the rubber at tnis stage. When a fair body has been
obtained on oneside, turn the coffin over and do the other,
working the head and foot as well. "When the second
side has about as much polish as the first, turn back to
the first side, and with veiy fine worn giasspaper remove
any small lumps. If the filling is well done the grain
hardly ever rises, except on damp or coarse-grained stuff j
therefoi'e the old plan of papering half the polish off to
get the grain down , is avoided by this method. Now
Quite body up a side— that is, as well as time and price
will ajlow— and then finish it off, if the atmosphere i»
reasonably warm, with a few coats of very thin glaze.
When this side is done satisfaotorily.'treat the other In
the same manner, finishing the endswlth the second side.
The lid must be well bodied in and its mouldings glazed
off, but the top should be spirited out. When agoodibody
has been applied, wet the rubber with half polish, a
sprinkling of spirit, and a little oil so that it works
freely j continue to reduce the polish and oil, and in-
crease the spirit, until a fair shine is obtained with the
rubber marks showing in oil. Sprinkle a few drops of
spirit on a rubber that has not been used for polish, and
lay two or three thicknesses of clean rag over the face;
rub this on the work until dry, then wet it again and
repeat the process ; after three or four such rubbers the
surface should be w«ll cleaned off and should shine well.
®8
. 963?
Iii li ilillill -
4 feet.
Press for Mangle Sha ts.
Lr=y
backthrust block E, with its slides T, T, can be moved
backwards or forwards by means of the hand wheel
w and screw working through the block V, and when
adjusted can be firmly held to the bed by the two
bolts and nuts shown at 5 and 6. The bed should
be bolted to iron supports or other suitable foundation
by bolts and nuts shown at 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, and 12.
How to Polish a Coffin.— The following is a good
method of polishing a coffin. Coat with linseed oU,
and fill in with a paste of best Paris white (not
piaster-of-Paris) and turpentine, coloured with yellow
ochre for pitch-pine and oak, and with a mixture of
brown umber and ochre for elm. A very small quantity
of polish is mixed with this to assist it in setting.
Eub the filling well in across the grain with a piece
of coarse rag or a wisp of long tow, and then rub off all
superfluous filler and leave it smooth and clean. The
whole body of the coffin, including the lid, should be so
treated, and should then be allowed to stand as long as is
convenient— the longer the better. Another good filler is
piaster-of-Paris, oil, and polish, but it is not so easUy
used, as it sets quickly ; with this filler do only a very
little at a time, or it will set and get muddy before
it can be rubbed off. The polishing may be commenced
as soon as the work is all filled in ; start with the side
first filled in. Make a big rubber of wadding, wet it
well with polish, and cover with a piece of rag ; put a
little oil on with the finger and lay the polish on with
long, straight strokes, not attempting to work it, .but
taking care not to leave any wet streaks. After two or
three rubbers of polish have been applied begin to work
It, but unless the coffin is panejled clo not try circular
work, but use sweeping strokes 3 ft. or 4 ft. long with a
Bort of twist at each end ; do not scrub backward and
forward over the same spot. Do not be afraid to use oil
If time presses, wipe over with a folded rag on which spirit
has been sprinkled to clear the grease off more quickly,
but, of course, not so well as by thoroughly spiriting out.
If too cold to glaze, the body of the wood must be spirited
out similarly, but the glaze saves time if it can be
used. Always use a large rubber— one with a face as
large as the palm of the hand— and do not let it get
sodden ; but, if necessary, pull it to pieces and tighten
it up. For a panelled coffin, the above plan must be
modified a little ; a smaller rubber must be used, and
•great care must be taken to get into all the corners ; the
glaze finish is suitable for this also. Note the time spent
on different portions of the work ; a fair division would '
be to allow about two-thirds of time to the body and one-
third, or rather more, to tlie lid, and take care that about
equal time is given to both sides, as upon this a satis-
factory result will obviously depend. First decide how
much time may be allowed for the job, and then divide
it up carefully and stick to it, or one part may look tar
better than another, a result certainly to be avoided.
Renovating Fur Necklet. — The only practicable
method of renovating a fur necklet that is moth-eaten
in parts is to cut away the latter. Open the necklet,
remove the padding or lining, and place the skin, fur
side down, upon a table. Cut out the spoilt part with
a sharp knife on the skin side, taking care to cut only
through the skin and not the fur below. Now out to
the required size a piece of skin of the same kind as that
just removed, place it in position, and sew it in, being
careful not to catch in the fur. If a spare piece of the
skiu is not to hand, sufficient must be cut from one end
of the necklet, thus shortening it. A third alternative
is to make the necklet of a diflerent shape, neatly join
ing the small pieces cut off ; probably there will then b*
sufficient to replace the apoilt parts.
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
41
Renovating Silvered Glass.- To renovate a glass In
one cornel- of which the silvering has assumed a ifrosted
appearance, or has baoome spotted by damp, proc'eed iu
this manner. Cut out the aft'eoted silvering, first mark-
ing it off squarely with a straightedge and chisel; lay
the glass fiat on its face and apply either of the silvering
solutions given on p. 103. Mix equal parts of (o) aind (b),
and pour upon the clear glass, allowing the solution to
flow evenly over the hare place. Distilled water should be
used, and the solutions should be kept in black bottles.
Soluble Prussian Blue used In Inks.— In many ink
recipes soluble Prussian blue, which is a preparation
of Prussian blue and ferrocyauide of potassium, ia
mentioned. This soluble blue is made thus. With a
pestJe and mortar thoroughly incorporate a quantity
of ordinary Prussian blue with half its quantity of
ferroeyanide of potassium. The mixture is then put
into distilled water and thoroughly shaken from time
to time ; then it is allowed to stand and the sediment
filtered off.
Folding Stand for Baby's Cradle.— Figs. 1 and 2 are
end and side views respectively of s. folding stand for a
baby's cradle. To make the stand, procure four pieces
of sound pine, ash, or oak, as preferred, 2 ft. 7 in. long,
and plane them to 14 m. by Hn. These form the ends: set
them out as shown at Fig. 3. Four pieces 1 ft. 11 in. long
worked now as they were 2,000 years ago. The Abruker
mine has been sunk about 200ft., following the pitch of
the vein, and all the mica and refuse are raised and
carried away by natives. No machinery of any kind is
used; drills and hammers are the only tools employed.
The refuse and the mica are placed in baskets which each
hold about 10 lb., and which are passed up from hand to
hand by women who stand in aline on a ladder. When th&
top is reached the baskets are dumped and returned down
the ladder in the same manner, but by another line of
women. The crude mica is first roughly trimmed and
then sorted into different grades, according to sizes and
qualities. It is then split up, and the size to which it is
to be sheared is marked upon it. After shearing, the mica.
is cleaned, weighed, and packed ready for transport. At
the Abruker mine the packages of mica are loaded into
carts drawn by bullocks, and carried in this way to sea-
ports hundreds of miles away ; the bullocks travel at'the
rate of about ten miles a day. There are many kinds of
mica, prominent among which are Muscovite, the-
common potash mica ; paragonite, an analogous soda
variety t biotite, a magnesia mica having a black or dark
green colour ; phlogoplte, a bronze-coloured mica found
in crystalline limestone and serpentine rocks ; lepidome-
lane, a black mica containing much iron ; and lepidolite,
the red-rose or lilac lithia ;mica. Mica has many uses. Its-
chief perhaps being in the electrical industry. The fact
that mica Is elastic and fireproof, and that Its insulating:
FiQ 3,
Folding Stand for Baby's Cradle.
n.nd planed to 1 in. by i in. will now be required for the
connecting bars, the ends of which are seen In Fig. 1.
The two pieces forming each end are pivoted together
by a brass bolt 2i in. long, with wing nut ; the bars are
fixed by light screws liin. long. To make the bars on
which the cradle rests, heat one end of a piece of i-in.
bar iron and form a ring on a stout screw eye. Bend the
other end at right angles to fit into a corresponding eye,
as seen In Fl". 1. when these bars are attached the
stand is complete.
Red Oil nsed in French FoUshlng.— In making the
red oil used in French polishing, the alkanet root is
merely broJ^en into small pieces and the oil poured over.
If well stirred up a reddish tinge will at once be im-
parted i leaving the root In the oil overnight will yield
a stronger red. The red oil is usually kept in a large
jar, more oil or root being added as required. The
addition of a little turpentine assists In fetching out
the colour If the root is very dry.
Mica and its Uses.— Mica is an anhydrous silicate of
calcium and aluminium, and crystallises in a laminated
mass, easUy split along its axis ; it can be subdivided down
to n^sK in. In thickness. Deposits of this material are
found iu various parts of the world. The occurrences of
pockets In which mica is found cannot be predicted by
the geological formation of the locality. The best
Duality mica Is obtained from India, whence has been
urnlshed the bulk of the world's supply for centuries.
These mines, the principal of which is the Abrulier mine,
are In the interior of the country, remote from civilisa-
tion, and extremely inaccessible. Here the deposits are
qualities are unaffected by time, has made it peculiarly
adapted for use with electrical machinery. It has been
used for vibrating plates In the photophone, and tor
diaphragms in telephone construction. In commutator
work mica is almost indispensable, as also is tlie case-
In hundreds of othei" electrical machines and instru-
ments. For the purpose of armature Insulation in
high-tension alternating machines mica is especially
adapted : unfortunately the expense of the mineral has
to a great extent prohibited its use. Mica waste has one-
or two electrical uses. Insulators are made by splitting
up the mica into laminae and solidifying these thin
sheets at a high temperature- and under a heavy
pressure. It is claimed that this treatment increases
the insulating properties of the mica. Mica replaces
glass in positions exposed to much heat, is used iu wall-
paper varnish, and in packings for machinery ; it has
many other applications.
Making Glass Beads.— In making small glass beads,
a portion of melted glass, coloured or uncoloured, is
taken from the crucible upon the end of a long iron
blowpipe ; the melted glass is then blown into a thick
bulb, to which another iron is attached exactly opposite
to the first. The bulb Is drawn out into a long narrow
tube by two men, who pull the two pipes asunder. The
narrow tube, many feet in length, is laid upon supporcs.
The tube Is cut into very short lengths to form the
beads. If the beads are to be rounded they are either
heated In an iron vessel kept In constant motion to
prevent the beads adhering to. each other while the
edges just fuse, or they are revolved in a vessel wltlv
water, when the edges are rounded by mutual at^r.tioii.
42
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
Blackening of Silver Goods by Gas.— The coal gag
us3d for lighting will sometimes cause silver and plated
guods kept near the gas burners to become discoloured.
This blackening U caused by the presence of sulphur-
etted hydrogen in the gas. No special form of burner
will prevent the blackening of the silver If the gas is
impure, though the use of an Incandescent burner will
lessen the evil, because a smaller quantity of gas will be
consumed. If ttie sulphuretted hydrogen cannot be
removed from the gas before it is sent out from the gas-
works, a small puritler filled with slaked lime, through
whicli the gas must be passed, should be fixed on the
premises. This lime would remove the sulphuretted
hydrogen. The spent lime should be removed from
time to time, and fresh lime put in its place.
Brass Money Box.— To make a brass savings bank or
money box (Fig. 1), cut a piece of sheet brass Hi in. long
by 41n. wide. (Jlean it with emei-y-cloth, planish, bend it
round over a mandrel, and braze the ends together, using
borax as a flux. Pile the .ioint smopth, and raise two
Bwagings on it, each to be 14 in. distant from the ends.
This constitutes the body. For the foot, cut a disc of
brass 5i in. in diameter, and hollow it on a block so that
It resembles an inverted saucer. S*age this about i in.
distant from its edges, and cut a 2-in. hole out of the
centre. Now file the edges perfectly plane, and solder
th2 body on, having first fixed it in the centre. The top
bronze and then over the parts of the frieze that are
in reltet. A white coat brushed over with knotting
thinned with methylated spirit gives a good imitation
of old ivory.
Using Watchmaker's Turns for Drilling a Staff,
etc.— iselow is described how to drill watch stafra
for fine pivoting. The centres sold with a new pair
of turns are of Tery limited use, so, when uuying,
a length of brass rod and a length of steel rod
to fit them should also be purchased. Prom these
rods proper runners for turning and pivoting balance
staffs, etc., are made. The brass and the steel rods
should be cut up into 3-in. pieces, each piece to form a
runner. One steel runner, to be used as a back centre,
should be filed up as at A (Pig. 1), and a minute centre
marked upon it with a fine centre punch. This is for
general use in turning staffs and pinions. The other
end of the runner may have a hole drUled near its edge,
and a brass pin B (Fig. 1) inserted in the hole ; a small hole,
through which a pivot can be passed, must be drilled
through the thin end of the pin. This is a safety back
centre to be used in turning a'staft, cylinder, or pinion
that has a fine pivot, which might break if its end rested
in the centre A ; by passing the pivot through the hole in
B the strain of turning is taken by the shoulder of the
pivot only. A steel runner should have fine centre punch
dots round the end C (Fig. 2), as at E, and be filed
to a triangle D at the other end, and have three
centre dots as near the edge as possible as at E. These
are for front turning centres for pivoting. The tri-
angular end D is to be used for a Tery fine pivot, thus
enabling the graver to get at the extreme end of the
F.ar
Brass Money Box,
is made by ciittiug two discs of brass each 5J in. in
diameter, and hollowing them together on a block, to
resemble a shallow bovvl. Pile the edges of these per-
fectly plane, and swage one about iin. distant from the
«dge, afterwards jennying up a small edge. In this,
the top hollow, cut a central slot to allow a large
coin to pass through easily. Now file the bottom hollow,
so that when an edge has been .iennyed up it will fit
tightly into the top. Cut a 3-in. hole out of the centre,
and solder both hollows together, afterwards fixing the
top over the centre of the body and soldering round. A
-small slot plate (Pig. 2) will show to better advantage if
made of German silver. Pile it so that any coin can
pass through easily, hollow it slightly to fit the top, and '
after fixing it in the centre solder it on.- Now, if desir-
able, cut a name-plate A (Pig. 1) of German silver, and
stamp or etch the name on ; then fit it to the body, and
solder it on. Cut a disc of brass about Sin. in diameter,
t'o be soldered underneath the foot over the 2-ln. hole.
When full, the bank can be emptied by unsoldering
this disc, without in any way injuring the bank. • Scrape
off superfluous solder, and clean with emery and oil.
How to Bronze a Frieze.— Here are instructions on
Bronzing a Cordelova (imitation plaster) frieze. Apply
to the frieze two coats of oil paint. For the bronze
■colour, mix in oil J lb. of burnt umber, J lb. of Brunswick
green, and add Venetian red until a ^ood bronze colour is
obtained. A penny that has been in circulation for a
year or two may be used as a colour test. Thin the
colour with half varnish and halt boiled oil, and give
the frieze a good coat. On the following day, while the
f lieze is still tacky, apply bronze powder (copper, silver,
or gold) to the parts of the frieze in relief. A paper-
hanger's roller covered with plush can be used for this
i)urpose. Kun the pludh-covored roller through the
Method of Drilling Watch Staff.
pivot. A brass runner should be filed at both ends, as
shown in Pig. 3, small holes of graduated sizes being
drilled through its end, through which pivots can be
passed to round up and burnish their ends. Another
brass runner should be filed at each end, as shown in
Pig. i, slight grooves in which pivots can lie during
polishing with oilstone dust and red-stuff being made at
the ends ; one end should be kept for oilstone dust and
the other end for red stuff. Por drilling staffs and
pinions, a central hole must be drilled in a brass runnel
and a short drill made and inserted friction-tight. The
back pivot of the staff or pinion runs in a brass safety
centre like B (Pig. 1), but in the centre of a runner. The
work is revolved by a bow against the drill, which is held
to it by the right hand, and slowly revolved to keep it
true. Before drilling, the broken plTOt is filed off flat,
the centre carefully marked by a pointed chamfering
tool, and care is taken that the drill is started in this
centre. Pig. 5 shows a pinion being drilled with the
parts in position. Pig. 6 shows a pivot being turned on
a staff. Fig. 7 shows a pivot being rounded up with a flle.
Pig. 8 shows a pivot being polished by a steel polisher.
In all these illustrations the DOW and ferrule are omitted
for the sake of clearness.
The Use of Fusible Plugs.— A fusible plug is a brass
case containing a core of an alloy that will melt at a
temperature a little higher than the heat of the water or
steam in the boiler. It is practically impossible for the
core to refuse to melt if the boiler runs suHiclently
short of water to leave the plug exposed to the fire heat
only, though, owing to ignorance, the plug might be
placed where the fire could not readily act on it. If
deposit inside the boiler covers the plug it may melt
before its time. A fusible plug is also an element of
safety when there Is danger by excoSsive pressure, for
as the pressure increases so does the heat of the water
or steam, and when the latter reaches a temperature
higher than normal the plug will act. Fusible plugs
are, of course, no protection when a boiler is weak or
develops detects in structure.
Cyclopasdia of Mechanics.
43
Fixing Handle of Walking Stick, — It 1b often
required to fix the horn head of a walking stick or
umbrella to an Iron screw dowel that is firmly fixed
in the, stick itself, the joint being covered by a
silver band. As a rule, the hole in the horn handle
has worh too large for the dowel screw to grip, and if
so a new screw of larger gauge is necessary. Screw
the horn on the screw first. If the screw is tight and
there seems danger of splitting the horn, warm the
screw in a flame and screw home whilst hot, and then
immediately immerse in cold water. There is no cement
that will make a firm .ioint. A wooden plug might be
tried, but it will be difficult to get the .old screw into
it, as the plug will probably wind out. Fill the Silver
mount with wax cement or sealing wax, and screw the
handle up tight whilst the wax is fluid.
Stocks for Shoeing Kicking Horses.— Fig. 1 shows
side elevation, and Fig. 2 end elevation, of a set of
stocks for use in shoeing horses that kick. The ground
is marked out to Figs. 1 and 2,.and 7-in. square posts A
a,re sunk in each corner. It the stocks are put up in
A building or against a wall th^re must be clearance
<say 2ft. or 3tt.) in front for the horse's head. Two cross
the edge, of the mount), and place it on a few thick-
nesses of blot'tiug-paper in a beaker or saucepan.
Pour warm water over the lens and keep warm for a
time ; this will soften the balsam, and the lenses may
then be Carefully slid apart. Note the positions of
the lenses, so that in putting them together again
the same -sides of the lenses as before may face each other.
Clean the lenses with benzole, ^ow place a lens, concave
surface up, on a warm plate, and drop into it a spot of
balsam free from bubbles, and lower upon it the convex
surf a ce of the other lens, and gently but firmly press well
together till the excess oozes out. Put in a clamp or
bind up together until dry. On heating, the balsam
should remain hard. On resetting the lens, the fungoid
appearance will most likely have disappeared.
Gums used by Frencb Polishers.- Shellac forms
the foundation of most polishes and spirit varnish.
Garnet lac is a very dark variety useful for "black"
or varnish for japanning ipurposes. Orange shellac has
many grades, from common to best. Lemon sheUac
is for best work. White or bleached shellac is used
for decorative work, such as polishing inlaid work
and fancy woods that are to be kept light in colour. It
ipE
Stocks for Shoeing Kicking Horses.
ffails B (Pig. 2) are fixed in front, and, if desired, movable
ones at the hack, similar to rails seen in stable stalls.
The top cross rail in front should come just under the
horse's chest. There are also two rails C (Figs. 1 and 2)
at each side, as shown ; also a roller D (Fig. 1) on the
near side, and a centre rail E (Pig. 2) opposite on the off
aside i the sheet or webbing is strapped round the rail
and made a fixture on the roller so that a man at the
front and one at the back working the roller lift the horse
off its feet, which are strapped to the rings shown
at the bottom of the posts. 'The roller is turned with
iron pins F (Pig. I), like those seen on knacker carts.
The bow seen at the top of the front posts is of iron.
Blackening Brown Boots.— To blacken brown boots
and shoes, first clean off all the dye with a strong solu-
tion of hot soda water, using a tooth brush. When the
•dye is removed, rub with a little black dye, which can
be bought at most boot repairers' or grindery shops
(a pennyworth will be ample). Allow this to dry, rub
with a bit of pork fat, which makes the leather soft, and
afterwards give the boot a good blacking and polishing.
Taking apart Photographic Lens. — The balsam
■used as 'cement between two photographic or other
lenses sometimes assumes a sort of fungoid appearance.
This, if sligh'., will practically make no difference to
the working of the lens, but It may be removed
as follows. Take the lens from its mount (and
•this removal may necessitate the turning up of
is best to mix the lac when in solution. Gums such as
benzoin, sandarach, and mastic are not absolutely
necessary in polishes j their object is to gain a bright
surface with a minimum of trouble. The addition of
such gums and resin converts a simple polish, easy to
manipulate, into a varnish diificult to use witb a rubber
without an undue quantity of oil.
Using Mixed Jet for Umelight.— A mixed jet can
be nsed for oxygen and coal gas, and the light would be
about the same as a blow-through jet with the same
gases. The hydrogen should be rather more than 2
to 1 of oxygen, and the beat proportion is being used
when the best light is obtained. With coal gas and
oxygen, use about 10 of gas , to 8 of oxygen ; here,
again, turn on the oxygen till the best light results. It
oxygen cannot be obtained at a definite pressure from a
bag, fill a bag with coal gas also, and leave both in
a'double set of pressure boards under the same pressure.
Falling this, the pressure of oxygen will commence at
9 in., and will gradually fall to notmng. With an oxygen
cylinder the pressure can, be regulated to about that of
the gas. For preparing oxygen, 2 parts of chlorate to 1 part
of oxide of manganese are heated in a retort. Wright
recommends 21b. of chlorate to ilb. oxide of manganese
and 6 oz. of common salt, because the oxygen comes off
from this mixture very regularly, lib. of the first mix-
ture yields about 4,801) cub. in. of oxygen, and 1 lb. of the
second mixture yields about .5,000cnb. in. To compress
the mixture, powder and moisten it with water first.
44
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
Mechanism of Perpetual Calendar Watch.— Pi^. 1
shows the arrangement ot a perpetual ' calendar dial.
At the top is the month hand; on the right ia the date
hand; on the left is the day-of-the-week hand. Inside
the seconds dial is the moon disc, showing by observa-
tion or by the nnmbers the age ot the moon. Pig. 2
shows the mechanism underneath the dial. D Is the
moon disc. It has two moons, and around its edge are
flfty-eisht teeth, going round once in two lunar months.
It rides loose upon a central pipe, and is driven, one
tooth each day, by a pin in the wheel E', driven in
its turn by the wheel r. P is on the hour wheel of the
watch, and goes round once in twelve hours ; it has forty
teeth. It drives the wlieels E' and E-, having eighty teeth
each, and going round once in twenty-fonr hours. The
wheels E' and E", by means of pins projecting from them,
as shown, drive the day-of-the-week wheel B and the date
wheel one tooth each day. B has seven and C has
thirty-one teeth. The day-oi-the-week hand is fastened
to the axis of B, and the date hand to the axis of C. A Is
the month wheel; it has forty-eight teeth, and goes
ro\jnl once in four years. It is driven by the inter-
mediate wheel O, driven in its turn by the date wheel C.
Upon A is mounted a steel disc having notches of vary-
ing depth in its circumference. Thus, the space repre-
senting the month of January is high : February is a
deep slot, as it is three days short j March, again, is high ;
to A, and caused to return, when drawn back each day, by
a steel spring, as shown. The month wlieel A, day-of-the-
week wheel B, date wheel C, and moon disc D are all held
in position by spring flirts resting between their teeth,
and causing them to jump one tooth accurately each-
time they are moved. This is but one of many forms
of perpetual calendar movements. All are complicated,
and difflcnlt to make, and even when properly made fre-
quently give trouble.
Cnring Birds' Skins.— A preservative used in curing
birds' skins consists of lilb. of whiting and ilb. of soit
soap boiled in 1 pt. of water, with the addition of i ot.
of chloride of lime and ioz. of tincture of musk. This-
reclpe works out at less than a farthing for a starling or
blackbird. Instead of musk, tincture of camphor might
be used ; it is a little cheaper but not so good. In using-
the preservative it is painted on the inside of the skins ;
then the " stuffing " is done.
Polishing Ebony Fretwork.— The polishing should
be wholly or three parts done before the fret-cutting is
begun. After sawing tire wood, fix It to a firm flat bencli>
and plane the surface smooth ; then proceed with the cut-
ting, drilling the entering holes for the saw from the face.
Ordinary work may be nnished by using various grades.
ot emery cloth down to a fineness of 00, the final polish"
Fig. I
FIG. 2
Mechanism of Perpetual Calendar Watch.
April is a shallow notch, being one day short i and so on.
It will be noticed that three Pebruaries are deep notches
(three days short, or twenty-eight days) , and one Febru-
ary is not so deep, being two days short, or twenty-nine
days in leap year. The lever 11, a finger on which enters
these notches, regulates the number of days shown for
each month by operating on a projecting pin on the date
wheel C. The position of the lever H with regard to the
wheel varies according to whether its finger piece rests
in a deep or a shallow notch of A. Thus, when resting on
a high space, or a thirty-one-day month , the cam shown on
C passes the lever without disturbing it at the end of the
month. But when the lever His resting in a notch, it pro-
jects farther over C, and the cam comes in contact with it
one, two, or three days, as the case may be, before the
end of the month. The pressure on the cam causes the
pin in C to rise and come in the path of the lever H, as
the latter is drawn back each day by the Impulse pin in
E' acting on the arm I. Each day when the arm I is
released, H springs forward again and ordinarily does
nothing, as there is no projecting pin on 0; but after
the cam on has come in contact with H, the impulse pin
C is caused to ripe, and the lever II coming forward forces
C round for several teeth. The wheel C is a delicate piece
of work. There is ;i connection between the cam upon
it and the impulse pin upon which the lever H acts.
The contiection is underneath the wheel, and consists of
a spring lever. The effect is that, as soon as the cam
presses against the end of H, the Impulse pin rises from
the level ot the wheel and stands up in the path of H.
It remains in this position until about the middle
of the month, when it comes into contact with a
fixed stud under C, and Is restored to its nortnal
position level with the surface. The lever U is kept up
being given by brislily rubbing with a hard brush oi»
which has been placed a little beeswax. Or the following
process might be tried. Wrap the emery cloth tightly
round a piece ot cork 4 in. by 2 in. by I in., and rub up-
and down with the grain of the wood. Great care must
be exercised so as not to break off any portion of th&
more delicate fretwork, and change the gnide of the
emery cloth as the surface gradually becomes smoother.
Should it be preferred the surface may be lightly French
polished, usmg silk for the outside of the rubber in
place of ordinary cotton ; silk will last longer over the-
sharp Burfa.ce of the fretwork.
Fhotograpblo Vignettes.— Plashed glass is used fov
making photographic vignetting glasses, the colour
being removed from the centre by rubbing with hydro-
fluoric acid. The operation is a messy one, however.
Cardboard is by far the most convenient material to usff
for making vignettes, as a fresh one has generally to be
cut for each negative. It is not necessai-y to keep a
card vignette moving whilst the negative is printing.
The usual plan is to shape the vignette according to the
density of the different parts of the negative, to fix it at
a greater or less distance from the negative, and, if
necessary, to cover it with tissue paper. Many
failures have been due no doubt to fixing the card too
near the negative; it should be more than iin. away,
and should lap over where the negative is thin, for there
the light will spread rapidly. Sometimes it Is advisable
to tuck a little cotton-wool under the vignette, giving a
loose edge to the wool to avoid a hard line. To make a>
successful vignette by any method the baolcground
must be light; but vignetting is old-fashioned nn*
seldom artistic, and should be avoided if possible.
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
45
KnamelUng and Folisblng Slate. — The slabs of
-elate are cut to size, shaped, moulded, carved, or
incised as may be required, then polished with sand
and water to a ilne surface. The enamel is then care-
fully and regularly laid on, or the slab is marbled to
a design, then Rtoved in an otcu capable of being heated
to y60° P. Some colours require less heat than others.
The time necessary tor stoving depends on the colour;
experience will teach this. The colouring is then
polished with rottenstone and sand and, when a very fine
finish is required, completed with the hand.
Pattern for Conical Rim.— It is assumed that a copper
hoop is to be put round a wooden bucket to ornament it.
Below is explained how to draw a plan to which to cut the
•copper so that it will fit snugly to the shape of the bucket.
The pattern wanted is a frustum of a right cone, and
to set this out to the correct taper first draw a semi-
elevation of the bucket as ABDC (Fig. 1). Next draw
the position of the rim V P e E, and from E draw a line
E f at right an gles to B e, and draw P f '. "With f as centre,
■and with f' 1? and /' f as radii, draw quarter circles F L and
/ J to represent a quarter plan of the rim. Divide these
quarter circles into an equal number of parts, as F, G, H,
f, q. h, etc. Join Vf,G ff, etc., and also join P 9, Gft, etc., by
dotted lines as shown. The lines T>f,ag,llh, etc., will be
the plans of a series of slants of the cone, and the dotted
lines F B, etc;, will be the plans of a series of diagonals.
i' £ is the slant of the frustum, and to find the slant of
of animal-3, but a small consumer will iind egg albumen
more suitable. The albumen of one egg will coat two
slieets of paper, but to cover the dish that must be used
to the depth of about iin., about twenty eggs will be
required. The paper may be coated in quarter sheets.
The whites of the eggs must be thoroughly separatedlrom
the yolks, no trace of the yolks being in the coating solu-
tion. Tap the shell on the edge of a cup to crack it, hold the
crack uppermost, and, placing the thumbs in the crack,
pull in two and pour the yolk from one half shell to the
other. While this is being done, the white will of itself
f aU into the cup below. Pour the whites one by one into
a deep vessel, add 8 gr. per ounce of ammonium chloride,
and beat to a, froth with an egg whisk or a bundle of
quill pens. Allow the mixture to settle till next day,
niter thi'ou'gh fine muslin, pour into a flat dish, and, to
coat the paper, which is more easily done it it is slightly
damp, float it on the solution, lowering the paper at one
corner, and pushing it forward along the dish until the
whole surface is in contact. Care must be taken to
avoid air bubbles, as such spots cannot be sensitised.
If the paper is at all dry it will curl back off the solution.
The paper may be tinted with Judson's dyes, it desired.
For double albumenised paper, immerse after the
flrst coating in a. solution of 4 parts methylated spirit
and 1 part water, then give a second coating of albumen.
The paper is sensitised just before use by floating on a
solution of silver nitrate 50 gr. to the ounce.
Defects of Gas-meters.— When the floats of wet gas-
meters are being soldered together, the air inside the
floats becomes rarefled owing to the increased tem-
perature caused by the heat ot the bolt used in solder-
ing. When this inside air is cooled by the water in the
meter, the pi'essure ot the outside air upon the float
becomes so great that any sudden slight Increase ot
pressure will frequently overcome the resist&nce of
Fia 2
Pattern for Conical Rim.
the diagonal draw a line ff m at right angles to the dotted
line F g, and make g m equal to the line E /. Draw F m,
which will be the true slant of the diagonal. To work
the pattern, take the length F E and set off on a straight
line as Wfon the pattern (Fig. 2). Now take the true
slant F m (Fig. 1) of the diagonal as radius, and using F
(Fig. 2) as centre, draw arcs to cut qg on each side of the
centre line. With f g (Fig. 1) as radius, and f (Fig. 2) as
centre, cut the arcs flrst drawn. Again use the slant F f
(Fig. 2) as radius, and with the intersecting arcs fl ff as
centres, describe arcs at the top of .the pattern (Fig. 2) .
With F G as radius, and F as centre, cut the arc last
drawn. Kepeat this method of working for each division
on the plan (Fig. 1), using the small and large divisions
and slants and diagonals in their proper order, and make
the number of divisions on the complete pattern equal
to four times the number on the (juarter plan ; or if the
rim is made in two pieces the divisions would be as shown
by the accompanying patterns.
Making Sbaving Faste.-^Shaving pastes are made,
as a rule, from fine soft soaps composed of potash and
lard. To make cr6me d'amande, dissolve lib. of caustic
potash in 1 pt. of water. Melt down in a pan 3 lb. ot
lard and add to it gradually the potash lye, stirring
thoroughly during the addition. Boil and stir well for
some time, and continue adding the lye untU the mass
becomes pasty, and a small portion taken from the pan
works smoothly and free from greasiness when it is
dipped In water and worked between the fingers. The
addition ot the lye may then be stopped. Beat the soap
in a mortar and with the pestle till it is cold, when it
will have a satiny appearance. Add sufficient essence
of almonds during the beating.
Making Albumen Paper.— Albumenised printing-
out paper is made by coating a suitable paper with
albumen containing a soluble chloride. Eives paper
is generally employed, and what is known as 10 kilo
should be chosen. Most of the albumen Used com-
inerjially for this work Is obtained from the blood
the metal, which is only soft pewter. Floats should
always be made with egg-shaped ends instead of fiat
ends, so as to offer more resistance. In dry gas-meters
the faces of the hard white metal valves sometimes
become coated with a deposit, caused probably by
the action of the gas on the oil used to keep the
diaphragms soft. In course of time this deposit liardens
until the pressure ot the gas is insufficient to move the
valve cover. The top of the meter and the top ot the
valve-box inside should be taken off, and the valve covers
taken out and thoroughly cleaned with a little naphtha,
the faces of the valves being treated in the same manner -,
the meter should then be put together again and be re-
tested and stamped by an authorised inspector. The
only remedy is to soften the diaphragms with an oil that
is not affected by the particular gas in use.
Manufacture of Lucifer Matcbes.— The tipping
composition for " strike-anywhere " matches consists ot
red phosphorus with other ingredients as follow. (1)
Phosphorus 1 part, chlorate of potash 8 parts, glue '
4 parts, whiting 2 parts, powdered glass 8 parts, water
22 parts. (2) Phosphorus 2 parts, chlorate of potash
5 parts, glue 3 parts, red lead 14 parts, water 12 parts.
Safety matcheshave no phosphorus on the tip, but itis con-
tained in the rubber. For tipping safety matches, use (1)
Chlorate of potash 1 part, glue 2 parts, sulphide of anti-
mony 1 part, water 12 parts. (2) Chlorate of potash i parts,
bichromate of potash IJ ^arts, red lead i parts, sulphide
ot antimony 3 parts, with sufficient glue and water to
form a paste. The rubber on the box is treated with
phosphorus 2 parts, powdered glass 1 part, mixed with
sufficient glue solution to form a thin fluid while warm.
Eed phosphorus varies in colour from red to brown ; it is
formed by heating the ordinary phosphorus to 240° C. or
250' C, either in a closed space 01' in an inert gas, such as
nitrogen or carbonic acid. On heating the red modi-
fication to a temperature of 260° C. it changes back to the
ordinaryphosphorus.Kedphosphorus.whenfreed from the
ordinary phosphorus, is non-poisonous, passing through
the body unaltered; but red phosphorus is rarely. If
ever, free from ordinary phosphorus, and hence cannot
be said to be non-injurious. Eed phosphorus does not
take flre by simple friction like the yellow variety, but
must be raised to a temperature of 210° 0.
46
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
Lenses for Magic Lantern. — Plano-convex lenses
are generally xised in magic lanterns, two to each con-
denser, with their convex sides towards each other.
The smallest condensers used are iin. In diameter,
and this is none too much, as the slide pictures are
supposed to be iin. in diameter. A single lantern
should have a condenser not less than Win. in diameter.
Biunials and triples require 44-in. condensers to allow
for the rolling ol the curtain, and also a little margin
to get the two or three discs coincident on the screen.
For the objective, the following lenses ai-e required :—
The front combination consists of a double convex lens
and a plano-concave lens cemented together. These
should be 15 in. to IJin. in diameter. The back combina-
tion has two lenses separated by a short space ; the one
nearest the front is a meniscus, with the convex side to-
wards the front, and the other is a double convex lens of
unequal curves, the curve with the longer radius being
placed nearest the light. These lenses should be 2 in. in
diameter. An objective of this description has a focus of
about 6 in. and gives the best results. When, however,
an objective of very long focus is required, a single
achromatic answers nearly as well : but it must be suffi-
ciently large to take all the rays of light. A single lens
of 12-in. focus should be at least 3 in. in diameter.
Constructing a Bamboo Bedstead.— Fig. 1 shows
the foot of a bamboo bedstead, 3ft. wide and 3ft. 10 in.
high ; Figs. 2 and 3 are klternative designs for the head.
The framework qt each of these sections must be made
from canes If in. to 2 in. in diameter, and great care
hand when it is ready for moulding. For this, «*»
an iron mould with a plug attached to a handle. Tlin-
mould should be filled witli the clay and the plug ham-
mered in, to form the hollow of the crucible. It is kept
In a warm place for a few days, when the crucible will
leave the mould, and may be turned out. It is dried in a
warm place for several ceeks, and gradually heated when
it is used for the first time.
Varnishing Photographic Negatives. — The re-
touching of a negative should always, if possible,,
be done before varnishing, such portions of the nega-
tive as are to be operated on being covered with a
retouching medium. This medium may be purchased,
or may be made of gum dammar 9S gr, turpentine 1 oz.
If it is preferred to varnish before retouching, the
varnished negative must be rubbed down with powdered,
resin to give a surface on which the retouching pencil
can be used. The following varnish is recommended.
Sandaraoh J oz., seed lac i oz., castor oil 80 drops,
oil of lavender 40 drops, alcohol 10 oz. Powder the
resins and dissolve in the alcohol, and add the rest
of the ingredients. "Warm the negative tUl it is as hot
as can be comfortably borne by the back of the hand.
Constructing a Bamboo Bedstead.
must be taken in making the joints and seeing that
the dowels are a good fit. A (Figs. 1, 2, and 3) is a piece
of beech 7 in. wide and U in. thick. This must be fitted
in position 1 ft. above the ground before the filling work
Is commenced, and should be securely fastened with
round-headed screws passed through the legs and cross
rails into the wood. The strength of the bedstead in a
great measure depends on the firmness of this piece of
wood, as on it are fastened the angles by which the
head and foot are stretched. The filling work can next
be proceeded with, care being taken that every joint Is
strong and a perfect fit. Fig. 2 shows a design suitable
for an upholstered back, 7ft. 9 in. high; if preferred,
similar work to that shown in Pig. 3 can be used.
For the bedstead bottom, iron fittings similar to those
used for wood bedsteads are advised. Fig. 4 is a sketch
of the iron angle, and B (Fig. 2) shows the position
in which the angles are placed. They are securely
fa-itened to the wood with screws, and the stretchers
and laths are attached in the usual manner.
Bemovlng Stain from Polished Wood.— A soda-
water stain on polished wood should be wiped over with
linseed oil as soon as noticed. If left nnoiled, the only
aliernatlve is to repollsh, first removing the damaged
poiish by rubbing with No. 1 glafspaper and oil. It this
treatment is not a success, use spirit instead of oil.
Making Plumhago Crucible!- In making a ci-uclble
with a quantity of plumbago dust, mix the plumbago
with an equal weight of fireclay, and add water while
kneading to form a stiff dough. Keep this in a cool
place for a few days, and work it from time to time,
when it will become less sticky and more plastic i
the clay should be almost too stiH to work by the
pour a pool of varnish in the centre of the plate, ani
let it Uow first to the top right-hand corner, next to tlie
top left-hand corner, then to bottom left-hand corner,
almost touching the thumb, and ^our ofl! the excess at
the bottom right-hand corner into the bottle. The
negative should not be rocked. If the varnish is inclined
to be streaky it is too thick, and more alcohol must bo
added. Conduct the whole operation as slowly as
possible. Drain thoroughly, and bake the varnlsheil
negative in front of the fire or over a gas jet till the
varnish is quite hard. Heat the negative evenly or lb
wUl crack. The negative should be held by the extreme
corner with the thumb and forefinger of the left handi
unless it is larger than half plate.
Colouring Gold.— The simplest method of colouring
gold jewellery is to bring it to a uniform heat, allow
to cool (and thus become annealed), and then boil
until bright in a pickle of 8 oz. of rain water and
loz. of sulphuric acid. Another method Is to anneal
the gold, boil it in a pickle of nitric acid and water,
again anneal, and dip in the following colouring mix-
ture. Two parts (by weight) of saltpetre and 1 part
of table salt are heated in their dry state in a colour-
ing pot or blacklead crucible ; when hot, make Into
a paste with hot water, boil, add 14 parts of muriatic
acid, and stir well. Use at boiling point; leave the
gold in the solution for not more than 90 seconds,
as the solution removes more or less of the gold. On
taking the gold from the colouring solution, rinse it
in a pickle, dip it in hot water, and dry In hot sawdust :
the gold will be spotted if not thoroughly dried. Thl8
method may be used with gold ranging between 12 and
20 carats fine, the best results being obtained witb
15-carat gold.
CyclopEedia of Mechanics.
47
The Preparation of Chromic Acid.— Chromic acid
(H2Cr04) is produced by two or three methods. In
one, 2 parts (by measure) of a cold saturated
solution of bichromate of potassia are mixed with
3 parts of sulphuric acid; on cooling, the chromic
acid is deposited in crystals, the motlier liquor being
then decanted. Perliaps the method of producing
chromic acid more generally followed commercially is
to decompose chromium sulphate with lime and to heat
to redness the resultant paste of lime, gypsum, and
chromium oxide. The chromate of lime formed is
treated with sodium sulphate to yield soluble sodium
chromate and gypsum. The addition of sulphuric acid
liberates the chromic acid. A less wasteful process than
this is the electrolytic one now being worked in Germany
by Lucius &, Bruning. In a solution of chromium sul-
phate in sulphuric acid are immersed both lead anode
and lead cathode, chromic acid being liberated on the
former and hj'drogen on the latter. A current at 3'5
volts with a current density of SOUampSres per square
metre is required, the cells being at the temperature of
60° C. (122° P.).
Making a Bone Apple-scoop.— In every sheep there
are two bones specially suited for making apple-scoops,
and with them only a small amount of trouble is
left for the workman. The shank, bones of Welsh or
othermountain sheep are generally preferred for scoops ;
they make neater articles. But for larger scoops the
shank bones of sheep of the larger breeds come in
handy. To clean the bones, boil, say, for from half to three-
quarters of an hour ; too much boiling is liable to cause
the head of the bone to slip off. With a tenon saw or a
butcher's meat saw, on the fiat side of the bone, as at A
Fig, 2
Making a Sons Apple-scoop,
(Pig. 1), make a shallow cut just deep enough to reach to
the hollow containing the marrow. Wext saw off the
lower end of the bone, as at B. All the bone from the
middle of the front between A and B has then to be
chipped out. Por this purpose, use a J-in. gouge, and
afterwards a small chisel driven with a mallet s or a knife
can be used, but then the work will take much longer.
To cut the bone now left remaining to the shape of
Fig. 2, use a half-round file. The two sides of the front
and the circuit of the point must be brought to a sharp
edge, as by 'these the apple is cut. Whilst the bone is
being worked it will be sure to show more or less
frease; this can be removed by a ragdipped in whiting, or
y a orumpled-up piece of blotting paper. To extract the
marrow from the hollowabove A (Pig. 1) ,use a bit of crooked
wire and a few small rolls of blotting paper. The opening
should then be stopped with a neatly-fltting, piece of
cork, tucked in tightly. To finish, smooth the bone with
glasspaper and polish with whiting.
Putting Sash Lines in Window Frames.— Before
beginning to replace broken sash lines, carefully lower
the top sash to see whether the breakage is at one
or both of the lines. The i-in. bead of the side at which
the line is to be restored must be removed, a blunt
chisel being used ; a broad chisel bruises less than
a narrow one. Begin the prising of the bead from the
back, as, though the paint must be broken, it need not
be defaced more than necessary. The lower sash can
then be removed and the old line cleared with pincers or
a blunt chisel. If the upper sash line is broken it is often
best first to remove the line from the lower sash so that
it may be put out of the way. The parting bead must
next be removed, and pincers are better than a chisel for
this. Sometimes a chisel, used to cut the paint at the
lower half of the bead, is an advantage. Remove the
pocket piece and take out the weight and old cord. If it
is difficult to remove the weight, it is sometimes possible
to tie a new line without removal. The new line is
passed through the sash pulley by means of a " mouse,"
a piece of lead not thicker than the line and about 2 in.
long, to which a fine strong twine is affixed j the twine is
hitched to the sash line twice or thrice and the mouse is
entered through the pulley, drawn through the pocket,
and the line pulled through by its aid. If the weight is
BtUl in the sash frame, the line can be inserted in the
weight by drawing through the mouse and making a
knot. Lift the weight as high as possible and fix the
line so that the sash will just reach the sill. Superfluous
line is often a hindrance to proper workiug of windows,
as the line always stretches in use. The replacing of the
pocket piece can be done before the liue is fixed to the
sash, and, in the case of the lower sash, the parting bead
can also be put in. The 8-in. or stop bead should be
sprung in by getting nails nearest the ends in first.
Sometimes they will need shortening, but no nails
ought to be removed, and all should be guided to their
holes, first those nearest the ends, and then those at the-
middle. If needful, a nail or panel pin may be inserted,
but this is not necessary unless the bead springs away
from its place. Care must be taken to strike on thdold
nails or the stopping will come out and the bead be
made unsightly.
Condensation from Under Side of Iron Roof.— The
drbpping of water from the under side of a corrugated
iron roof is caused by the moisture of the warm atmo-
sphere of the room condensing on the colder surface of
the iron roof, and this condensation, of course, goes on
more rapidly during frosty weather. The remedy is to fix
at the bottom of each sheet of iron a small half-round
gutter to catch the water. Lead it to one end of the-
roof, and bring it to the ground by a down pipe. A lining
of slag wool or silicate cotton supported by matchboard
will prevent the condensation sometimes.
Ho-nr to Set a Kuling Pen.— By taking out the screw
of the ruling pen and looking directly at the point
of the pen, it will be seen whether the worn point has a
flattened surface. If so, place the pen on au oilstone (fine
Method of Setting a Ruling Fen.
Turkey preferred) in the position shown in the sketch,
apply a little oil, move the pen backwards and forwards
at the same time slightly rocking it horizontally and
vertically. Wipe and examine the pen occasionally, and
stop just short of bringing the point to a sharp edge. If
one point of the pen has been injured and is stiortei*
than the other, hold the pen upright on the stone and
grind both points level before removing the screw and
setting the pen. If the points are, too sharp, the pan will
out the paper, and it will be necessary to take off the
keen edge by using it for a few minutes on a piece of
brown paper.
Making Photographic Printing-out Paper. — No
one, unless he is likely to be a large consumer and
able to afford a proper apparatus, should attempt to
make P.O.P. The paper is sold so cheaply that it could
only be made in large quantities at the same price ; and
expensive plant and long experience are necessary to
ensure good results. Prepare two solutions. (A) Ammo-
nium chloride 50 gr.. Nelson's No. 1 gelatine 160 gr.,
Heinrich's hard gelatine 3(0 gr., distilled water 20 oz.
(B) Silver nitrate 150 gr., distilled water i oz. Dissolve
the gelatine in 4iOZ. of water, warm and add the re-
mainder ; then add solution (B) a little at a time, stirring
thoroughly between the additions. Allow the emulsion
so formed to set, then wash by squeezing througli
mosquito netting, and washing or soaking in a few
changes of distilled water. The slireds must then be
well drained, melted down, and the emulsion is ready for
use. The paper is unrolled over the surface of , the
emulsion, which is placed in a trough or a dish tilted to
an angle.
Cutting Blinds.— Linen or art print blinds are cut
upon a large flat table, using a long straightedge and
marking awl. Equal width at top and bottom can be
secured by folding the stuff so as to prick both at once ;
squaring must either be done by a large square working
on a trued edge of board or by folding the blind (when
made parallel) edge to edge and pricking through. Lines
are made witli a marking awl, and for cutting some use
shears, others a knife and straightedge. Whenever
possible, cut off the selvedges. Blind cloths vary in
width ; prints are made in every 6 in. from 3i) in. to 60 m. ;
unions in almost every 2 in. in saleable widths.
48
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
Making Cells for Optical Work. — By following
these Instructions amateurs who haye a small lathe
not adapted tor sorew-eutting, and who are not
adepts in the use of chasers, can make the brass cells
and similar work for microscopes, telescopes, etc.
The apparatus here described will turn and cut the
threads without displacement, thus ensuring perfect
■centreing, without which the best lenses will give un-
satisfactory results. To hold the cells, etc., use box-
wood chucks fixed on iron face-plates. A hole Is
drilled truly in the centre of the chuck while In the
lathe. Into this hole fits a turned Iron or steel mandrel
of the shape shown at Figs. 1 and 2. The part O should
be a tight working fit in the boxwood chuck. The poppet
end of the mandrel has a thread cut on it of a pitch suit-
able for optical work. Fig. 3 shows the complete mandrel
and tool-i-est. The hole B (Fig. 2) is tapped to receive
the screw that regulates the cut of the tool, while into
the hole A (Fig. 2) slides the guide ; and the set-screw
E (Fig. 3) takes up any shake in the rest. To complete
the tool-rest, pieces ¥ (Pig. 3) to carry the tool and G for
the handle end will be required. The ordinary poppet
must be discarded j in Its place use a wrought- or cast-
iron poppet, made as shown in Figs. 4, 5, and 6. The
tole II (Figs. 4 and 5) receives the bush I (Fig. 6),
which is drilled and tapped to suit the screwed end of
the mandrel M. J and K are nuts, and L is a handle
made fast to the mandrel ; It actuates the cut of the tool
longitudinally. N (Figs. 4, 5, and 6) is the hole iised for
bolting down the poppet, "When facing, boring, or turn-
ing a cell, etc., the nut J is released and the nut K is
A B
\Q 9i
■nil
FIG. 2
rrw
1 J ^ ■ ; BiliWiWilillWWijlil
^
jammed ; then I can revolve, the out being regulated by
the handle L. When thread-cutting, the lathe spindle
carrying the chuck must be fixed sothatit will notturn ;
then the nut J is jammed tight, thus fixing I, the cut being
actuated by the handle L. The thread may be started at
any point desired. Fig. 7 shows the complete apparatus,
with letter references as before. If the use of a lathe is
not to be had, the apparatus will still be of use, but in
that case all operations of turning and screw-cutting
must be managed by the handle L, while the work
lemains at rest. The sketches are not to scale, and the
apparatus must be made to salt the lathe in use.
Tbe Manufacture of Glue.— Glue, size, and gelatine
are varieties of the same substance ; they differ only
in the quantity of moisture and of impurities which
they contain. Glue contains so many impurities
that it is unsuited for use other than as an adhesive
for wood, paper, etc. Gelatine-yielding substances are
legion, those in commercial use including the skins
of all animals, tendons, intestines, bladders, bones,
lioofs, and horns. In the preparation of ordinary
Elue, great use is made of the parings and cuttings of
ides from tan-yards; tanned leather is useless for the
purpose. Brietly, the process consists in boiling the
animal matter and straining the product into coolers,
where it thickens into a jelly. This is cut into sheets or
mitable thickness and dried in the open air on frames of
wire netting. Spring and autumn are the most suitable
times tor drying the glue, the frost of winter and the
dry heat of summer having injurious effects. The size
is not dried, but is sold just as it is cut from the coolers.
In making size and glue from shredded skins (chiefly
those of rabbits), the processes in vogue at a large
factory in America are as follow. 350 lb. of shredded
skin and about 400 pailfuls of water are put into a
wooden vat and boiled for two hours, the material
being well stirred every fifteen or twenty minutes to
prevent it settling. The liquid is then run off from
the bottom of the vat and strained in a press which
may be about 4ft. square, 3 ft. high, and made of wooden
slats. The interior of the press is lined with bagging,
and through this material the liquid is strained or
pressed by means of a hydraulic jack. The hot sti-ained
liquid drops into a vat below, whence it is conducted
by means of hose into barrels. In from eight to ten
hours the stuff is cool, and has a skin formed on the
top ; in warm weather ice is laid on this skin to harden
it; this is size. For making glue, the strained liquid
is run into coolers, these being wooden troughs lined
with zinc, and in twelve hours' time the material, then
in the form of jelly, is loosened from the trough by
running a wire along it, the wire being bent to con-
form with the rectangular section of the trough. The
block of jelly is cut up into cakes, and these are
then sliced in an arrangement of fine wires stretched
tightly across an iron frame about iin. apart; this
frame is drawn through the jelly. The drying frames
upon which the slices of .ielly are then placed are about
5 ft. 6 in. long and 2ft. wide, and are made of galvanised
wire netting. The frames, when full, are placed in
racks through which the air can circulate freely. It
takes but a few days for the jelly to dry in a cool west
wind, though a system of artificial drying, by means or
which the size becomes glue in but a few hours, is now
being practised. In drying, the material shrinks to one-
halt its former bulk. The hard glue is now washed to
remove dust, etc., and to pi-oduce a glazed ai)pearance.
In some factories the cakes of glue are cut up into small
pieces by means of two rotary knives, each making
300 revolutions per minute. First the glue is passed
between two4-in. toothed rollers which hold it in position
and draw it forward after each stroke of the knife.
In England the raw material, before being boiled, is
limed ; this treatment is not necessary in the case of
hide cuttings from leather dressers and tanners, scrap
._,
H
N
— h4-I
Fig 4 FIG. 5
Making Cells for Optical Work.
from trotter-boilers, dry glue pieces and parchment out-
tings, which are already limed. The liming is eifected
by soaking the material in milk of lime contained in
pits. Afterwards it is necessary to remove or kill the
lime by washing with water in vats or pits or even in
revolving drums. The lime in old glue pieces is killed
BuiBciently by the action of the atmospheric carbonic
acid, the glue being spread out in trays so as to be more
readily a&ected. In some works the washed materials
are subjected to heavy pressure, but in others the boUinic
is proceeded with at once. The boilers or pansgeneraUy
have each a capacity of several tons. A false bottom of
bars keeps a clear space at the bottom. In the middle of
the boiler is a removable vertical framework, and its
object, like that of the false bottom, is partly to give
free space, so that the boiling liquid can circulate
thoroughly, and partly to simplify the straining of the
liquid. The pans are heated by a fire beneath, by steam,
or by the two together. In placing the materials in the
pans, any horn " sloughs " that may be uised are built up
around the central framework, the rest of the material
being then put in. During the boiling intermittent stir-
ring is necessary, and the fat which rises to the surface
has to be skimmed off. The charge for the paus is in the
proportion of twelve tons of fleshings to one ton of water.
On the completion of the boiling, the fire is put out
or the heat is otherwise removed; a. time is allowed
for partial settling and cooling, and the liquid is then
drawn off through a wooden channel from the space
beneath the false bottom. In this wooden channel are
lumps of alum, and the liquid glue is conducted to
cooling troughs, where it is allowed to cool and harden
into a jelly or size. The succeeding processes by which
the size becomes glue resemble those practised in
America and previously noted. The methods outlined
above admit of endless variations, nearly every manu-
facturer adopting a system that in some paiticulor
differs from that adopted by his tellows.
Soldering Gun Barrels.— Cramps are generally used
for holding gun barrels together during soldering, al-
though they can be bound together as a makeshift with
stout binding wire. The heat is applied with iron or
copper heaters, which are placed inside the barrels.
The best flux for the purpose is sal-ammoniac. Baker's
preparation can also be used as a soldering fluid.
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
49
Fixing Needle to Compass Card.— Large compass
cards often haye two needles, in which case the agate
cap is fixed in the card. In small cards the agate
cap is fixed in the centre of the needle. Draw a pencil
line on the under side of the card from N. to S. points.
Fix the needle to this with sealing wax or glue, and
screw or rivet through the card.
Cabinet for Beadwork.— The cabinet or workbox
here described is suitable tor holding beadwork articles.
It can be made of deal, and almost enough wood
can be obtained fi'om an old cube-sugar boxj this,
when sandpapered, stained, and Tarnished, will repay
the time and labour expended. The following pieces
will be required for the top case A (Pigs. 1, 2, and 3) .
Two, llHn. by 7 in. by ^in., for the top and bottom;
two, 10 in. by 7 in. by iin., for the sides; two, lOJin. by
6iiu. by i in., for the shelves ; one.lOin. by 6iin. by Jin.,
for the vertical partition ; six, 5 in. by 3 in. by J in., for
the fronts of the drawers; twelve, 6iin. by Sin. by iin.,
for the sides of the drawers; six, 4iin. bySin. by iin.,
for the backs of the drawers. The bottom for the
drawers should be cut to fit the inside of the framework.
The racks B (Figs. 1, 2, and 3) are Tin. by Iin. by iin.,
and should have three holes bored in them to hold the
tools. To make the desk C (Fig. 3) , use two pieces of
wood, each 15 in. by 4 in. by t in., for the sides ; one piece,
84in. by 10iin.by-4in., for the top; one, lOJin. by 15in.
by iin., for the bottom; one.IOJin.by liin.by Jin.,for
the back; one, lOUn. bySin. by iin., for the front of the
drawer ; two pieces, I4i in. by 3 in. by i in., for the sides of
somewhat similar method of preparing crocus is to heat
sulphate of iron alone in an iron pan ; constantly stir
with an iron spatula after fusion until it is thoroughly
dry and drops into a pale yellow powder. This is then
powdered in a mortar and sifted, placed in a fresh
crucible, and calcined. On cooling, the crocus appears
as a red powder. The colour of the crocus varies from
pale red to brownish red, blue, and violet, the colour
being determined by the particular degree of heat to
which it was raised during its manufacture ; the greater
the heat the darker in color r and harder is the
material ; thus a pale red (roug^,) is used for gold and
silver, while violet, known as " steel red," is employed
for polishing steel. To obtain the best results with
crocus, it should be ground as fine as possible, and then
washed with water. Three clean glasses ai-e used for the
latter purpose, one being filled with water ; a CLuantity
of crocus is well stirred in with a wooden stick, left to
stand for about thirty seconds, and the fluid is then
carefully decanted into the second glass, leaving a sedi-
ment at the bottom of the first ; after two minutes in
the' second glass the fiuid is decanted into the third,
where it is left for several hours to permit the complete
settling of the powder. The sediment contained in the
first glass is too coarse to be of use ; that in the second
Is a ci'ocus of a finer quality ; while that in the third
is of the best grade. Crocus of varying degrees of fin«-
ness maybe obtained on this principle. The material
requires to dry slowly to be fit for use. It is advisable to
moisten the dried powder with alcohol, and then to
ignite it so that all traces of fat may be burnt. For this
FiC. I
Fia 2
Cabinet for Beadwork.
Fig. 3 '
the drawer ; and one piece, 10 in. by 3 in. by i in., for the
back of the drawer. To make the case, nail the top and
bottom to the sides of the case A (Fig. 1). The partition
and shelves are notched so that they will fit in flush
with one another. The partition should be nailed to the
top and bottom of the case, as should the shelves to the
sides. The last are nailed to the top and bottom, and
the case A is fastened to by nails or (preferably) screws.
The back, when fastened in, holds the top and bottom
together. In C six holes should be cut to hold the saucers ;
these should be iin. deep and Iin. in diameter. The
fronts of the drawers are rebated so that the sides will fit
into them. After making the drawers, bore a hole in the
centre of each of the fronts and glue a knob in to serve
as a handle. The bottom drawer should have a parti-
tion in the centre, so that there will be a drawer for the
finished articles; the other part can be used for the
vrire, etc. It would be advisable to label each drawer
with the name of the beads it is intended to hold. The
labels can be of paper glued on, or of tin nailed on ; or
it the necessary skill be possessed an attempt may be
made at painting the name on the front of each drawer,
the black letters being on a rectangular background of
white. If glue also is, used it will make the case look
much stronger.
The Preparation of Crocus.— Crocus is an abrasive
material used as a polishing medium for many metals.
By one method of preparing it, a mixture of salt and
sulphate of iron is put into a shallow crucible and exposed
to a red heat ; vapour escapes, and the mass fuses. When
vapour ceases to be given orE remove the crucible and
allow it to cool. If the heat Is too intense the oxide of
iron produced wU have a black colour. The mass, when
eold, is pulverised and washed to separate the sulphate
of soda. The crocus powder la then to be submitted to a
process of careful elutrlation, and the finer particles
reserved for the final stages of polishing processes. A
purpose the crocus should be contained in an iron pan. An
excellent crocus powder for applying to razor strops can
be made by igniting in a crucible a mixture of eaual partis
of well-dried green vitriol a,nd common salt. Take care
that the material does not boU over in a pasty state and
be lost. When well made, out of contact with the air, it
has the lustre of freshly cut blaoklead. After grinding,
elutriating, and drying, a powder Is produced that, by
applying to a smooth buff-leather strap, may form a ser-
viceable razor strop, or by being mixed with hog's lard
or tallow may "make a useful polishing paste for many
kinds of metal.
Brush Marks in Enamelling.- In using air-dryln'g
enamels on cycles great difilculty is sometimes experi-
enced in getting a surface that is entirely free from brush
marks. Assuming that the enamels are not stoved, the
trouble may be due to one of the following causes.
First, the brush may be too stiff; use a very soft
brush with a big head and long hair. Secondly, the
enamel may not be suiflclently thinned j add a little tur-
pentine, when the coat of enamel will be thinner and more
uniform, but not so lustrous. Thirdly, the enamel may
dry too quickly; this is often the case with enamel
paints, many of them showing signs of drying im-
mediately after they are laid on, and such enamels
show brush marks very strongly.
Repairing Mackintosh.— If the water penetrates
the mackintosh in a few places only, obtain from a
rubber warehouse some rubber cloth in tlie piece as
near like the coat as possible ; also get some rubber
solution. Cut the rubber into circles large enough
to cover the leaks, spread the rubber solution upon
them, and also upon the mackintosh inside wherever a
leak occurs, and press the circles of rubber into place.
Press under a weight for a day or two. The mackintosh
should be thoroughly dry before being treated.
50
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
Boots Cracking Across the Toes.— All boots, and
more especially m-fltting boots, have a tendency to
crease and crack across the toes, and to counteract
this tendency the following precautions should he
obserred. Patent leather boots should always be
rubbed down across the joint over the toes while the
foot is slightly bent, the rubbing being done with the
hand or with a piece of soft rag. If the weather is at all
cold, the boots sliould be warmed in front of the fire before
they are put on, and then rubbed. Calf leather boots
should always be carefully treed up when cleaning them,
and each time the boots are worn the creases should be
taken out by rubbing with a bone.
Moulds for Casting Brass.- In making moulds for
fine brasswork, ordinary sand should be mixed with
loam, which is a more clayey sand. The mould must
be well dried before a fire, and then dusted with
very iiue charcoal powder. If a very delicate surface
is desired, it could be smoked over with a pitch torch.
This method is more troublesome, biit the results are
excellent. The patterns must be inserted after the
smoking, and the two faces brought together again. The
soot from the smoking will gire a perfectly smooth
surface, and the castings will come out clear and sharp.
Testing a Try-sq.uare.— Below is given a method of
testing a carpenter's square. Shoot the edge of a
piece of board quite straight, apply the sciuare as
shown at A (Fig. 1), and draw a line ; then turn
V
mixture the most varying tints can be produced. The
purest and best of these colours should be used ; then
only a little colour will be necessary. Straw hat
varnish making is throughout a cold process, only
careful intermixing, slow digestion to complete the
solution, stirring from time to time, and perhaps flltra.
tion, being necessary. To the above stock varnish add,
to obtain black, 55 grammes of spirit-soluble ivory black
ler 9 litres of varnish i the shade may be varied beauti-
uUy by a slight addition of spirit blue or malachite
green. For oiive brown, add 15 grammes of brilliant
green, 55 grammes of Bismarck brown, and 8 grammes
of spirit blue. For olive green, add 28 grammes of
brilliant green and 28 grammes of Bismarck brown.
For nut brown, add 55 grammes of Bismarck brown and
15 grammes of nicrosine. For . mahogany brown, add
23 grammes of Bigmarok brown: the colour may be
deepened by a little nicrosine. For peacock blue, add
55 grammes of spirit blue and 28 grammes of induline.
The above are mostly dark coloured varnishes, for the
preparation of which shellac is only suitable. Some
lighter coloured solutions will now be given. A white
stock varnish suitable for the prepai-ation of light-
coloured straw hat varnish is a solution of 27 grammes
of sandaraoh, 9 grammes of elemi-resin, 9 grammes of
pine resin, and 2J grammes of castor oil in 18 centilitres
of methylio alcohol. To produce a golden yellow
colour, add to 9 litres of this varnish 55 grammes
of ohiTsoidine and 55 grammes of anUine yellow.
For pale green, add 55 grammes of brilliant green
Fig, I
Fig. 2
Testing a Try-sq[uare.
the square as at B, and if it is true the blade should
fit the Une; it it is less than a right angle it will
be as shown at CD (Fig. 2), and if more than a right
angle the defect will be as indicated at El? (Fig. 2). If
the blade has moved or has been knocked out of truth
through a fall, it should be knocked back into its proper
position and, when true, the rivets should be tightened
by careful hammering. If the blade is quite fast in the
stock, but untrue, it must be filed true to the stock.
Prevention of Nodules on Electrotypes.— Warty
nodules on the edges of electrotypes are usually
caused by the employment of small currents. This
may happen by using a small cell or small elements
in the cell, or by the employment of connecting
wires having a high resistance. It is unusual to find
these nodules on edges protected with paraffin, and
their existence points to a soiling of the parts whilst
blackleading the mould. When these nodules are
troublesome, it is usual to take out the moulds, out or
file off the warts, give the copper a dip in nitric acid to
clean it, then re-immerse the electrotype, and proceed
with the deposition.
Coloured Varnishes for Stra\r Hats. — All straw
hat varnishes are required to dry in a few minutes
and form a firm, pliant, and elastic cover, though a
high lustre is not essential. Hence spirit varnish is
particularly suitable ; any desired colour is gained by
the addition of pigments soluble in alcohol, the coal
tar (aniline) colours being best adapted lor this pur-
pose. Generally, the manufacturer of straw hat varnish
prepares two or three colourless stock varnishes which
may be coloured as occasion requires. Shellac is
the indispensable gum tor every spirit varnish, but it
cannot, owing to its brown colour, furnish a white or
pale varnish, so it is suitable only for dark coloured
varnish. A good stock varnish from which black,
brown, dark green, deep blue, and similar tones
may be made is obtained from 180 grammes of
shellac, 45 grammes of soft Manila copal, 45 grammes of
sandarach or resin, 1 gramme of castor oil, andsufflcient
methylic alcohol to form a suitable solution. To pro-
duce coloured varnishes from this the respective alcohol
soluble auiline colour alone need be added. Ivory
black, spirit blue, Bismarck brown, aniline yellow,
brilliant green, safranine, and crystal scarlet are among
the colours suitable lor this purpose, and by their
and 7 grammes of aniline yellow. For medium bine,
add 55 grammes of spirit blue. For deep blue, add
55 grammes of spirit blue and 55 grammes of
induline. Vary the proportions of these two pigments
to obtain other blue tones. For peacock blue, add 6'5
grammes of spirit blue, 28 grammes of induline, and a
little brilliant green. For violet, add 28 grammes of
methyl violet. For crimson, add 55 grammes of safra-
nine. For chestnut brown, add 55 grammes of safranine
and 15 grammes of induline.
Melting Silver in an Open Fire.— Procure a small
fireclay crucible in which to melt the silver. For a
flux use equal quantities of finely powdered charcoal
and sal-ammoniac. Make up a large, bright coal fire
in an open grate, and when the fire is quite clear
break a hollow space in the centre. In this space
place the crucible, and allow it to get red hot; then
put in the silver, and draw some of the hot coals closety
around and over it. Blow the fire with the bellows until
the crucible gets white hot, when the silver will melt,
the fusing point being at 18/3" F. (1022-7° C). Then
add the aux to clear the surface from scum. Again
make the crucible hot, and quickly pour the contents
into an iron ingot mould previously made" scalding hot.
One or two ounces of silver may be melted at a time in
this way. The fiux may be stirred with a pointed rod of
iron previously made red hot.
Particulars of Rectilinear Photographic lens.--
The word rectilinear simply means "right lines,'
and is a name applied to lenses which do not distort
straight lines when such fall near the margins of the
plate. Such lenses represent a square as a square, and
not like a pin-cushion or a barrel, as is the case with
'a single lens when the stop is placed respectively behind
or before the lens. Consequently, rectilinear lenses are
doublets— that is, they have a lens at each end of a tube,
with the stop between, thus introducing both kinds of
distortion, the one nullifying the other.
Cleaning W.C. Basins.- To clean w.c. basins apply
spirit of salts by means of a piece of old rag tied
to the end of a stick, and after sufficient time has
elapsed for the incrustation to become softened,
or partially dissolved, wash with clean water. If the
incrustation is very thick, the operation can be hastened
by scraping. Any spare acid should be thrown down
the drains, as it is a dangerous poison.
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
51
Making Brass Gas-cocks.— Here are given full In-
fitructions on casting and finishing Bmall trass gas-
oocJss. The patterns may be of wood or brass, but
■brass is to be preferred, as it wears much better
than wood. Core prints must be turned on the ends
of the patterns so that, when moulded, places wUl
be left m the mould in which to insert the core. The
patterns must be made aufaciently large to allow for
Bhrinkage and for the metal turned off in finishing. The
ends of the core patterns must be exactly the same size
as the core print on the brass pattern. Core stocks for
each of the cores must be made. The keys may be
made in the same manner as the body of the casting.
Figs. 1 to 4 give views of the body of the cook and the key
in two positions. The key must be sufficiently large to
™?'i^°''°.,',°/ gi'inding. Make the moulds, trim taem,
and they wiU be ready tor finishing. In finishlngthe cock,
use an iron bell chuck or an ordinary brass-turner's chuck.
Turnoneend of the cock square, and thread the hole with
a suitable sized thread. Kepeat the operation at the other
end of the cook. Skim the cook all over, and face both
■ends pt the keyway. Then turn the hole for the key
slightly taper as cast. Now skim the outside of the key
casting on the taper similar to that of the hole In the
■cook, and press thfe cook on. If it does not go on as it
should, skim a little more tUl it is correct. Square the
end oft, drill a hole up it, and thread with a screw to
carry the small bi-ass screw that holds on the D washer,
to prevent the tap being puUed off and to obviate the
Making Brass Gas-cocks.
«aoape of gas. Each tap must be turned to each cook,
and must be left in it till ground ; this will save time
and waste. In grinding in, fix the tap in the chuck, place
a little loam and water on it, and press on the cock. This
will cause the loam to grind down the surface of the k6.v
a.nd make a good joint. The common test applied by the
workman is to draw out all air by the tongue and mouth,
when the cook will, if sound, adhere to the tongue. The
key must have a round hole drilled through it, and at
the top should be inserted a pin, which catches on the
■top of the cook and prevents its being turned more than
halfway round. In making the sand core, insert a piece
■of thin iron wire through lengthwise ; this will
strengthen the core (see Fig. 4). The cores in each case
must be made to suit the purpose, and will depend on
the size and nature ot the cook in hand.
Making Hand-cart for Carrying Furniture.— The
cart here described is 6 ft. long by 4ft. 6 in. wide, and
may be used for carrying furniture. As the wheels
are to run underneath the bed of the cart, the distance
between the springs must be less than is customary
in ordinary work. Set out a full-size plan ot the cart,
mark in the position ot the wheels, -so that the stock
hoop does not project beyond the side of the cart,
and mark in the position of the springs or stays to
which the axle is fixed, as summers have to be framed in
to Sx these to. For the outside framing, two rails 2 in.
wide by If in. deep, front and hind bars 2 in. wide by
2i in. deep, are framed together squai-e and true, and flush
on top. This framing is boxed out on the top inner edge,
i in. on by i in. deep, to take the boards to form the floor.
At such a distance in from the outside as the springs will
come, frame in two summers 2i in. wide, thick enough to
be level with the boxing out on top, and flush with the
•cross-bars at the bottom. If the oart is to have two
handles, these are bolted to the summers ; if there is to
be only one handle, it is fixed in the centre underneath
the bottom to both the hind and front bars. Ifext bolt
on the springs or stays ; if springs are used, see that the
■scroll irons and springs combined are of such a de^th
that the wheel is Si in. clear at the top to the under side
•of the frame j if iron stays are used, lin. clearance will
suffice. Having bored on the springs and fixed the axle,
])ut in the bottom boards of red deal lin. thick, the
grain of which should run from side to side. To protect
the outer corners ot the frame, iron oornjer-plates should
be fixed round, about 6 in. each way. The wheels should
beabout 2ft. 9in. high; this would bring the top of the
cart about 3 ft. 3 in. from the ground line. To make the
cart more useful, portable boards may be fitted round
by placing small iron staples on the outside of the frame,
and irons on the boards, the irons being so made as to
slip into the staples.
Why the Welabach Mantle gives light.- The tem.
perature of the incandescent bodies with which a
welsbaoh mantle is Impregnated may be assumed as
being about 3500° P. The quality of the light depends
to a certain extent on the amount of air admitted,
which should be just sufficient to ensure combus-
tion ot the gas ; the burners employed are constructed
on this principle. The quality ot the light in an incan-
descent burner depends on the raising of the finely
divided rare earths (thorla, ceria, etc.) to the highest
degree of incandescence by the agency of a Bunsen
burner, which is constructed in such a manner that the
amount of air and gas supplied to the burner are in the
proportion which will yield a non-luminous flame and
give out sufficient heat to effect the object required.
Stereoscope for Holding a Number of Views.- A
simple effective stereoscope for exhibiting a large
number of views is shown in the accompanying sketch.
The apparatus consists of a box A with sliding adjust-
ment along a wood strip B similar to the usual form
Stereoscope for Holding a Number of Vieira.
of cheap stereoscope. At the back of the box at
are two spiral springs which sink into a recess. By
these springs the front picture is kept in position, what-
ever number ot views the box may contain. Across the
front ot the box is a rod D worked by a handle E. "With
this rod turn two rubber-tyred wheels ]?, one on each
side. To use the apparatus, the box is filled with pictures
(which should be pasted on thin mounts), and the
focus is adjusted for the front picture, wliioh is removed
as soon as it is done with by 'turning the handle in the
direction indicated, when the wheels ]? drag the picture
out of the way and it falls into the top. The next picture,
pressed forward by the spring, is already in position.
This apparatus might easily be constructed in pedestal
form u the focal adjustment is effected by means of a
long screw with a handle and a nut in the bottom ot the
box. The changing handle would, of course, be fixed
outside by lengthening the rod B.
Depositing Nickel on Wax Moulds.— Before nickel
can be deposited on a wax mould so as to get a smooth
sheet it is necessary to prepare the mould with black-
lead or with bronze powder as for the electrotype pro-
cess, and first deposit on it a thin film of copper in an
electrotype solution. If the object desired is a copy of
a design impressed on the face of the mould, it wul be
advisable to remove the mould to the nickel vat when it
has become coated with a very thin film ot copper, and
deposit the nickel on this film. If the design is not
undercut, it may be possible to peel off the film ot copper
from the nickel ; but some difficulty may be experienced
in getting a deposit ot nickel thick enough to form a
plate or sheet, as thick deposits have a tendency to crack,
curl up, and peel off. To get a tough coat, the nickel
should be deposited slowly with a low-tension current.
Cutting the Top off a Stoneivare Jar.— In cutting
the top off a stoneware pickle jar, first make an ink
mark right round the jar at the place where it is
to be cut; then with a new triangular file wetted
with turpentine make a mark over the ink mark,
cutting through the glaze. Enlarge the file mark with a
rasp; lubricating with turpentine. It is better to cut
through the jar with the rasp, but as this process is
very tedious, after cutting halfway through stand the
jar in water up to the flle mark, and with a chisel and
hammer tap on the file mark until the top comes off.
52
Cyclopsedia of Mechanics.
Making Rubber Solution, — With a sharp knife
wetted, cut into thin slices 1 oz. of pure Para rubber.
Place it in a wide-mouthed bottle, cover It with carbon
bisulphide or benzene (coal-tar naphtha), and cork
down. Next day the rubber will have swollen con-
siderably and have absorbed most of the liquid ; pour
on more liciuid, and continue the addition until a thick
fluid is obtained. One ounce of rubber will make about
Ipt. of solution, which is used asa oementforrubber goods.
Making a Safety Guard for a Circular Saw.— The
liability to accident by timber being thrown from the
circular saw has necessitated the provision of safety
guards. The guard about to be described is simiDle in eon-
Btructlon, elEcient, and comparatively Inexpensive. Pig. 1
of the accompanying illustrations shows a saw bench with
a suitable guard fixed in position ; A is the bench, B the
saw, c the fence, D a pillar, E radial arm, P the guard
hung to the arm and secured by means of a small pin
G. The radial arm is held in position by means of a set-
screw H. By easing this screw the guard may be turned
hack out oil the way while screws are being changed, or
while a saw is being topped in the bench. Immediately
underneath the socket of the radial arm there is a collar
washer J, which is also held in place by means of a set-
screw K. The advantage of this washer is that when the
radial arm, thus securing the guard to the arm. Hole*
should also be drilled at the ends to secure the piece to
the guard by means of small rivets or bolts, shown at Q
(Fig. 1) , passed through holes in the guard and riveted, or
the nuts screwed up tightly, as the case may be. A
piece of wood Hn. or iin. Jihick is now shaped as shown
at E (Fig. 1) ; the bent piece of iron or guard is screwed
to this. This piece of wood not only protects the saw
but also makes the guard more rigid. The guard is now
completed, and when shifting guards, all that has to be
done is to withdraw the pin G, place the other guard on
the arm, and insert the pin lower, or raise the guard, as
the case may be, to suit the diameter of saw or depth of
piece that is being sawn.
Turned Wood Case for a Drum Clock,— The useful
and ornamental clock case illustrated below is in
three separate mouldings A, B, C, and is thus much
easier to turn than if It were all in one piece. It can
be made in satin walnut, mahogany, oak, etc., but
the first is very easy to work, cheap, and, when polished,
looks well. Start with the moulding marked A, the
set-screw that secures the radial arm is eased, the washer
prevents the socket of the arm from sliding down the
pillar. If there were ho washer, the left hand would
have to be used tor holding the arm so as to prevent it
eliding down the pillar, when the guard would drop on
to the saw. L indicates a piece of timber partly cut by
the sitw. It will' be seen that the guard does not come
dowj) on to the piece that is being sawn. The sawder is
therefore able to see the tooth m the cut. This is an
important point ; for if nothing can be seen of the teeth
or cut (a,K is the case with some guards), it is impossible
for the sawyer to see whether the saw is making a true
course or not. It will also be seen that this guard may
be raised or lowered to suit timber of different depths.
There should be two or three guards of different sizes
for saws of various diameters. The same radial arm will
answer for all the guards. The iron pillar D (Fig. 1, and
illusti'ated by Fig. 2) should be of suitable length, and
about li in. in diameter. At M there is a 'shoulder that
rests square on the top of the table. The part N is
square, and there is a cotter- way Oto receive a small
cotter. Near the outer edge of the table a square hole is
made by first boring a hole and then filing it square.
The square part N of the pillar should fit nicely in this
hole. A cotter is then driven in the cotter-way, which
holds the pill.ir firmly in position. The square prevents
the pillar from turning m anj^ direction. The guard
P (Fig. 1) is a piece of wrought iron about IJin. wide by
Ain. thick, and of suitable length, and drilled to receive
the necessary screws and rivets, or small bolts with nuts
(see Pig. 1). This piece of iron is bent to the required
curve. A piece of iron is now made to the shape
shown at P (Fig. 1), or any convenient shape. A hole is
made at the centre to receive the radial arm E, and
another hole drilled at the top down through the centre
to receive a pin that passes down through it and the
Turned Wood Case for a Drum Clock,
wood for which should be liin. thick. The back is first
planed or turned flat, and the block is then placed on
the screw chuck and the outside turned and finished
with glasspaper. Then with pencil or compasses strike-
a circle 6J in. in diameter and cut right through on the-
llne with a thin parting tool ; this inside piece will thea
be large enough for the top moulding 0. The middle
moulding B should be made in the same way. For th&
top moulding turn and finish the outside, and bore-
to 3Jin. for the inside lip at D, T*, in. long. Then place the-
moulding in a hollow chuck and bore it out to ifa in. by
i^m. deep. The sizes given are for the globe drum clocks,
costing a shilling or so each. Of course, the inside
measurements must be varied according to the size of
clock to be fitted. The three mouldings are glued
together, three screws 14 in. long being put through A .
into B, and three through B into C. Unscrew the ring
and legs from the clock, and drive soft wood pegs in
place to keep the works from slipping. A ring E, which
just overlaps the edge of the clock and fills the space, is
not glued in but is held in position by three screws, so
that the clock can be removed at any time if required
for repairs, etc. A brass plate screwed on the back tor
hanging the clock completes the case.
Black Streaks in Nickel-plating.— Black streaks in
deposits of nickel are caused by bubbles of hydrogen
gas, which form in clusters on the surfaces of articles-
and then burst. They may be prevented by gently
agitating the articles whilst being plated, or by stroking
the clusters with a stout feather and thus bursting them-
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
53
They appear frequently when nickel solutions have not
been agitated tor some time, and have consequently
settled in a stratified condition. It is therefore advisable
to stir the solutions occasionally in the evenings, and
thus thoroughly mix the contents.
Fitting a Watch Hairspring.— In applying a new
hairspring to a watch, the centre coils are broken
out, about a quarter of a turn at a time, until there
is room for the collet. The effect of this upon the
time of the watch can he neglected, as the actual
length of spring removed is so small. Now bend a
small length sharply inwards for pinning into the collet.-
Place the collet, right way up, on a broach, and push It
on tightly ; hold the broach in the left hand, pass the
hairspring down the broach, and with the tweezers in
the right hand, insert the end of the spring into the hole
in the collet. Lay the broach down, with the collet and
spring on, and file up a brass pin to fit. Then fix it in
and break off the pin, which should previously be half
cut through with a pocket-knife.
Mounting Stereoscopic Photographs.— It is some-
times the case when viewing mounted stereoscopic
prints that the objects in the background, when seen
through the stereoscope, appear in front of the picture.
The cause of this^may be gathered from a consideration
of the following principles. Let A B (Fig. 1) represent
a pyramid and C the lens-board of a camera, with
lenses D and G forming Inverted images E and L on
the plate P. Supposing the operator to be standing
behind the plate, the image formed by D at B will be
similar to that seen by the right eye, and the image
formed by G at L similar to that seen by the left eye.
Now if a print be taken from this negative by placing a
6heet of sensitive paper against the Sim it will be like
mounting Stereoscopic
Photographs.
copper sulphate crystals in hot rain water untU the
water is saturated with copper, and will not dissolve any
more. Allow this to get cold, then add 4 fluid ounces of
sulphuric acid to each gallon of solution. Use anode
plates of pure copper connected to the copper elements
of the battery. Work the solution cold with current
from two Daniell cells of i-gal. capacity. Connect the
cells in series (copper of one to zinc of next) to start
the deposit, and when the boat is covered with a thin
film of copper connect the ceUs in parallel to finish.
Cutting Shoe Finishers' Irons.— Irons tor ironing
np the edges of boots and shoes are of various forms,
a few of which are shown in the illustrations. They
will serve as examples of how irons should be made
and recut. The iron is of such importance to the
finishing of all classes of work that it is worth while
to learn how to cut kit, as it is called, especially
by those who are at a distance from any large town.
It new irons are to be made, stocks for them must
be procured ; these stocks are oblong pieces of squared
iron, which are ultimately shaped as shown in figs.
1, 2, 3, and i, each iron having a stem at the bottom
that can be driven into a handle. The better way,
however, is to buy the irons already shaped, as they
are rery cheap, and then a careful reoutting produces a
good iron. Stocks for some of the smaller irons can be
made from the butt or shank ends of files or rasps. A
small vice and the necessaiT flies are the tools required.
Pig. 1, in which the crease or indentation B produces a
bead on the edge of the sole, can be made like all irons
of that kind, single and double, In sets in various sizes.
The same remark applies to Pig. 2, but in the latter an
indentation or crease is thrown upon the welt side.
If these two irons are combined in one, the crease at
Fig. 1 being placed at C in Fig. 2, a double iron is pro-
duced, and a set of such irons would be very useful.
They can run up to almost any size, by widening the
f=^
(ty\ f^=^
■Rg, 3
Shoe Finishers' Irons.
Pig. 2— that Is, the left-hand view as seen by the left eye
will now be on the right, because the images have heen
turned the right way up. Practically, the reason
why the distant objects come forward is that
the right eye is looking at the left eye view,
and vice versa, owing to the two views not having
been transposed in mounting. In mounting stereo-
scopic prints, to prevent confusion, lay them face
down, and run a short line across the back of the paper
where the two prints join (see Fig. 2). Trim straight
across the two prints for the base line and for the
top. Now cut the prints in halt and trim to about 2| in.
square, leaving on the right of the right-hand print tin.
more of the picture than appears on the left-hand print,
and on the left of the left-hand print i in. more of the
picture than appears on the right-hand print. Now
mount the prints about Jin. apart, with the half-lines on
the outside of the print instead of being joined as they
were before the print was cut.
Cubing Round Timber.— The easiest way of measur-
ing . round timber, to get the solid contents, is to
take one-fourth of the middle girth of the timber in
inches, square this dimension, multiply by the length in
feet, and divide by 144 s the result is the reputed cubic
contents. If the bark is on, make an allowance tor it by
deducting 1 in. per foot from the actual girth before
dividing by 4. Example : Round log of oak 20 ft. long,
18 in. diameter one end and 12in.the other, girth 48 in.
Then 48 in. = 4ft., lin. per foot = 4in., and48-4 = 44in. ;
quarter girth = 11 in., 11 squared = 11 x II = 121,
and 121 X 20 = 2,420. Then ?;^= 16-8, say 17 cub. ft.
144
Copper'platlng Model Boat.— Instructions are here
given on copper-plating a boat made partly of metal and
partly of wood. First well soak the woodwork of the boat
in linseed oil to close all the pores and prevent the copper
solution penetrating the wood ; then expose it to the air
for a day or two to oxidise and harden the oil. The part
to be coppered must now be coated with blacklead, weU
brushed in and polished. On this coating the copper
will be deposited, therefore the connecting wires must
be in close contact with it at several points. Dissolve
space between O and p (Pig. 2) from Jin. upwards,
increasing the space by V, in. for each size. Fig. 3 ia
somewhat like Fig. 1, but with a slightly flatter top. It
shows a double pump iron, which is made to flt two
thicknesses of edges ; It is, in fact, two irons in one, and
being larger than one iron only, it retains heat tor a
longer time. In Pi^. 4 the curve marked P can be modi-
fled as required ; being a waist iron, it is used to set up
edges of all kinds, some of which are thin and square,
others round, and others of various angles. The files
can be bought in sets ; they are called kit files, and can
be obtained probably at almost any leather grindery
stores. These' files consist of a four-cornered file, a flat
four-sided bastard file, a tapered file, a knife-shaped file,
a small rat-tail file, and a triangular file. Jewellers'
files of various shapes may also be used, and they
come in vei-y handy tor cutting different fancy shapes.
The rough cutting can be done with coarse files, and
the finishing of the shaping process with finer fUes, a
last touch being given with fine kit files. "When the
proper shape has been obtained the creases can be cut,
or the beads squared up with the tapered file, the
knife-shaped file, and the small rat-tail file, and the
square beads finished with the triangular file. So tar,
the iron has only been shaped up and roughly finished
as far as files can do it; the final finishing and
polishing are done with emery powder. Coarse, medium,
and flour emery are mixed with oH, the paste heing
smeared on pieces of leather and the iron rubbed
upon it; the coarse emery is followed by the medium
and then by the flour emery, the finishing being done
with dry flour emery. If the iron is for setting up a
stout edge, several pieces of leather are nailed together,
and the emery smeared on the topmobt one. During
the filing operations the greatest care must be taken
not to wear away the creases and beads.
Fireproofing Theatre Scenery.— In 3 gal. of water
dissolve 1 lb. of alum. With a stock brush thoroughly
soak the stretched canvas curtains or other fabric,
leaving no part unbrushed. When thoroughly dry,
prime in for painting. Another solution consists or
10 per cent, sodium tungstate. Apply as above, and
when dry prime in.
64
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
Ghost Illusion for Amateur Theatricals. — Pnlut
ou canTas a scene representing a room or library,
and showing a taooltcase. Tiie part of the hookoase
that would contain the shelves and books must be
out out of the canvas, the framework only being left,
and this framework must be so painted as to have asolid,
substantial appearance. The canvas that has been cut
out must be replaced by a black net or gauze, and the
shelves and books must be painted on the gauze, so that
when lighted up from the front the bookcase will ap-
pear complete. Behind the ^uze and close to it the
movable oat cloth is hung. This is a piece of canvas
dead black in colour, 12 in. larger all round than the cut-
out portion of the bookcase. The ghost or vision stands
behind the cat cloth. The light Is now turned down in
the scene so that the room is darkened, and at the same
time a good light is turned on at the back, and is so
arranged that it falls ou the front of the figure either
from the left- or from the right-hand side. While
darkening the scene and turning up the lights behind
the cat ototh must be pulled up or drawn on one side,
and the ghost scene is complete. With judicious manage-
ment this will answer for tableaux by adding accessories
on a large or small scale as may be necessary.
A Simple Sledge. — The accompanying illustration
shows a sledge for two persons ; it can, however, be
shortened to accommodate one person only. It is 5 ft.
long, 1ft. Sin. wide, and 1ft. 4Jin. deep, and should
be made of red wood, being afterwards painted. The
sides A are mortised to receive three rails B, whjoh bind
them together ; the rails are Sin. broad. . The sides C of
the seats are dowelled to the long rails or runners A,
and the seats D are nailed down. To stiffen the seats
and frame, iron bands should be inserted, one below
each seat, each being long enough to allow a screw
to be inserted in the runner. A half-round iron strap
is carried along the under edge of the runner, and
dull surface for the next coat, as if two coats were
put on without flatting the top coat would "oiss" up
and spoil it. If only one coat of japan is given,
the carriage, etc., will now be ready for lining out ; for
this, camel- or sable-hair pencils, called flne-Uners, and
picking-out pencUs are used. The colour (vermilion)
should be mixed in a^small dipper with gold size or
varnish to a creamy thickness. Another small pot
contains clear turps. The pencil is dipped into the
turps, then into the colour, and worked up on the
palette ; then, holding the pencil between the fore-
tinger and thumb, and using the other fingers as guides,
line out as required. When dry. well clean the whole
with a sponge, and give the underworks and wheels a
light coat of carriage varnish, and the body a coat of
under-ooatlng body varnish. After standing two days,
well flat the whole as the japan was done, being careful
to get out every particle of pumice dust from the corners
and crevices, using water freely ; then thoroughly dry
off, and give the body a good full coat of finishing body
varnish, and the under carriage, etc., a coat of pale
carriage vamish, putting satficient on to obtain a good
finish without getting runs. To make a successful job,
the carriage should be done In a light, roomy place, free
from draughts, and kept at a temperature of about 75° F.
Stump Moulding.— The following supplements the
information on stump moulding given on p. 36. Stump
moulding is so called because the moulder works on
a small bench called a " stump." The box parts used
are about 18 in. square and Sin, deep. The best are
of mahogany or other hard wood to combine lightness
and strength; they are hinged at one corner, and
have a fastening at the opposite corner, as at A in the
accompanying Ulustratiou. The hinges and fittings
A Simple Sledge.
curled round in the front to form a loop, as at E, to
which may be attached the hauling ropes. The follow.
Ing is the quantity of stuff required. Two pieces, 5 ft.
by 4i4 in. by |in. ; three pieces, 1 ft. 5 in. by S in. by i in. ;
four pieces, 11 in. by 9 in. by Jin.; and two pieces, 1ft.
6iin. by 10 in. by ^in. The following are the positions of
the rails and seats. From the nose of the sledge to the
first rail is (i in. ; from the inside edge of this rail to the
front of the seat is 7in. ; the centre rail is Immediately
in the centre of the sledge, and the second seat 7 in.
from this rail j the back rail is 6 in, from the end.
Painting and Varnishing a Fhaeton.— It is supposed
that a phaeton is to be repainted black and picked out in
red, and then varnished. If the paint is cracked very
much, the best plan will be to remove it by means of a gas
jet or burning lamp and an old plane-iron. The vehicle
may then be filled up and painted. If the paint has only
cracked through the varnish, rub it down to the colour
with pumice stone and water, then clean off thoroughly
and give a coat of colour made of tub white lead and a
small portion of driers and iarnpblack, mixed stiff, with
raw linseed oil and thinned down with turps; this
should dry in about ten hours, but should be allowed
to stand a day longer to get hard. In the meantime the
wheels, under caiTiage, etc., should be well rubbed down
with glasspaper, and a coat of lead colour applied as
above. Any holes or dents in the body should now be
filled with a stopper made of dry white lead, gold size,
■ind black japan, beaten up stiff with a mallet or hammer ;
and the wheels, carriage, and shafts puttied up where
required, and afterwards lightly sandpapered olf. The
body, when the stopper is hard, is faced over very lightly
with pumice stone and waterto take outthe brush marks
in the lead colour, after which the whole is given a coat
of ground drop black, thinned with turps and varnish:
this should dry in about four hours. Then add a good
drop of black japan to some of the dead black pre-
viously used, and give another coat ; let this stand for a
day, then give a good hard sponging off, ready for the
first coat of japan. If the work is to be finished in a
first-class manner, a second coat of japan is necessary i
but before applying this the first coat must be flatted
down with pumice dust and water on a pad of cloth to
remove any nibs which may exist, and to make a
Box for Stump Moulding.
may be of brass. The other two corners of the box are
dovetailed together. The box parts are fitted together in
pairs, the bottom part being made to take the pegs B.
The" moulder takes the bottom part, brings the ends A
together, and secures them. He rams it up on a
pattern plate or an oddside, audthen rams the other box
with the top part ou the other side of the pattern plate
or the other oddside. The two box parts are then put
together and moved off the bSnoh or stump to the floor.
The corner A is unfastened, and the box parts are opened
and removed, leaving the sand mould on the floor ready
for pouring in the iron. It will be seen that only one
pair of box parts will be required to make any quantity
of moulds on this principle. Of course, this method is
only suitable for use in casting comparatively small
articles such as cast heel-tips for boots.
Colouring Gold.— The foUowiug pickle has been found
very satisfactory for imparting a rich colour to gold
rings, scarf-pins, etc. Alum (powdered) 1 oz., common salt
loz., saltpetre 2oz., and water 10 oz. Wash the article
to be coloured in warm water to which a few drops (say
fifteen to twenty drops to a breakfast-cup full of water)
of ammonia have been added, using a soft brush and
soap. Einse in cold water, and dry in hot sawdust. Then
immerse the article in the pickle for about two minutes,
and again dry in hot sawdust. Finally polish with rouge.
Hints on the Use of a Kodak.— The ordinary pocket
kodak takes pictures 2 in. by liin., and the folding
and newer kodak takes pictures 3Un. by 2iin. When
closed, the folding kodak measures only H In. In thick-
ness. These cameras, having a fixed focus (that is,
allowing of no adjustment of the focus for near
objects at different distances), are unsuitable tor any
but fairly distant views, where the variation in focus
is very considerably less than with near objects at vary-
ing distances, because everything beyond a certain
distance is more or less in focus. This result is obtained
with a short focus lens and a small stop, but as the
latter means long exposure, and as short ones are
essential to good hand camera work, the fixed focus
patterns cannot altogether be recommended.
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
55
Portable Dog-beimel.— One-inch grooved and tongued
l>oards 6 In. wide is a suitable material of which to
make the portable dog-kennel illustrated by Fig. 1. The
boards of the sides should be nailed to a li-in. by
2-in. ledge at the top and a 3-in. by U-in. ledge at the
bottom (see K and L, Fig. 2). The boards of the front
and back should be nailed to similar ledges, as shown at
E and P (Pig. 1). The boards forming each side of the
roof should be naUed to the three bearers M, N, and
(Fie. 2). Fig. 3 shows the construction of the floor. It
will be seen that the kennel wiU be composed of sfeveu
main pieces. A fillet about 14 in. by 1 j in. should be
nailed to each end of the sides, as shown in the longi-
tudinal section (Fig. 2) , anij also by the enlarged section
(Fig. i) ; this is taken through A (Fig. 1). B (Fig. i)
slsting of 1 part of nitrate of tin and 2 parts of chloride
of gold dissolved in a little water and acid. Remove the
article and wipe it with a clean linen rag. ' A slight
excess of acid will increase the intensity of the black.
The following method will also be found very good, and
is the same as that adopted in oxidising silver articles.
Give the article a light silver-plating by deposition, in
a similar manner to ordinary cheap electro-plated goods.
Then prepare a solution made as follows. Dissolve in
a little acetic acid 2dwt. of sulphate of copper, Idwt. of
nitrate of potash, and 2 dwt. of muriate of ammonia.
After wai-ming the articles, apply the solution with a
camel-haiT pencil or immerse in the bath, then expose
them to the fumes of sulphur in a closed box. This may
readUy be done by placing in a tin biscuit-box a red hot
shows a portion of the boarding of the side with the
angle flUet p nailed to it. The front and back can be
fixed to the sides by eight 2i-in. by f-in. bolts and nuts,
as shown at Figs. 1 and 2, and indicated by the section.
Fig. i. Each half of the roof can be fixed to the ends by-
eight bolts and nuts in a similar manner. The floor will
rest on the ledges G and H (Fig. 2) round the bottom of
the boarding. The roof should be covered with felt.
Blackening Brass.— One method of blackening brass
Is as follows. Dip the article in a bath consisting of
1 part of sulphate of iron and 1 part of white arsenic
dissolved in 12 parts of hydrochloric acid. When the
article has become sufficiently black, rinse it well in
several changes of cold water to remove the acid, dry
in sawdust, and polish with blacklead ; it may then be
lacquered with a pale lacquer. Another method, and
one more generally adopted, although somewhat more
expensive, is as follows. Well polish the article with
tripoli, and afterwards wash it well in a mixture cou-
FlG. 4
Iron bowl, such as the bowl off a small lead ladle. In
which are a few pieces of sulphur. Hang the articles
on a rod across the tin, and close the lid. It will be
necessary to do this where there is a fairly good.draught
to carry oS the sulphur fumes.
Tempering Gun Springs.— In tempering springs for
guns and revolvers, make the springs red hot (be careful
not to overheat them), then plunge them into cold
water. Take them out, warm them over the Are, rub
with suet, blaze them over a clear forge fire, and let them
cool. The foregoing operation requires considerable
practice to produce a desirable temper.
56
Cyclopsedia of Mechanics.
Making Pipe-eye Scroll-irons.— Coaohsmiths' barrel
heads of scroU-irous, or pipe-eye soroll-irons, are usually
made as follows. For an ordinary sized one having
an OTal stem, take a piece of square edge iron 1 in. by
}iu. and ■well upset one end, making it rather wider
than it is thick, setting it in slightly about It in. from
the end to help in forming the eye, and round it off
a little. Then make hot a piece of flat iron li in.
liy iin. or Sin. thick, according to the width of pipe-
eye required, and with the top and bottom fullers set
it in to make a round bossi nearly cnt it through
at the narrow pai-t with the gouge, and weld it on one
side Of the ii-on already upset. Jffiake another boss,
and repeat the weld for the other side, at the same
time working the pipe-eye to shape and size, and working
up the OTal close to the eye with the fiiller so as not to
cut in, afterwards using top and bottom oval tools.
When the eye is something like the desired shape, punch
a small i-in. hole through the centre, gradually making
the hole the required size with a steel mandril and work-
ing up the round eye in top and bottom tools.
Detachable Lath for Table Top. — The drawings
herewith show a simple and effective arrangement for
holding a lath to a table top. A cleat A (Figs. 1 and 2)
is fixed to the end of the lath B by a couple of screws,
as indicated, the Cleat and lath being held to the table
top by inserting a wedge W, as shown. Fig. 3 is a view
half turns; the time registered would be the same.
The average good three-quarter-plate English lever
watch, when lying down, has a balance arc ofabout one
and a quarter to one and a half turns, and makes what
are termed " long arcs." When hanging up It wUl make
about a quarter of a turn less, say one turn to one and a
quarter turns, on account of the greater friction at the
balance pivots when in that position. The balance then
rests upon the sides of the two pivots Instead of resting
on the end of one, as in lying down. The watch then
makes " short arcs. Obviously, if the short arcs are slow,
the watch wiU go slower when worn in the pocket than
when lying on the dressing table at night. But If the
hairspring is Isochronous, causing the long and short
arcs to be performed in equal times, there would be no
difference in the timekeeping, whether th e watch was worn
in the pocket or was kept lying down. Ordinary watches
with hairsprings that have not been thus manipulated
will lose about one minute per day in the pocket more
than when lying down, the short arcs being then known
as " sixty seconds slow." To test a watch for this error,
set it on time by a regulator, noting its rate lying
dial up for twenty-four hours. Then place it nine o'clock
up for twelve hours and three o'clock up for twelve hours,
and the sum of these two last positions will be its rate
for the short arcs, while the first twenty-four hours' run
wUl give its rate for the long arcs.
Pattern for Saddle-sbapod Boiler.— A pattern for a
saddle-shaped cast-iron boiler made as follows will
answer for moulding in green sand. Prepare two
substantial blocks A (Fig. 1) made to the inner con-
tour of the casting. To these blocks nail or screw
two pieces B and a piece C, all the pieces being made
fta 2 "^^'FiQ 3
Lath attached to Table Top.
FIG. 2-.
Pattern for Saddle-shaped Boiler.
of the cleat ; this and the wedge should be made of hard-
wood.
Calculating Weight, etc., of Copper and Iron
Wires. — In calculating the sectional areas of wires,
the diameter in Inches corresponding to the number of
the gauge of the wire must first be determined, and this
can be got only from tables. Then to find the area of
cross-section in square inches, square the diameter in
inches (that is, multiply it by itself), and multiply by
■7854. To find the weight in pounds of a single wire,
multiply the cross-section, determined as just described,
by the length in inches and by "28 for iron or hy '31 for
copper. To determine approximately the weight in
f>oundB of a stranded cable, multiply the weight of the
ength of single wire by the number of wires in the
strand.
Timing of Watch Hairsprings.— The vibrations of
a watch balance occupy exactly equal times (with
an average hairspring) only when they are exactly
equal in extent. For instance, in a watch with
an ordinary flat hairspring, the balance vibrating
exactly one whole turn, and going to time lying
down, if the power be inorea.sed so as to make the
vibrations of the balance one and a quarter turns, the
watch will no longer be quite on time, but will either
lose or gain— probably the latter. In such a case it
may be said that the short arcs (one turn) are slower
than the long arcs (one and a quarter turns) . But in the
case of a breguet hairspring (with an overcoil), the
spring can be so manipulated as to I'ender the long and
short arcs of the balance isochronous— that is, performed
in equal times. In such a watch it would not matter
whether the balance vibrated one turn or one and a
to the thickness of the metal j C should be saw-kerfed,
80 that it will bend to the required curve. On each
end of B and C fasten D, and two strips E, running
the whole length of the pattern. Finally attach P by
screws, which may be released to facilitate removal of
the core, which is rammed inside the pattern. The
pieces V should be stiffened by removable battens to
prevent the ramming bulging the pieces outward. The.
open part of the core is striokled to shape by a straight
strip of wood G (Fig. 2) shouldered down to the thickness
of the metal, and guided by and working between the
two segments D (Fig. 1). When the mould is to be
rammed, the battens used for stiffening the pieces P
(Fig. 1) are removed. The inside of the pattern is then
filled with sand and striokled off level with the convex
edges of the segments. The latter is done with the flush
edge of the strickle G (Fig. 2). After withdrawing the
pattern, the stiffening blocks A (Fig. 1) are stopped off by
nlling up the spaces left by them in the sand. The core
niust be supported in the mould by studs or ohaplets,
and provision must be made for securing the vent of
the core through branches or openings on the casting.
Any branch on the casting not occurring at the junction
of the straight and curved parts of the metal should be
left loose, so that it may be taken away on a draw-baok
plate. Shallow bosses or facings should also be loose.
All external edges of the casting should be well rounded.
Fig. 3 shows the finished pattern.
Coloured Cement Floor, — In making a coloured
cement floor 2 parts of Portland cement by measure
are mixed with 3 parts of sand. Before adding the
water, mix with it a little red oxide of iron. The exact
quantity of oxide to use will depend on the depth of
colour required, and must be found by experiment.
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
57
Particulars of Canada Balsam.— Canada balsam Is
a sticky, yellowish-white material, with an odour some-
what resembling turpentine. It is a crude turpentine,
obtained by puncturing pine trees (Pinus canarienBis),
and is similar to the other forms of crude turpentine
obtained from Pinus sylvestris and Pinus maritima.
On heating it, the Tolatile portion passes off, leaTing a
bard reslu which is used as a waterproof cement for
glass, etc., and for mounting specimens for the mioro-
Boope ; for the latter purpose it is dissolved in chloroform.
Brush for Enamel Paint.— A hog's-hair lather brush'
tor which a barber has no further use is best for applying
enamel paint. Having been constantly In hot water,
the bristles are split fine so that no hair marks wUi be
left when applying the enamel. Neither mops nor fitches
are of any use ior the purpose •, the latter are employed in
general painting for touching up, filling in, cutting in,
and lining. A fitch can be softened in hot water.
Setting-out tlie Bevel of a Hip Rafter.— Below is
given a method of finding backing to hips. Set out
■to scale the line of the pitch of the roof as shown at
ABO (Fig. 1) , and a portion of the plan D E F G j EG will
l)e the plan of the hip. At right angles to E G set up
■O H, making it the same length as the height B C, then
CIG. 1,
S! H is the pitch of the hip. In E G take any point, as K,
and at right angles to this line draw DP through K.
With K as centre draw the arc LM tangent to EH as
flhown, join ME, which is the angle of the backing. Set
the bevel to the drawing as shown. Fig. 2 is a sketch
showing the bevel being applied to the hip. A drawing
as shown at Fig. 1 can be sketched on a board to about
lin. scale on a building, and it will be found to take up
much less time than the rule-of-thumb method of guess
and trial. If work is to be done properly and without
mistakes, time must be allowed to set it out. There is
no other proper way.
Be-tinniug Copper Vessels.— The object of tinning
copper stewpans is to prevent chemical action on the'
copper, which tnay be injurious to health. It also
gives a much better appearance to copper cooking
utensils, besides facilitating their being kept clean.
To ensure success in re-tinning, the article must be
perfectly free from grease or dirt— in fact. It must be
chemically clean. For this purpose, first burn off all
grease and dirt over a forge fire or witl^ a blow-pipe
until the article is heated to a dull red colour, being
particular where the handles are riveted on. Now wipe
out the inside with a small pad of tow, and set down to
cool, and when cold, thoroughly scour the inside with
wet rough sand or powdered coke until it becomes clean
and bright. If the dirt has eaten into the metal, or if
the surface Is very black, wash it with raw spirit of
salts (hydrochloric acid), using a piece of tow tied to the
end of a short stick. Kinse with cold water, and then
scour bright. When perfectly bright, wash the article
well with cold water, taking care that no grit or sand re-
mains inside, and then dust the inside with powdered sal-
ammoniac. The outside must be prepared by coating it
with a mixtui-e of salt and whiting; which should be of
the consistency of cream ; this prevents any tin adhering
to the outside. If the top of the outside requires to be
tinned to the depth of about 1 in., as is the case with all
new stewpans, it should be thoroughly cleaned as before
explained. A band of tin 1 in. deep should be tightly
heid round the top of the stewpan, while the mixture of
salt and whiting is rubbed over the stewpan below the
band. Now remove the band, and dust the bright sur-
face of the stewpan, formerly covered with the tin band,
with sal-ammoniac. A rubber, by which the molten tin
is manipulated over the copper surface. Is made as
follows. Coil the end of a piece of J-in. wire, about
18 in. long, until it is about 2 in. in diameter, and tin
the coil by soaking it in raw spirit of salts for some
time, and then dipping it in a saturated solution of sal-
ammoniac and killed spirit (chloride of zinc), and
rubbing whilst hot on block tin or tinman's solder. Place
thestewpanov ra forge fire, and in it drop a small quan-
tity of pure Diock tin ; the amount of tin depends on the
size of the vessel. The tin will soon melt, after which it
must be rubbed over the copper with the rubber until the
surface of the copper alloys with the tin. Any difiiculty
in getting this result may be overcome by repeatedly and
alternately dusting with powdered sal-ammoniac and
vigorously rubbing over the tin with the rubber. The
top of the outside of the pan may be more easily tinned
with a soldering iron, the solution of sal-ammoniac and
chloride of zinc .being used instead of the powdered
Setting-out the Bevel of a Hip Rafter.
sal-ammoniac. Care should be taken that the article
is not allowed to, get too hot. The maximum heat is
obtained when the molten tin can be rinsed round the
inside of the article. The molten tin is then quickly
emptied out into another pan, if more, than one is to be
tinned, and the pan quickly wiped out with a pad of
clean tow, which will remove any superfiuous tin, after
which it must be suddenly plunged into a vessel of cold
clean water, and then dried by rubbing with clean hot
sawdust. When pouring molten tin from one pan into
another, great care should be taken in seeing that the
pan intb which it is to be poured is perfectly dry and
warm, otherwise the possibility of the tin flying will
make the operation highly dangerous. If a stewpan,
ladle, spoon, or strainer requires to be tinned all over
inside and out, it should be thoroughly cleaned, and the
inside and outside should then be treated with saturated
solution of sal-ammoniac and killed spirit of salts, and
then dusted over with powdered sal-ammoniac. A vessel
containing molten tin should now be in readiness, into
which the article should be carefully plunged and washed.
The article is then wiped with tow, plunged in cold clean
water, dried with hot sawdust, and polished with whiting.
Develoning Negative FUms.— Nothing will prevent
films curling during development, unless some mechan-
ical means of keeping flat the film is adopted. A very
good plan, however, with small films such . as those of
pocket kodaks is to roll the film, with the sensitised side
outwards, roun d a bottle, the film being held in place with
circular rubber bands;" the bottle is then revolved in a
deep dish well filled with developing solution. Such treat-
ment does not of course permit errors of exposure to be
corrected during development. Special frames are made
for printing from films, but ordinary frames can be used,
the film being laid on glass.
58
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
Painting Cardboard for Slate Pencil Writing.—
The composition for painting eardboaxd so as to produce
a sui'face that can be written on with slate pencil is
similai- to that used for blackboards. Four ounces of
shellac should be dissolved in 1 qt. of methylated spirit,
and then ground with It oz. of flour emery, 2 oz. of ivory
black, and 1 oz. of ultramarine blue. Other blackboard
dressings are given on p. 230. Before using, the solution
should be thoroughly shaken ; a little is then poured out
into a dish and evenly applied with a brush. Two or
more coats will b6 required. If the cardboard is very
porous, a coat of very thin size may first be applied.
Ordnance Datum. — The Ordnance datum is an
imaginary horizontal plane extending over the whole
country at the same height as the average mean level
of the sea at Liverpool. This datum was fixed by the
surveyors of the Ordnance Department, and the levels
of districts are marked on the Ordnance mapa as being
so many feet above the Ordnance datum, that is, above
the average sea-level at Liverpool. The accompanying
illustration shows a small portion of the si^ Ordnance
oc
87.7
o
B.M.S9')55
'■^t:?'
Ordnance Datum.
map. At the corner of the house a bench-mark has been
cut (these are usually about 1ft. 6 in. above the surface
of the ground), and the figures Indicate that the point
is at a height of 89'55ft. above Ordnance datum. The
figure in the roadway indicates that the road at that
point is about 87'7 ft. above the datum, the second place
of decimals not being given.
Polishing Brass Tube.— Brass tubes are prepared for
polishing by being floated with a file, the teeth of which act
as cutters and take off the top skin of the metal. Instead
of floating, the tubes maybe polished bygrindingwithan
emery wheel of about 180 fineness. This wheel, 12 in. in
diameter, is fixed on the end of the polishing spindle
by means of a false nose, the wheel being held in place
by a nut screwed tight on the end of the thread of the
upindle. On the bench is fixed a large compound slide-
rest with an arrangement to carry the tube : a table is
placed both in front and at back of the slide-rest to
prevent the tube bobbing about. The advantage of the
slide-rest is that any size of tube from fin. to 2 in. may
be ground by simply raising or lowering the tool-holder
and the tube carrier. The tube is placed on the carrier
and adjusted till there is the slightest pressure or allow-
ance for grinding by the wheel. The side of the wheel,
not the edge, is used to grind with, and the tube is passed
between the rest and the wheel, which takes off from the
tube, with a circular motion, the thinnest possible
amount of brass. Each side is served in this manner.
Tubes are ground much more quickly by this method
than by hand floating. After grinding, the tubes are-
treated with ordinary polishing sand and flnaUy flnishe*
off with the ordinary cotton mop and compo. The mopa-
should be closely sewn together, the rows of stitching
being about ^in. apart. They are further strengthened
by bolting together with four ordinary snap-head, square-
shank J-in. diameter iron pins with nuts.
Cleaning ParafiBn Barrel.— Paraflin oil cannot be re-
moved from the pores of a wooden barrel by chemical
means. If the barrel is to be used for storing water, the
oil could be removed by knocking out one end of the
barrel and placing some lighted shavings in the barrel.
After the oU has been burnt out the barrel may be-
covered with boards and earth until the name has dis-
appeared. The charcoal formed by the partial burning'
of the wood in the interior of the barrel will be an
advantage rather than otherwise in a water-butt. The-
only alternative plan is to take one end out of the barrel
and leave it in the open air until all the paraffin oil
has evaporated, then give the inside of the barrel a
coat of slaked lime, thinned to a cream with water.
This will take longer, but will be safer than the flrst.
method.
Gramopbonc or Phonograpb Motor. — Ordinary
brass clock wheels will do for a clockwork gramophone or
phonograph motor. The motive power can be the main-
spring and main- wheel complete of an eight-day American.
Fig. 2
Clockwork Motor for Gramophone or Phonograph.
clock, but a stronger wheel would wear better. The train-
consists of three wheels and pinions (see Figs. 1 and 2),
and each wheel and pinion has a ratio of about 6 to 1.
They are controlled by a weight governor like a steam-
engine governor. The last wheel of the train carries-
the discs and drives the governor. The wheels are
mounted on studs on a bedplate, as in Fig. 1. The last
one, carrying the discs, has a long "pipe."
Recipe for Iron Cement.— Iron cement, used for
filling up cracks and blowholes in iron castings by appli-
cation with a hot iron, may be made as follows. Take
by weight 2 parts of sulphur and 1 part of fine blaoklead.
Place the sulphur in an old iroubowland hold over afire
till the sulphur begins to melt ; then add the blacklead,
and stir till all is well mixed and melted. Then pour on.
an iron slab or smooth stone. To use the composition, a
sufficient quantity is broken ujp, placed in the hole, and
soldered in by means of a hot iron, in the same manner
as a tinsmith solders sheets. As the fumes of sulphur
are very annoying, the material must be melted in a
good draught.
Cork Paint for Ships.— " Cork " paint, sometimea-
used on ships' ironwork to prevent it rusting, is com-
posed principally of white lead, oil, varnish, and quick
driers. After the surface to be treated has been sorapeO'
and red leaded, the paint Is applied, and granulated cork
is thrown on to the wet surface ; when thoroughly sax,
the cork is painted over. This metl^od is only adopte*
where the space is to be utilised for sleeping accommo-
dation, and where the iron is not specified to be-
covered with wood. This method is rarely employed in
the merchant service, but In cruisers, where as little
wood as possible is used, cork is freely made use of, heme
fenerally mixed up in the paint shop of the yard where
he work is done.
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
5!)
Replacing Jewel Hole In Geneva Watch.— The
jewel hole in the halance ot a Geneya watch is held
In position hy the thin edge of its setting heiug
burnished over the edge of the jewel. In fitting a
new jewel hole, the old cine must be pushed out hy
a flat-pointed peg, and the edge ot the setting raised
by very carefully running the smooth point of a
centre-punch round it. After fitting the new hole,
which should go tightly into its recess, the thin edge
must be once more burnished over the edge of the
stone by running the centre-punch point round it, using
a little oil as a lubricant.
Fire-cracks in Plaster Walls.— Pii-e-oracks (which in
some parts of England are called air-cracks) in plaster
walls should be treated before giving the primary coat
of paint with a coat of weak glue size (} lb. best Scotch
glue to i gal. water) applied when the size is quite hot.
Aliput 1 sq. yd. should be done at a time, and the size
should be w^ped off at once with a piece ot old rag, the
object being merely to fl.U aU the small cracks with
size. The surface ot the plaster should be carefully
wiped, for size should never be used on a plaster surface
except for the purpose of filling cracks.
Furnace for Wagon Springs.- Pig. 1 is a cross
section and Fig. 2 a longitudinal section of a suitable
furnace to be used when making railway wagon springs.
A shows the firehole, B the blast inlets, and the cham-
bers for the spring plates. The products of combustion
the paint. 'When sufficient body has been laid on, the (
work will be ready for polishing ; this is done in most
oases by rubbing down with a piece of felt dipped in
tripoli or very finely powdered pumice-stone. Towards
the end of the rubbing add a little oil, and when the
work appears bright and glossy rub with oil only. Care
must be taken that there is no grit in the polishing
medium, or the work will be scratched aU over and
spoUt. Finish off with a soft cotton or sUk duster. The
brass part of the bedstead must be boiled for about
twenty minutes in a strong solution of soda or potash-
say i lb. ot potash and Igai. ot water : then well wash in
clean cold water and dry. If the old lacquer has been
removed, dip the parts in aquafortis by means of brass
tongs ; when quite bright and clean, plunge in clean
cold water, and dry in warm sawdust. The re-lacquering
may then be done. It wiU be better to obtain the
lacquer i-eady made. It must be applied with a large flat
camel-hair brush, and the pieces of tubing laid on a hot
stove or in an oven to set the lacquer. The various
parts of the rails may now he put together, and the bed-
stead set up again.
Burnt Ballast for Mortar. — Where clean sharp
sand cannot be had, burnt clay ballast or coke breeze
are very good substitutes. Coal slack is not to be
recommended. The coke breeze should be obtained
from the nearest gasworks. The burnt ballast may
be prepared in the following manner, the object being
to burn the clay hard, as in brickm'aking. Four o^
^///■/.■/.■/// .:/.'/////,'/ //
Fig. I
Fig. 2
s^^
Furnace for Wagon Springs.
pass through flues in the bottom ot the third chamber,
and thence under the floor to a stack in some con-
venient position. The furnace should he built of brick
and lined with firebrick, iron doors being fitted in the
usual manner to open with chains, pulleys, and weights
or levers. The stays are of cast iron.
Preserving the Colour of Bath Stone.— Repeatedly
cleaning oft the face of Bath or other stone by
rubbing, glasspapering, etc., is to be deprecated, as it
removes the natural skin, and, by opening the pores ot
the stone, makes it absorbent. Treatment with Pluate
or the Szerelmey liquid will give the surface of the
stone a sUiceous skin, closing the pores, and making the
stone non-absorbent. Neither ot these preservatives
will appreciably alter the colour of the stone, although
it is probable that in time the stone will become a little
darker. An alternative plan is to paint the stone with a
flatting coat of white lead mixed with turps and a very
little linseed oil; this leaves a dead surface without
gloss and not unlike that of distemper, and is also a pre-
servative.
Re-painting and Re-lacquerlng Bedstead,— In re-
painting and re-lacquering a half-tester . bedstead it is
necessai-y that first the brass headraU and footrail be
taken to pieces. Thoroughly clean oft the whole of the
old paint with a shavehook or other tool, then rub
down the Iron perfectly smooth. Mix a quantity of
one ot the following mirtures: (1) Ivory black; and
shellac varnish. (2) Melt 41b. of asphaltum, and
add lib. of hot balsam of copaiba, and when mixed
thin down with hot oil of turpentine. (3) Grind ivory
black very smooth with turps on a marble slab with a
muller, and add copal varnish till the paint is ot the
proper consistency j sulflcient varnish only must be used
to cause the colours to bind and dry firm and work tree
without becoming either sticky or shiny. The ironwork
must then be carefully painted with the varnish by
means of a camel-hair brush. About three to five coats
must be given, each coat being dried in an oven heated
to about 300° P., and if possible the heat must be grad-
ually increased, but not to such a point as will calcine
five old drain pipes, 9 in. or 12 in. diameter, are uiid
in line with open joints. Around one end of the flue
so formed is placed a heap ot wood, say 3 ft. high and
6 ft. across the base. Over this conical shaped hea,p of
wood is spread a good layer ot coal, and on the coal a
layer of clay 6 in. or 8 in. thick may be deposited. Before
attempting to burn the clay, it should be well turned,
over, and tempered and dried in the air. When the fire
is burning fairly well, more coal or breeze is added, and,
when everything is red hot, another layer of clay. Mora'
coal and more clay are in this manner added to the
heap, until it becomes so large that further additions to
it cannot conveniently be made. The fire is then allowed
to die down, and the ballast is broken up and taken
to the mortar mill. One cubic yard of clay measured in
the solid, before digging, will, when burnt and broken
up, make li cub. yd. to li cub. yd., and wiU weigh about
Itou. From icwt. to Icwt. ot coal is required to burn
1 cub. yd. ot clay ; or, according to some authorities,
about 11 cub. yd. of breeze and 4 tons of coal, including
slack, will burn 100 cub. yd. of clay.
Taking Soundings of Ship's Well,— On each side of
a ship's keelson there are "limber holes," which allow
the bilge water to pass freely to the lowest part of
the compartment, where there is an iron perforated
casing to keep out rust chips or other sediment that
would prevent, correct soundings. These casings are-
about 1.5 in. in diameter, and one is fitted alongside
the keelson in each compartment at the lowest point
(which is aft in the fore-body compartments and
forward In those ot the after-body). Any leakage or
cargo sweat is tree to run down the skin between the
frame or ribs to the Umbers. The sounding tool is an
iron rod 2 ft. or 2 ft. 6 in. long, attached to a small line.
The ship's carpenter chalks this rod and drops it into-
the casing or well (keeping it vertical, of course). The-
well soundings are entered in the I05 book in inches
twice daUy. The iron rod is notched with a file at every
inch. Some steamers with several compartments have
limber holes in some of these which can be immediately
closed, in case of collision, etc., by a screw sluice door
manipulated from the main deck.
•60
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
Bemovlng Cannon Flnlon front Keyless Watch.—
In removing from akeylesB watch a cannon pinion that is
flxedTery tightly, if there Is a square at the back take hold
of it with a pair of cutting nippers in one hand and grasp
the body of the cannon pinion with a pair of brass-nosed
?liers held in the other hand, and twist the pinion off.
f it cannot be removed in this manner, or if there is no
squai-e at the back to hold, the centre arbor must be
punched through with a small-pointed punch that wUl
Just enter the cannon pinion without damaging it. The
watch should r^st on a stake or piece of boxwood with a
hole in it under the centre arbor. One smart tap should
send the centre arbor through.
Design lor a Carved Photo Frame.— Walnut, oak,
or canary wood is suitable for constructing the photo-
graph fi-ame here illustrated. It shoiUd be about Jin.
or 1 in. thick, and 10| In. long by 9 in. wide. The outside
margin is | in. i the size of the inner oval, from A to B,
4fin.; f rom C to D 6i in. ; andtheouter oval is fin. larger
all round. The oval could be made larger or smaller, to
suit the photo ; the dotted lines show the method of con-
struction. The design is sinlple and plain, and easy to
mark on the wood. It the lines A B and C D are continued
to the outer edges of the wood, they will divide it into four
,^Yi^^villl'w■;■,v.^^l|.i\■^l^i^';M^a'■ '^,^'■'nl''.'.||■'■'''''■■|'.^! '':
/.i i iii L liiiiiiM i i irffl4 n ii i i: Jiii III li)! d i, m™™^
with a piece of wire flattened at one end gently rub the
solder along the seam until every part is joined. Bmall
articles of iron may be Joined In a similarway with equal
parts of copper and zinc, but if the iron is to be hammered
much after soldering, 2 parts of copper and 1 part of zmo
would be more suitable. "With these solders mix equal
parts of the borax paste and grains of solder, and along
the seams place sufficient of the mixture to soldei' them
when melted. Some dry borax should also be Sept ready
at hand, so that a little may be taken and th.own on
the solder at any point where the material does not appear
to be flowing freely.
An Improved Saw-vice. — Figs. 1 and 2 show an
ordinary pattern of joiners' saw-vice, differing from
others only In the method of tightening up the jawsj
Fig. 3 shows the bare-faced tenon for uprights, and
Figs. 4, and 5 plan and elevation of eccentric clamp
with rod and nuts. The rod is of i-in. round iron,
with thread each end (mild steel would be more suit-
Design for a Carved Photo Frame.
-equal parts, and if one part of the design is sketched and
taken off on tracing paper, it can be applied to each
corner. The ground can be punched or cleaned.
Brazing Brass and Iron.— A brazing spelter for small
articles of brass consists of 5 parts copper, 3 parts zinc,
and 2 parts silver, alloyed as explained on p. 63. If the
seams are not required to standmuohworkingafter solder-
ing, they may be joined edge to edge. "When seams are
formed in this way, little nicks, about 4 in. apart, should
be filed out along the edges, so that the solder flowing
through the nicks during the soldering operation will
render the joint sound. If the seam is to be worked after
soldering, a small lap is necessary to ensure adequate
strength. To form seams of this type, first thin the edge
of the metal along the ends that are to form the seams,
.about } in. in from the edge, so that when the two edges
are lapped over each other the combined thickness at the
seams will be the same as the single thickness of the
metal at other parts. Cut a small cramp at the top and
bottom of the seam, and fit the opposite edge in these
cramps. After preparing the seams by either of the
above methods, fasten binding wire round the articles
BO as to hold the seams securely in position. Now
powder some borax for use as a flux, and soak it in
enough water to form a thick paste j place a little of
this along the parts to be soldered, and gently heat
the article by some suitable means, such as foot bel-
lows and blowpipe, so that it will expand equally,
and not disarrange the seam ; increase the temperature
until the metal is a dull red, and then take a strip of the
solder.dlp the end in the borax, and, holding the opposite
-end with the pliers, rub the solder along the seam until a
Jittle melts off. Keep the solder in a molten state, and
Fig. 4
An Improved Saw-vice.
able), the bends being made by heating the iron red'
hot lor the first, and nearly so when placed through
the hole in the clamp and bent. This clamp must be
shaped out, and the part where it will tighten on the
stock by revolving should be smooth and true. Two
•fi-in holes, which will be 6i in. down, are bored through
both uprights to accommodate the ends of the rod, and
collars may be let in flush at the back to tighten the
nuts against. When the nuts are adjusted, a saw is
instantly clamped by pressing the handle down as shown
in Figs. 1 and 2. To release the saw, pull the handle of
the eccentric claihp (lever) up. The position of the rod
hole Is as shown on the handle side of the circle, and
farthest from the stock. It will add to the grip to make
uprights slightly curved outwards in the middle, and a
2i-in. butt hinge will complete the vice. A sti'ip of
vulcanised rubber or leather fastened along the inside
edge (top) of jaws will improve the filing.
Cutting Tin-plate.— If a number of pieces of tin-plate
the same size and form are to be cut, it is usual to have a
punch and die cut to the desired shape ; these are fitted
to a press, and the pieces are then stamped out. If a
limited number only is required, or if the pieces differ In
size and shape, a circular hole smaller than the opening
required i^ punched out with a hollow punch upon a lead
piece J the nose of a pair of circular snips is then inserted
through the hole and the metal out away to form an
opening of the shape desired.
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
61
Iiajrins Marble Mosaic Pavemont.— The materials
commonly used for marble mosais paving are known as
burnt marbles — that is, pure marbles burnt to the
desired colours, such as rouge royal (red) and Russe
cotto (red), with yellows, blues, greens, and greys of
various shades, according to the amount ol time 8pen1>
in burning. The natural marbles used in their original
form are chiefly St. Ann's marble and Carrara and Irish
green. The cubes may measure about f in. sctuare, though
the size of the cubes depends on the area of the
floor to be covared; but the cubes generally used are
from i in. to f in. square, and are either sawn or cut by
hand to the re(iuired dimensions. For each floor only
one size of cube is used. The tesserae are fixed with a
cementing material consisting of chalk lime slaked with
water, and left in the open air for several days un^iil it is
killed ; it is then sifted and mixed vrith a large pro-
portion of fine crushed brick and water, and well
beaten up with wooden beaters into a fine mellowed
mortar ready for immediate use. The floor for the recep-
tion of the mosaic is generally formed of Portland
cement concrete, floated over to a taii-ly true face ; the
mortar is now spread evenly on the floor, and the cubes
of marble are laid to the required pattern, a small
hammer being used for tapping the cubes in until they
are solidly bedded. The floor is afterwards roUed with a
moderately heavy roller, and then left for a time until
the tesserae are set, when the ineiiualities on the surface
of the floor are rubbed offl with specially constructed
rubbers of sharp grit stone, water being freely used in
the process. The face of the floor is rubbed very fine
dip, after well pickling the articles, place in stronger
nitric acid till a frothy appearance results ; then wash-
in water and dip for a few seconds in the strongest-
nitric acid. Wash in a bath containing a little dis-
solved argol or cream of tartar, and dry in warm
sawdust; then burnish the articles and lacquer in clear
lacquer. A different but equally pleasing appearance-
may be given to the brackets by bronzing. A bath that
imparts to brass a shade from brown to a deep red can
be made by dissolving 2 oz. of nitrate of iron and 2 oz. of
hyposulphite of soda in Ipt. of water. Immerse the
articles in this till they are of the required tint. For a
shade from a pale green to a deep olive green, add 1 part
of perchloride of iron to 2 parts of Water. For a dark
green tint take 1 pt. of water, 1 oz. of nitric acid, and
4oz. of nitrate of copper. A bronze which giVes a very
good finish is composed of 1 part oxide of iron, 1 part
white arsenic, and 12 parts hydrochloric acid. All'
frease must first be removed from the articles and the
ronze painted on with a brush. When dry the articles
may be burnished in the usual way in part, or plain
lacquered with a clear lacquer, or they may be plain
varnished, according to taste.
How to Mak^ a Chemical Tank for a Magio
Lantern.— The following are instructions on making
a small chemical tank for magic lantern experiments.
Procure three glass plates 3i in. by H in. Prom one
of these plates a half-circle must be cut out with a
diamond, using a half-circle of wood as a guide. Canada
balsam is used as the cement. It must be placed in a-
FlG, I
6cabbling Hammer for Laying Marble DIosaic.
Fig. 2
Chemical Tank for magic Lantern.
and left quite smooth, and finally finished off with linen
rubbers. Bui a method very generally followed is to
arrange the cubes on paper in the workshop, the first
step in carrying out the work being to get ont a design
for the fioor. Prom this design copies are made at
full-size scale, usually on brown paper, ready for the
workmen. Great care must be taken to ascertain
that the whole of the design is reversed on the brown
paper, as, the cubes being laid on the paper in the work-
shop, the paper would be uppermost on the job, and if
the design were not reversed it would show the wrong
way. The workman's paper, when finished, is cut up into
convenient lengths (about 3 ft. 6 in.) , marked with num-
bers from 1 consecutively, and handed over to the
shop workmen, who require the following tools. A scab-
bling hammer (see illustration) , about 11 in. lone and I in.
square, tapered each end and fitted to a short handle, a
pair of callipers, an iron block about 9 in. long by lin.
by i in., granite rollers, straightedges, and rubbers.
The workman now proceeds to pick out the necessary
colours of cubes, dresses the cubes with the scabbling
hammer to suit the design, and covers a portion of the
design with a layer of gum, to which he attaches the
cube.1, doing small portions at a time until the whole is
completed. The design having been completed by the
shop workmen, the whole is forwarded to the scene of
the job. The mosaic layer is given a plan of the floor
marked with numbers corresponding to those marked
on the mosaia paper. Having laid the paving put on the
job, the mosaic layer next prepares the cement, to which
he fixes the marble slabs. After two or more days, the
cement having become set, the paper is cleared oft, and
ihe whole of the paving is subjected to conisiderable
rubbing with fine grit stone, attached to a wood handle
having a V-groove. The paving is completed by being
rubbed to a level.
Bronzing Brass Brackets.— Fancy bi-ass brackets,
Bueh as gas brackets, are usually only dipped iu a
nitric acid bath and burnished. If the dipping does not
give the desired brightness, the brackets are dipped
again and again, and thoroughly washed and dried be-
tween each dipping. If the finish is not then suitable,
the brackets may be dead dipped; this gives a dead
yellow surface, and after the prominent parts are bur-
nished presents a very artistic appearance. To dead
saucer and baked in the oven until it is quite hard whei*
cold. The three pieces of glass should now be heated in
the oven or on an iron plate placed over a burner until
they are too hot to be touched by the hand. The melted
Canada balsam must now be spread with a smooth stick
on both sides of the glass plate from which the half-
circle has been cut, the other plates being pressed one
on each side of it to remove all air bubbles. The
whole should then be placed under a weight till cold.
The tank thus made will appear like Pig. 1, and may
be placed iu an ordinary carrier. With a lantern suit-
able for experiments requiring a wider tank two 4i-in.
by 4-i-in. plates may be used, cementing them together
as described above by three pieces of plate glass, the-
bottom piece 4i in. by J in. and the two side pieces each
3i in. by I in. to form a rectangular tank 3i in. by 2J in.
by about iin. deep (see Pig. 2). These measurements-
may be altered if necessary to suit the lantern.
Remedying Pinholes In Photographic Negatives.
— Ordinary water colours are best lor stopping pinholes
in negatives. Almost any colour will do ; but the work is
more easily and better done when a colour that matches
the tint of the negative is used, such as ivory black.
The colour should be applied with a good sable brush,
No. 2 being the best size. Bub a little of the paint on
the smooth side of a piece of opal or even a piece of glass,
and take up a little colour with the brush, drawing it
with a circular motion to a fine point. If the b"ush is
too wet the paint will run round the spot, and not in it.
A white ring round a black spot only makes the spot
more noticeable on a print. With the top of the brush
touch the exact centre of the spot slowly but very deli-
cately. In some few cases where the film has disappeared
it is impossible to remove all traces of the spot ; and in
such cases it is advisable to flU in the spot densely; on
the negative, and paint over the white spot on the print.
Exceedingly small pinholes, sometimes met with in
clusters, are best left alone. A black spot on a print is
less noticeable than a white one. Spots are usually the
result of dusty slides or camera or dark room, the dust
being finally deposited on the face of the plate. Soaking
a plate in water before developing is liable with some
plates to cause pinholes, the minute air balls that then
form on the surface of the plate preventing the action
of the deTeloper.
62
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
Finishing Stair Balusters Green and Bronze,—
Some stair Dalusters are to be painted two coats, finish-
ing green and bronze. The first coat should be lead-
colonr paint, and when this is dry give a coat of bronze
green made from drop black (about one-third) and
yellow ochre (about two-thirds). Thin with benzoline,
adding a few drops of terebine as a drier. Put the
broQze in a pint pot, cover it well with turpentine (which
will extract the yerdigris), and let it stand for six or
seven hours, after which the turpentine should be
thrown awa.v and fresh turpentine added. Varnish the
balusters, and when the varnish is nearly dry dip a piece
of plush velvet in the bi-onze, and apply to the pro-
jecting points of the balusters. This should be done
while the varnish is tacky, so that the bronze may dry
with the varnish.
Making Copper Foot-warmer. — To mak? a foot-
warmer, out a piece of No. 22 or No. 24 sheet copper
to 22 in. long by 12 in. wide. Scour it thoroughly with
wet sand, and tin one side of it over a coke fire with
block tin, using sal-ammoniac as a fiux. When the
tin has alloyed itself with the surface of the copper,
wipe off with a pad of tow, and immediately immerse
it in clean cold water, afterwards cleaning with silver
sand, and then di-ying with hot sawdust. Punch a
hole lor a feeder screw A (Pig. 1) in the centre of the
length liUn. from the edge. The copper should now
be planished with a planishing hammer on a tinsmith's
bright anvil. This will close the " grain," tljus increasing
the durability, as well as developing a bright, smooth
surface. Two edges opposite each other should now be
set off the ends on a hatchet stake, so that when the
eopper is bent to shape the edges will clip each other.
The bending can best be done over a narrow mandrel.
all over, so that the leather ,iust changes its colour ; then
scrape some buff ball all over the sole while it Is damp.
Hold the boot firmly between the knees, and with a
hare's toot or piece of soft fiaunel dab the buff ball down
to cover the sole. Finish by brushing off any loose dust
with the hare's foot.
Wiping Joints on Copper Pipes.— Wiped joints on
copper pipes are longer than wiped joints on lead or
composition pipes. Copper pipes 2 in. or more m diameter
have joints from 2Un. to Sin. long; 4-in. pipes have
joints about 4 in. long; but it must he remembered
that whilst reasonable length and thickness of joint
are necessary to enable the copper pipe to withstand
pressure and strain, the maximum time of service
does not depend on the length or thickness of the
joint as in lead-pipe work. That which determines
practically the life of the joint is the extent of pipe
which is carefully tinned before forming the wiped joint.
If the interiors of the two pipe ends are tinned, say, for
6 in . or 8 in. , on cutting open the joint in a tew years time,
it is found that the tinning has diminished to 2in. or
3in., a corroding action having taken place at the end of
the tinning ; for this reason it is advisable that the tin-
ning be fairly thick, so as to retard the separation and
ultimate tailure of the joint. In tinning copper, first
thoroughly clean it with dilute sulphuric acid or scour
with sand and water, and then rinse It with chloride or
zinc known as killed spirit. Melt some pure tin,
throw in sal-ammoniac as a flux, and dip the copper in
the tin, or pour or rub the latter over the copper. In
pipes forming a portion of a distillery plant it is espe-
cially important that no nntinned spots are left on
the interiors of the pipe ends, as at such spots the
destruction of the tinning commences at once. In Fig. 1,
which is a part sectional view of the two pipe ends pro-
.im .i.t'ii'.
, -^'
"^A^^"
-t=:jn-
Fid f
Making Copper Foot-warmer.
Fig. 2
and the edges must be " grooved " inside. When this
has been done the section will appear as in Fig. 2.
Solder the feeder screw in the hole Irom the inside, and
similarly the grooved joint, leaving a good body of metal
on each. This constitutes the body of the toot-warmer.
To make the ends, up-end the body on a piece of copper,
and marli around. Allow a i-in. edge extra, cut the
copper, and mark and cut out another one from it.
These pieces should be cleaned, tinned, and planished,
etc., as previously described. Then they should be
slightly hollowed (both together) on a wooden block
with a hollowing hammer. Now crease or " jenny " the
edges so as to fit the body tightly. Before these pieces
are finally fixed, two handles B (Fig. 1) must be made
from No. 8 brass wire, each with a copper plate which
is riveted to the end, as shown. Solder over the heads
of the rivets inside, fit each end on, and solder well
round. The superfluous solder may be removed by a
steel scraper or a smooth file. Rub well with emery
cloth, andr finish with crocus and oU.
Particulars of Cellulose — Cellulose is an organic
product having the same composition as starch, and"
is a similar composition to sugar, i.e. CbHioOb. The
purest cellulose is sold by chemists, etc., as cotton-wool
for medical purposes; the cotton fibres, linen, wood of
all kinds, paper, etc., are aU more or less impure forms
of cellulose.
Buff Balling Bottoms of Boots.— To make out the
Bottom of a boot, the sole should be buffed or scraped
with the buff knife, that has been well sharpened till
it has a keen, regular edge. Only the first layer of
grain is taken off the sole ; when this has been care-
fully done and the sole has been well sandpapered, it
should have a fine velvet-like surface. It is, however,
very hard to produce in this way a white bottom upon
bad leather, or upon good leather improperly worked.
With a soft brush remove all the dust of leather made
by this process, and scrape some buff ball all over the
bottom, and with a fine piece of sandpaper work it
evenly all over the sole, and then smooth it down with
the hack of the paper. With a. clean soft piece of fiannel,
lightly damp down the whole of the sole, doing it evenly
'fro. 2 ---
Wiping Joints on Copper Pipes.
pared for jointing, A shows the extent of the tinning,
which is on the exterior and interior of the pipe ends
and on the edges also. Fig. 2 shows the tinned ends
slipped together ready for wiping, the form of the re-
quired joint being shown by the dotted lines. The pipe
is strengthened by putting one pipe within the other,
and the corrosion of the tinning is arrested when it
reaches the lap. If sufficient lap is eiven, the pipe may
be handled before the joint is wiped— a great convenience.
The pipe ends are placed together, when practicable,
over the iron pot containing the molten solder, which is
then poured continuously over the joint until a heat is
got up. This practice is not possible with lead ' or brass
pipes, because in the one case the lead would melt, and
in the other the molten zinc would leave the brass and
ruin the solder. When the pipes cannot be moved, a
grain scoop (a kind of shovel) is placed beneath the joint
and the solder poured on rapidly. When a thorough
heat has been obtained, the joint can be wiped, with the
aid of a cloth and of the mushy solder from the scoop,
in much the same way as a joint on a lead pipe is wiped,
the latter operation being described on p. 88.
Adjusting a Watch In Positions.— Provided there
are no faults in the escapement, pivots, or jewel holes,
the adjusting of a watch in positions is mainly a
question of exact poise of the balance. The balance,
with its pivots perfectly clean, should be placed on a
poising tool and carefully tested. In a plain balance,
filing the inside under edge of the rim will poise it. In a
compensation balance, small errors can be altered by
manipulating the four " c[uarter screws "—that is, those
with long taps. Larger errors must be corrected by
altering the weight of the screws. When perfectly poised,
the watch will be very nearly correct in different posi-
tions. A loss in any one position generally indicates
that when the movement is held in that position, and the
balance is at rest, the top of the balance rim Is too
heavy.
Removing Ink Stains from Bone Handles. — To
remove dirt from bone knife-handles scrub with hot
soap and water, and wash weU with clean water ; rub on
a solution of oxalic acid to remove ink Stains. Again
wash, dry, and polish with a chamois leather and whiting.
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
63
Traveller's Sample Case.— Figs. 1 to 5 show the con-
■etruotlon of a traveller's sai^ple case. Good red deal,
i)iroh, beech, or other similar hardwood, i in. to 1 in.
thick, may he used, according to strength and other
Tequirements. The angles should he dovetailed to-
sgether, and the boards jointed and eross-tongued,
as shown at Fig. 4. To prevent dust, etc., getting in, a
fillet about Uin. by i in. should be naUed round so as to
project into the lid when closed (see Fig. 3). If the
staples are made as shown at Pig. 5, they can be screwed
to the front of the rim of the lid, and the returned piece
shown at A (Fig. 5) can be let in and screwed to the
underside of the lid ; this will prevent it being broken
oH. The eye and plate can be made so that the eye
woodwork for flush seams to be wiped upright in the
centre of their length. For rain water, the sides and.
ends should be of 7-lb. lead, and the bottom of 8-lb. lead ;
but it economy must be studied, 6-lb. lead sides and
ends, and 7-lb. lead bottom, would do. To linethe tank,
first put in the sides, then the ends, and the bottom
last of all. After the lead is in position, the upright
flush seams and the upright angles should be soldered,
then the bottom flush seams, and lastly the bottom
angles. It is assumed that suflJcient knowledge is
possessed to arrange the laps so that the solder
will not run through when wiping, and also to
prepare the work for soldering. Upright stiffening
pieces wiped on to the sides are better than dots; but
■J — 1
hU —
-HLJh
h
nn
E>
n —
-^■■.l^
— r.\-
H::
Fig I
Fig. 2
Traveller's Sample Case.
passes through the front, the plate being screwed to tlfe
inside; it is thus not likely to he broken off or un-
screwed from the outside. Two padlocks may be used,
or a rod and one lock, as shown in the illustrations. For
ordinary purposes, one staple, eye, and lock would be
found sufficient.
Lining a Wooden Tank witti Lead,— In lining with
lead a wooden tank 20 ft. by 9 ft. by 4 ft. deep, first
divide the bottom of the tank into three parts. This
gives two seams across the bottom, and where the seams
come the woodwork should he dished tor the soldering
to be wiped flush. The lead for each end of the tank
can he in one piece, and if plenty of help is available,
the sides could also be each in one piece. But if the
tank is in a cramped position where the extra hands
cannot ezert their full strength, each of the sides can
be lined with two pieces, dishings being made in the
if it is found necessary to fix stay rods to keep the
sides from bulging outwards, these rods would also help
to support the lead, and prevent it from bagging as the
tank is emptied of water.
Silver Solder for Soldering Copper.— A silver solder
for soldering copper is composed of 5 parts of copper,
3 parts of zinc, and 2 parts of silver. Melt the copper
first, then add the silver, and lastly the zinc ; directly
the zinc is immersed, rapidly stir the alloy so as to
render its composition equal throughout, and then
oast it in a small ingot mould. The ingot is
then rolled down to form a small sheet equal to
about No. 18 B.W.G. gauge in thickness, and from
this narrow strips are cut as required. Ordinary
solder may be converted into fine solder by melting
and then adding the silver in the proportion given
above.
64
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
Separating Gold from Ashes.— A simple -way ot
separating gold from ashes is to mix the aahea with
borax ana melt down in a crucible. For this purpose
the highest heat of a wind furnace will be required.
It the ashes contain traces of other metals besides gold,
It would be best to boil first with water several times
to get rid of soluble matter, then with aqua regla
(3 parts of strong hydrochloric acid to 1 part of
strong nitric acid) in a porcelain dish, using a fume
chamber or chimney to carry away the fumes. After
boiling for several hours, water may be added and the
liquid filtered. The filtrate will contain the gold and
other metals as chloride. A solution of ferrous sulphate
(green vitriol) should be added in excess, and the liquid
boiled. A brown precipitate will come down ; this is
pure metallic gold. It may be filtered off, washed several
times with water, and dried, when it will form a reddish-
brown powder. It may be melted down in a crucible or in
a furnace, or fused to a button of metal on charcoal
before the blowpipe.
Waterproofing Fishing
Lines. — Plaited silk fishing
lines are waterproofed by soak-
ing in equal parts of boiled
linseed oil ana copal varnish,
then stretching in some con-
venient position to dry, at the
same time wiping off super-
fluous dressing with a rag. Dry-
ing will take a considerable
time; to accelerate it, I part of
gold. size may be used instead
of the varnish to 2 parts ot
boiled oil.
Frame for Wire Blind. —
Fig. 1 shows the general form
of the frame for a wire window
may be used so long as provision is made In the dark
slide to catch the drippings from the plates ; a fold of
blotting paper will answer this purpose. The following
materials wUl be required for preparing and developing-
the plates. Mawson's iodised collodion i oz., silver
nitrate 1 oz., a tew pounds of hypo, alcohol 1 oz., acetic-
acid 1 oz., sulphate ot iron 1 oz., an ebonite dippei\ and
some pieces ot clean glass free from air bells. Make
up the following solutions. SUver 6o(/i.— Silver nitrate
roz., distilled water II oz.. Iodine I gr., nitric acid 2 drops.
BeveJoper.— Sulphate of iron loz., alcohol Joz., acetic
acid ioz., water 4iOZ. Clean the glass by first swHUng-
with water, and, if greasy, washing with a powerful
alkali such as caustic soda, and again swilling. Allow
the glass to dry spontaneously. When dry, wipe free of
dust, and pour in the centre of the plate a pool ot the-
iodised collodion, as in varnishing a negative, and flow
first to the top right-hand comer, next to top left-hand
corner, then to the bottom left-hand corner, where the
plate is balanced by the tip of the thumb, and from the-
bottom right-hand corner pour
off the excess into the bottle.
As soon as the collodion has set
(which is when the surface be-
comes dull) Immerse the plate
in the silver bath by means of
the dipper, lowering gently into-
■the solution, where it should
remain, rocking occasionally,
for about two minutes. As soon
as the silver solution wets the
plate evenly (this takes longer
in cold weather) the plate is
sensitised. The sensitising is
done in the dark room, and a.
flat porcelain dish may be used
to contain the bath. The plate
is gently removed from th»
bath, and when it has finished
FlQ. I
FiQ 3
Frame for Wire Blind.
«
FiQ. 2
blind. Fig. 2 is an elevation of the joint (A, Pig. 1)1 to a
larger scale. The tenon, mortise, haunch, and wedges
are indicated by dotted lines. Pig. 3 shows the con-
struction of the joint, mitreing ot the head which is
stuck on the solid, and the rebate formed for the
movable bead, which is not shown. The beads should
be about Jin.
Filtering Cycle Oil.— Dirty cycle or other machineiT
oil may be filtered through cotton-wool, flannel; or any
similar material without affecting its lubricating pro-
perties. Plannel is not so good as closely packed cotton-
wool, because the flbres are openly felted! and the finer
dirt can get through. Closely packed cotton-wool makes
a slow filter. The best fllterlng arrangement is a glass
or tin funnel placed in a bottle, and a circle of best
white blotting paper folded twice and opened to fit the
funnel. The oil will pass pretty quickly through the
paper. When the blotting paper begins to plug up it
may be removed and fresh paper substituted.
Wet-plate Photography.— In wet-plate photography
the plates are prepared as they are required, and are
developed immediately after exposure. Any camera
dripping it is placed on the wires in the dark slide and
exposed in the ordinary way, though for a longer time
than a dry plate. The plate must be kept in a vertical
position. On removal from the slide the plate is held
in the hand, as in coating, and is flooded with the-
developer. Coating the plate, sensitising, exposing,
and developing should follow each ot)ier as quickly as
possible, or various defects will occur in the plate.
As soon as development is complete the plate is im-
mersed in hypo 1 oz., water 6 oz. The used developer and
the drippings should be filtered through cotton-wool
and saved for use in cases ot over-exposure. Should th&
image be too weak, it may be strengthened or Intenslfiea
by flooding with pyro 4 gr., water 2oz.,8ilver bath Idr.,
and 10 per cent, solution of -880 ammonia a few drops. Wet
plates may be varnished with ordinary negative varnish.
The ferrotype is merely the wet collodion process for
producing positive Images on a metal, instead of glass,
plate, the image being reversed as regards right and
left. The only advantages of the wet collodion process
are cheapness, extreme density and contrast in image,
and flneness of grain. The process, being dirty and ex-
tremely slow, Is now seldom used except by itineranti
photographers.
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
65
t'ementing Broken Marble.— As a cement for white
mai'ble, use fine plaster-oF-Parls mixed to tiie oonsistenoy
of thiols cream. A thoroughly satisfactory job, how-
ever, cannot be made in the case of a mantelpiece, as
the repair will show in time. For black or coloured
marble use brown or orange lac, obtainable from dry-
salters or chemists. Warm the broken pieces of mai-ble
before the fire, then place on the lac, and when melted
press the two pieces together until firmly set-a few
minutes will sufBce ; the superfluous lac should be
sctueezed out whilst it is warm. If desired, the lac may
be prepared in sticks by melting It on a hot plate, adding
the requisite colouring matter in the shape of oxides,
and then rolling into sticks similar to sealing wax.
Tool Chest lor a Light Coach Body Maker.— A tool
chest suitable for a light coach body maker may be
made of 1-m. sound red deal, free from knots and
shakes and perfectly dry. The front and back, should
be jointed and glued in the centre as A (Fig. 1), the
ends having two joints as B (Fig. 2), so that the
strain is not on a direct line at the .joints. The sides
and ends should be dovetailed together, and should
be 2 ft. 8i in. long outside by 1 ft. 6 in. deep over all
by 1ft. 6in. wide, the plinths being fixed outside this
measure. The bottom is screwed on crossways of the
length, and is tongued together as shown in Fig. 3.
The top is made up lengthways of the grain, glued
then finer, then the finest. Now rub briskly with a piece
of rag that has been dipped in oil and then into the
dust, etc., which has come from the horns during the
scraping, filing, etc. The horns should then be smartly
rubbed with a rag dipped in whiting and sulphuric acid
or vinegar, then with a rag dipped in oil and putty
powder (oxide of tin). Now well rub the horns With a
dry cloth, then with crumpled paper, and finally with
the bare palm. The rubbmg at each stage must be
thorough ; and between every two steps a good dusting
of the horn should be given to prevent the larger parti-
cles of the one stage scratching the smoother surface
gained in the succeeding stage.
Heat Insulating Composition.— The following recipe
for a non-conducting composition has been given for use
with steam pipes, etc. In water, mix fireclay with four
times the ctuantity of small coal ashes to the consist-
ency of thin mortar. Then mix equal quantities of dry
calcined plaster and fiour, each constituent equalling in
quantity the amount of fireclay previously used. Add
to the ash mixture. Two coats should be used, with a
setting coat outside, as when plastering a wall.
Cutting Slot In Top of Turned Pillar.— When it is
required to cut a slot in the top of a turned pillar,
a box similar to the accompanying diagram should
be constructed, and in each piece of board two kerfs
Tool Chest for a Light Coach Body Maker.
Cutting Slot In Top of Turned PlUar.
and jointed in the same manner as the front, and
fixed on by screws. The whole is cleaned off, and
the plinths (Figs. 1 to 4), which are 3i in. deep by
i in. thick, put on flush with the top and bottom, and
mitred together at the corners. To form the lid, gauge
round from the top edge 2 in. down (see D, Figs. 1 to
3) i saw round, keeping true to the line, and then
plane off the edges true to a fit. The lid will now be
just deep enough to cari-y a hand and tenon saw
when the tools have to be packed for transit. The lid
may be hung with 3J-in. wrought butts or cranked
cross-garnet hinges, and should have a good double
action spring look. For lifting the box, two pieces
of beech 3 in. wide, shaped as E (Figs. 1 and 3), are
fixed on the ends by screws from the inside. Holes
are made just above the centre (see Figs. 1 and 3) ;
these carry rope handles. The Interior of the chest
is shown at Figs. 3 and i, fillets being fixed on the
ends to carry a light framing to form the tray 1? (Figs.
3 and i) and recess for the drawers G. This framing
is supported by a strut fixed inside the casing H,
which is made to slide forward ; the space beneath the
drawers is for working drawings, sizes, etc. A small
board J (Figs. 3 and 4) 3i in. deep Is fixed on the bottom
and ends to carry compass, smooth, concave, and tee
planes. Coat the inside of the chest with pale gold size,
and the outside with good lead colour.
Polishing Goat's Horns.— In polishing a pair of goat's
horns, remove any rough or uneven parts with a spoke-
shave, then well scrape all oyer with a cabinet-maker's
steel scraper or with the edges at the sides of a wood-
worker's chisel. When the horn is fairly smooth, go
over it with a rasp or file, followed by coarse sandpaper,
S
should be truly made. The pillar can then be fixed true
in the box by a few wooden wedges, as indicated at A and
B. The head should next be sawn ay allowing the saw to
work in the kerfs as when using a mitre box.
Modelling In Papier-mach^. — In making anima)
heads with papier-mache, either a natural skull or one
modelled in clay is obtained, and from this a plaster
mould is taken. In this mould papier-mlchfi is forced, or
sheet after sheet of pasted paper is pressed In every
direction, and forced well into the hollows. When dry,
the material easily comes away from the mould. To
make papier-mioh6, tear into small pieces a number of
old newspapers, and boil until quite soft. The pulp
should then be removed from the fire and squeezed,
some thin glue and plaster-of-Paris added, and the
whole beaten well together. If the material is too di'y,
add glue ; it too sticky, add plaster. When rubbed on
the hands It should leave a very thin coating.
Cleaning Aquarium Shells.— It, is impossible to keep
delicate shells fresh and clean at the bottom of an
aquarium, for they quickly become covered with a green
aquatic growth that defies all efforts to be sci'ubbed off.
The shells may be cleaned by plunging them in a boiling
mixture of 1 part of hydrochloric acid to 10 parts of water
Hold them with wooden tongs, and remove after one
second to clean cold water. Repeat the operation if
necessary, but if the shells remain in the acid beyond
the prescribed time they will be eaten in holes, if not
altogether dissolved. If the shells are to be replaced in
the aquarium, it is not worth while to clean them re-
peatedly. Introduce a few fresh-water snails into the
aquarium, and they will keep down the green growth.
66
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
Particulars of Oil of Turpentine.— Oil of turpen-
tine, spirit of turpentine, and ordinary or common
turpentine are all the same thing. Crude tui'pen-
tine is turpentine as it is derived direct from the
pine trees. Oil of turpentine really means the' essen-
tial or volatile oil of turpentine after distillation. Oil
of turpentine must not be classed with the ordinary
kinds of oils, such as olive oil, etc., which are non-
volatile, and have a different composition altogether.
There is an oil of turpentine known as fat oil of turpen-
tine, but this is simply ordinary turpentine that has
been exposed to air for some time and has become
thickened or partly resinifled by oxidation.
Yellow Stain for Venetian Blinds,— A high-class
satin stain lor use on Venetian blind laths previous
to varnishing can be obtained by dissolving 1 oz. of
gamboge in 1 pt. of methylated spirit. A cheaper plan
would be to mix dry yellow ochre, or 2 parts lemon and 1
part orange chrome, in weak glue size. This latier
mixture should be brushed on, the surplus being wiped
oft with soft rag.
Determining Bevels for Joints of Oval Cask.— In
finding the ooi-rect bevels for the joints of an oval cask
first set out the oval or ellipse, and a good method of
doine this is shown by the illustration. Let A B
and C D be the given diameters. Divide O into three
equal parts. On line AB mark off A3 and B4, each
equal to O 2. Make 5 equal to O 2 ; then draw the radial
lines from 2 and 6, passing through 3 and i as shown.
ing a continuous cool supply. The collar platei are
stamped out of Uo. 6 fender plate, and when solid flaps
are made in the axle, these plates have to be out across one
side to allow of bending back to get them on between
the collar and the flap.
A Watch-case Galvanometer. -To make a simple
galvanometer as in Pig. 1, get an old brass watch
case with one of the brass plates removed. In the
centre of this drill a very small hole to suit an end-
stone, such as jewellers use in watches. Then cut a
piece of brass to fit across the diameter of the plate,
i in. wide and A in. thick. Drill a hole at each end, and
get two small brass pillars for the ends, about i in.
long by iin. in diameter, to raise the cross-bar from the
plate. Then driU a central hole in the bar, and put an
endstone in this. Taper a piece of watch spring each
end from the centre to form a pointer, drill a iVin.
hols in the middle of it, fit a shaft In tight to the
hand, and magnetise the pointer ; pivot the shaft at the
Fig. I
Determining Bevels for Joints of Oval Cask.
Then 2 and 5 will be the centres for the larger curves,
and 3 and i for the smaller. Hert set out the staves as
shown. It will be seen that two bevels will be required.
For the sharper-curved staves, as at B, join the points 6
and 7, then join the radial line 7 4, and draw E bevel as
shown; the bevel at P can be obtained in a similar
manner. The bevels here given are for application at
the centre of the staves.
Forging Axles for Vehicles.- The iron for vehicle
axles should be of the best quality. The method of work-
ing is as follows. A number of small bars are put up in
a bundle sufficient to make an arm, and bound with iron
rod to prevent falling about when working. The arm is
then placed in the furnace, and thoroughly welded to-
gether. Whilst this is being done it is worked somewhat
to the required shape. The collars are, now made and
welded on. For this purpose dies, or top and bottom
tools, are used, the arm being worked at as great a heat
as possible without burning, lighter heats being taken
for finishing to the size required with light blows ; after-
wards turn and fit the axles. To case-farden, place the
articles in an iron box or casing large enough to contain
a packing of 2 in. or 3 in. of the hardening compound
around each arm. The box should be sealedu^ air-tight
at both ends. The compound generally used is leather
shreds, ground raw bones, hydrooarbonated bone black,
and sal soda, the whole being placed in a furnace and
kept at a good heat for ten or twelve hours j then remove
the articles from the box and cool out thoroughly.
Where an extra hard casing is required the articles are
re-heated, the box being filled with powdered potash and
kept in the furnace until the potash is consumed.
Where large quantities of axles have to be cooled out
the cooling tub should be arranged to have an inlet of
cold water at the bottom, so that the water made warm
by the work would flow out over the top, thereby ensur-
Watch-case Galvanometer.
endstones. Next cut a piece of tin to the shape of
Fig. 2, lap it with silk tape, varnish, and lap agalt
with about 8 ft. or 9 ft. of No. 28 S.W.G. silk-covered wire.
Next get a piece of spring steel, A in. in diameter by
li in. long, magnetise it, and fasten in cross section to
the horseshoe magnet after taping and varnishing.
Fasten these two magnets to the back of the brass plate
by means of a short piece of ebonite and small screws
at the ends. Drill two holes at each side of the case for
the reception of two terminals, and connect as shown
in Fig. 1. A scale, also, graduated as shown, should be
afoxed.
Soldering a Joint In a Watch Case.— To solder a joint
in a watch case, the old joint must first be filed off clean.
This should leave a semicircular groove in which the new
joint can lie true. The joint is cut from drawn sUver or
gold tube. Place it in its groove, having first wetted It
with borax paste and water. Along Its side place a long
thin strip of silver or gold solder, and apply a blowpipe
flame to the case near the joint until it is well hot j then
direct the fiame on the joint until the solder runs. As
soon as the solder sets, and while the case is hot, plunge
it into a pickle made of sulphuric acid 1 part and water
9 parts, then wash in plenty of' water, and clean up.
Before soldering, unpin the back, bezel, and dome, and
take out the bow, push piece, and any steel springs so
that they may escape injury from the heat.
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
67
Making Black Crayons.— To make black crayons,
mix 10 parts of pipeclay, 1 to H parts of lampblack,
and i part of Prussian blue with water to a stiff paste.
Well knead all the ingredients together. Allow the paste
to remain for several days, then roll out on a board and
cut into lengths. A better method, however, would be
to press the crayons in a mould ; they would be-harder,
more homogeneous, and less liable to break.
Green Stain for Oak Picture Mouldings.— To stain
oak picture mouldings a bronze green, mix bronze green,
procurable at paint stores, in hot vinegar or in dilute
French polish. If the mouldings are to be polished,
mbdng In vinegar is advised. Some of the dry colour
may then be mixed with the grain filler and also with
the varnish, which will be required on oak in order to
gain a solid body.
Acetylene Gas Generator for Magic Lantern.—
Herewith is a sketch (one-eighth full size) of a portable
and au.tomatl6 acetylene gas generator for use with a
magic lantern. The apparatus works well, and will
work IS detached from the brickwork. The discoloured
marble may, however, be bleached by treating It with a
solution of soap lyes and whiting, but this bleaching
;will. not be permanent. Mix the soap lyes and whiting
to the consistency of a paste, and apply a good coating
with an old brush. Let this paste remain On the marble
lor a couple of days, then wash off with clean water- rain-
water for preference— repeating the process two or three
times until the stains have been removed. To make the
lyes, obtain, say, 71b. of American potash from the dry-
salters, and dissolve in a pailful of rainwater. The lye
IS of such a caustic nature that it is dangerous to fingers
and nads. H, therefore, any of the liquid gets on the
hands, they should be at once well washed In water
ppntaining a few drops of vinegar or acid to neutralise
the alkali.
Making Railway Coupling Shackles.— To get railway
couplings to stand, the grain of the iron in the shackles
must follow round the eyes. To accomplish this, the bar
IS first nicked with the fuUer as shown at A (Pig. 1), and
the end drawn out to form a scarf as at B, which is bent
Acetylene Gas Generator for Magic
Lantern.
give about 400 candle-power for about two and a
half hours. In the illustration the carbide is shown
on top of the lime residue. A is the pipe leading to
the lantern, the lamp for which has four burners.
Follsliing Tin-plate Goods.— Tin-plate goods, before
being polished, are scoured by being held against a
revolving mop greased sufficiently for the purpose by
contact with a tallow candle. Finish by polishing with
a dry mop on which some Sheffield lime is placed.
When polishing tinware, the mop should be run at a
speed iust sufficient to cause it to stand out stiff i it the
lathe is run at too high a spaed, the mop will remove
some of the soft surface tin.
Stains on Marble.— Marble erections against a back-
ing of brickwork will in a year or so's time show a
brownish stain, and probably this will gradually spread.
The stains are caused by the close proximity of the
marble to the brickwork. The marble, being of a
crystalline and somewhat absorptive nature, has
attracted the damp from the brickwork, and so become
discoloured. In nearly all walls, especially those re-
cently built, constant evaporation is taking place, and
the effect of this evaporation is to draw the damp
from the middle of the wall towards the surface. Marble
work, therefore, should never be fixed solidly to a wall,
but an air space should be left between it and the brick-
work, with an open joint here and there to aUow for the
condensation that invariably takes place. It may be
objected that, by allowing an air space, solid fixing could
not be obtained, but this objection may be overcome by
the jadlcious use of brass or copper cramps. There
is no permanent remedy tor the stains unless the marble-
Fia2
Making Railway Coupling Shackles.
over as at and welded, the eyes D being finished on the
anvU with a pair of tools and a punch. The part
between the two eyei is then heated and the bar placed
with one of the eyes on the stud of a bending block A
(Fig. 2), and fixed by means of a cotter at B. One of the
horns of a bending tool and D (Fig. 2) is placed in a hole
E in the block, and the handle pulled round towards the
arrow F, the bar following in the direction shown by the
arrow G until the shackle is bent to the required shape.
Pig. 2 shows the bending block in plan, and and D
are two views of the bending tool. The shackles are
made of 1-in. to IJ-in. Lowmoor or Yorkshire iron,
according to the class of vehicles on which they are
used.
Cleaning Leather-work Brackets.— To clean a pair
of leather-work brackets mix a little carbonate of mag-
nesia with benzoline to form a thin fluid, and apply it,
in large quantity, quickly to the leather. Place the
brackets in the open air to dry, then with a light feather
brush dust out all the dry magnesia. If this does not
serve the purpose, the only way of giving the bracket a
good appearance will be to cover the leather with a buff
flatting paint of a suitable coloui'.
68
Cyclopsedia of Mechanics.
How to nse a Twaddel's Hydrometer.— Twaddel's
hydrometers are sold in sets of six or separately ; tliey
read as follows -.—
No. 1. 0° to 24° = sp. gr. of I'OO to 112.
2. 24°
, -ix" =
1-12 ,
1-24
3. 48°
, 74° =
1-21 ,
, 1-37
4. 74°
, 102° =
1-37 ,
, l-.ll
5. 102°
, 138° =
1-51 ,
, vm
6. 138°
, no« =
1-69 ,
, 51-8
The specific gravity of a licLuld is determined by floating
one of the hydrometers in some of the liquid, contained
In a tall glass cylinder ; if the hydrometer is suitable for
tliis particular liquid, the instrument will sink until the
surface of the liquid coincides with some mark on the
stem of the hydrometer. Suppose the sti'ength of a
caustic soda solution is to be determined, and a No. 2
hydrometer is to he used, the level of the liquid reaching
80°, the gravity of the liquid is 30° Tw. ; or, it multiplied
by 5 and I'OOO be added, its true specific gravity, i.e. 1'1.5,
will be obtained ; then the solution will be found to
contain about 13 per cent, of caustic soda.
Hydraulic Mean Depth.— The hydraulic mean depth
of a liquid fiowing through a pipe is equal to the sectional
area of liquid divided by the wetted perimeter. The
the adjustable negative (or film-holder) frame D. This
runs in rails like a rising and cross front, and is clamped
when in proper position by the thumbscrews B and P,
On the inner side of this is a box fitting closely inside
the camera (film end). D is attached to C by the blocli
H, which, resting upon the sides of A, holds everything
firm and steady. At J is fitted the front of the enlarging
camera, with the opening before the lens and a shallow
frame P fitting closely around the kodak. (The kodak
Q is, of course, supposed to be removed from its outel
box.) Attached to the front by bellows E is a grooved
frame K large enough to take a half-plate printing frame
—that is, about Sin. by 6iin. Through this from the
frame runs an iron or brass roa I, over which a staple U
may he turned to clamp it and thus hold the frame K
tightly in position. When a film is used it is fixed, ta
keep it flat, between two pieces of glass and inserted in
frame Vj the film towards K. A sheet of ground glass is
then placed in the printing frame, the rough side of tht
glass towards the operator, and the frame is placed in the
grooves S of K, which is then extended almost to the full.
D is next extended until the image thrown on the ground
glass is nearly sharp. The fine focussing is done by
Diagram of Hydraulic Mean Deptli.
Enlarging with Focltet Kodak.
sectional area of liquid is equal to ir^ (9 — sin.e). The
wetted perimeter equals gjg-; .'. hydraulic mean depth =
sectional area _ ir'le - sin, e) _ 90r (0 - sin. 9) .
wetted perimeter ~ T^d ~ n B
Knowing the diameter of the pipe and the depth of the
liquid, the angle e may be found from the equation tan
-~ =-=zrf.i where y equals ^/(.d-h) h. The hydraulic mean
d
depth- for pipes running full or halt full is j-
Power Saw for Soft Stone.— The ordinary frame saw
originally intended for sawing hard stone, and driven by
power, is now used successfully for sawing Bath and other
soft stones, including Beer stone and alabaster. The saw
Is a long steel blade parallel in width and thickness, from
10ft. to 12ft. long, 9 in. wide, and nearly iin. thick; it
has coarse teeth, with a wide set for clearance ; it is
easily fixed in the frame by tightening or keying up with
a kind of wedge like that used tor the hard-stonesaw.
When in motion the saw is fed with water, sufilcient
only being used to keep the cut from clogging. The rate
of speed (steam power) is from twenty-five to thirty
strokes per minute, and a block of Bath stone 8 ft. long
by 3 ft. deep can be cut through in from half an hour to
three-quarters of an hour, aceordifig to the hardness of
tlie stone.
Staining Plaster Panels to Imitate Mabogany.—
Cast plaster panels are made to match mahogany in
the following manner. Procure three bottles, and place
i pt. of methylated spirit in each. In No. 1 steep i oz.
of gamboge ; in No. 2 1 oz. of dragon's blood ; and in
No. 3 loz. of red sanders; this will give one shade of
yellow and two shades of red. Mix the various shades
with an equal bulk of polish ; apply with a camel-hair
brush. Blend carefully together, building up the desired
tones gradually by using the colours weak rather than
by trying to get the exact tone by one application.
Give the stains a thin coat of spirit varnish, then finish
bright or dull as desired.
Enlarging with Pocket Kodak.— A pocket kodak
camera may be used for enlarging, as shown in the
sketch. A is a baseboard about 15 in. long by 6i in.
wide. The exact dimensions will depend upon the size
of the camera and the focus of the lens. A slot is cut at
B to take a tongue about 2 in. long. To this is fitted
manipulating K. It is then clamped by U over L. Adjust
finally in position by screws E and T. Now replace the
ground glass with plain glass and place against it the fllmi
side of the bromide paper or plate, and fill in the frame
back. Cover the enlarging camera with a thick dark
cloth and Burn some magnesium ribbon before D. The
bromide paper is then developed like a contact print.
If only one degree of enlargement is required, the
bellows may be replaced by a rigid box.
Extracting Salt from Sheepskin Rug.— Suppose
it is required to treat a white sheepskin rug wnich,
during damp weather, becomes covered with moisture.
First remove any lining or edging that is on the skin,
mix together bran and hot water, and with this mix-
ture immediately cover the bottom of a wooden trough
to a good thickness. Upon this place the skin with
the wool folded inside. Then place on more bran, fold
over again, more bran, and so on until the skin has
been completely covered. Then pour on hot water
untU the whole has been covered. Leave in this state
for a day, when the salt will disappear. Wash in
clean warm water, and dry in the shade, constantly
beating or shaking it. When nearly dry, well rub it.
Watches Stopping in One Position only,— When
a watch will go in one position and stop in another,
the fault can generally be traced to a defective pivot
or pivot-hole i thus, if the watch be held so that the
balance works on one pivot or in one pivot-hole, and
the watch stops, that pivot or hole is probably damaged.
The pivot may be bent, its end may be bruised and re-
semble a " mushroom," or it may be too short to come
through the jewel-hole and touch the endstone. The
jewel-hole or endstone may be cracked. Other causes
may be too much endshake to the balance ; the balance
arms may touch the index curb pins or the hairspring
stud ; the balance rim may toucn the balance cock or
the watch-plate, or (in a Geneva) the centre wheel ; the
hairspring may not be fiat, and may touch the balance
arms or the balance cock ; the lever may touch the roller,
or the 'scape wheel may touch the top or bottom of the
slot in the cylinder.
Preserving Berries.— In preserving winter berries
immerse them in a fairly strong cold brine prepared!
with ordinary table salt and water. The berries will
keep in this way for a long time. Artificial berries are
nearly always used for decorative purposes, because of
the great dlfBculty in keeping the natural berries in
an unshrivelled state.
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
69
Making Waterproof Overalls or Oilskins.—
Cnbleached calico is generally used for cheap oilskins,
fine drill for better-class goods, and sometimes, but
rai-ely, silk. Best linseed oil, with very little driers,
is the most suitable dressing, and should take about two
months to dry in a cool, airy place. Lampblack is the
cheapest suitable black ; ivory black is better, but dearer.
One pound to 21b. of lampblack may be used for 1 gal.
of oil. It oil alone is used, 1 lb. to 1\ lb. of driers for
1 gal. of oU may be added ; with lampblack, 2 lb. to 3 lb.
of driers. Oclire is the only yellow pigment cheap
enough to use. If the solution has to be made
quickly, use plenty of driers, and hang the articles
up to dry in a room artifloially heated. The solution
should be laid on with a stiff brush or scraper in a
thin layer, and the first coat must be allowed to become
thoroughly dry before putting on a second i two or three
coats wUl be required. The articles should be hung on
sticks so that no two portions of the cloth touch.
Boiled oil, coloured with ochre or lampblack, and a
dash of driers is also used. It is recommended, in
order to keep the oilskins from becoming stiff, that
yeUow soap cut into shreds should be dissolTed lu
the waterproofing paint, the proportions being loz.
of soap to 3pt. of paint. A little beeswax dissolved
In the paint is also used for the same purpose. A
good black dressing is boUed oil and lampblack 1 qt.,
to which the white of five eggs and loz. of melted
and slightly modified, but his form gives practically the
same result. The next important formula proposed was
that by Neville In the middle of the century, giving a
different value for the coefficient e from that of the earlier
experimenters. About this time Weisbach introduced hia
well-known formula, which has been for the last thirty
years so much used by hydraulic engineers in this
country ; it is more complicated than any previous one,
a varying coeflicient c being given, depending on the
rate of the velocity. From 1850 to 1858 M. H. Darcy began
In Prance a remarkable series of expel-iments on open
channels and pipes, on a much larger scale than had
previously been attempted. Darcy died in 1858, and his
work was continued by his assistant, M. H. Bazin. The
latest, and by far the most important, researches on the
flow of water are due to Ganguillet and Kutter, of Berne,
who published their researches in 1869 and 1870. These
experimenters continued on the lines of Darcy and
Bazin, and found that the Ohezy formula could be
adapted to all cases, but that the value of the coefficient
c varies under very many conditions instead of re-
maining constant, as in the early form. Kutter estab-
lished a series of " coefficients of roughness " which have
been largely experimented upon in America, Germany,
and England, and have been proved to be substantially
acoarate. The following table shows more clearly the
great difference between different formulae. CompaJison
of formulae :—
Pipes etjnnixg Full-disohaege in Cubic feet pee minute. .
Inclination.
Authority for Formula.
linSO
1 in 150
linSO
1 in 250
1 in 500
1 in 100
1 in 300
1 in 750
1 in 500
1 in 1500
1 in 1500
Iin3000
Chezy
Eytelwein
55
32
24S
140
99
1253
723
457
3170
1830
6043
3563
55
32
248
140
99
1256
725
458
3180
1833
5064
3577
Neville
65
35
290
157
106
1509
826
490
Weisbaeh
60
34
268
143
102
13.57
779
478
3431
1910
ma
3676
Box (hydraulics)
51
31
240
137
97
1230
705
443
Darcy...
61
35
286
162
113
1485
860.
633
3816
2202
6072
4274
Kutter
41
24
225
127
90
1133
654
414
3340
1925
5750
4020
fianto Crimp
51
29
259
147
103
1472
850
633
4181
2375
6891
5033
6-in.
stoneware.
12-in
. stone\
Tare.
24-in. brie
k.
4S-in. brick.
72-in. brick.
beeswax are added; give two coats, and allow each
coat to di-y thoroughly before the next is applied.
The drying will occupy quite two weeks. If the drying
is not thorough the dressing will become sticky. If
driers is used the oilskins are apt to crack. If the dress-
ing is too thickly applied it will peel off where exposed
to friction.
Cross in Telescope of a Level. — The cross used
in the telescope of a level is fixed in the eye end of
the instrument, and just within the focus of the eye-
piece, generally 1 in. from the eye end. But this
varies according to the focal length of each eyepiece.
The wires are taken from the spider, and directly
laid over the diaphragm, to which they are attached.
Experiments have been made with oth6r material, but
the spider's web has proved the best for the purpose. The
diaphragm is a ring of metal about iin. less in diameter
than that of the tube into which it is inserted. Four
screws which pierce through the tube hold it in position
and serve for adjustment. The ring is bevelled in its
inner circumference in order to provide a clear edge.
The face to which the wires are fixed is marked off for
the number and position of lines wanted ; then the web
is stretched across in the marks made, and secured at
each end by a drop of varnish.
Comparison of Formulas for the Discharge of
Water In Pipes.— The fundamental formula for* calcu-
lating the velocity of water flowing through a pipe or
channel, and for calculating the rate of discharge, is
based on that of Chezy, a French engineer, who proposed
in 1775 the formula
V = l/'M'
Where
V = mean velocity of water in feet per second.
R = hydraulic mean depth = area in sg. ft. of cross-section
wetted perimeter m feet
S = slope = i^cll^^tion o f water surfa ce
length of pipe or channel
c = a coefficient determined by experiment and fixed by
Chezy at 93'4. This formula was further investigated
by Eytelwein, a German experimenter, between 1814-15,
New formulae proposed are either modifications of the
Darcy and Bazin or Kutter forms, or, being dependent
upon a single isolated experiment, are not entitled to
any authority.
Making Gold Wire Name Brooches.— The wire em-
ployed for making American name brooches is a hard,
tough brass of a gold colour, coated with gold. Various
qualities are used, from a lightly gilded wire costing
6s. ^er pound to a heavily gold-cased wire costing 6s.
per ounce. The higher priced wires were first im-
ported under the name of " American rolled gold "
wire, but wire of an equal quality is now sold as
" seamless gold plating wire." The gauges in general
use for this purpose are Nos. 20, 21, and 22, round, and
half-round for rings ,- also square and other shapes for
bracelets, scarf pins, and ornamental articles. For name
brooches. No. 20 is best suited to bold designs with flow-
ing curves, and No. 21 for more compact forms, whilst
No. 22 is only used in making names with small letters.
But the condition of the wire also assists or retards the
workman in working out his design. A hard wire is
liable to break if bent sharply, and is also too springy to
retain its shape after being bent ; whilst a wire that Is
too soft, although easily bent whilst making a brooch,
will as easily bend and crush out the design after being
worn a few times. The tools for this class of work con-
sist only of a pair of small round-nosed pliers, a pair of
cutting pliers, and a small flne-cut file; these can be
bought at any toolshop. The best designs and patterns
fpr a novice are a few of the lower priced hrooches, pins,
rings, and bracelets. It is advisable for the beginner to
imitate first the simpler designs, such as for an initial
scarf pin, in some cheap wire, until a certain proficiency
has been attained. Hard-drawn copper wire of No. 20
gauge will be found suitable for this purpose. The stem
of the pin may be grooved spirally with one edge of the
file, and pointed with the same tool. Twisted pins are
made with square wire, held in one pair of pliers and
twisted with another pair. "When proficiency has been
attained in making scarf pins, a safety pin, or a brooch
with a simple, short name, may be attempted. Skill in
working the wire can be attained only by first prac-
tising on copper or some other cheap material.
70
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
Design for a Doll's Wooden Bedstead,— Figs.
1 to 5 show the construction of a doll's bedstead.
The size will vary according to reciuiremeuts ; any
Fig. lis a general Tiew, Pig. 2 a side elevation, and Fig. 3
is an end elevation showing the head. Figs, i and 5
show joints, as has been said.
Dustlng-on Process of Photography,— In the dust-
ing-on process of photography, a glass plate is coated
with a mixture of sugar and dextrine, and sensitised
with bichromate of potash, the object being to pro-
duce a film that will lose its tackiness or stickiness on
exposure to light, the loss being greater in the parts
covered by the denser portions of the negative. Thus a
positive image can be obtained from a transparent
positive only, or a reversed negative from a negative.
The process is chiefly used in photo ceramic work,
although it provides also a valuable method of intro-
ducing fancy backgrounds into portraits, etc. After
exposure (ten to thirty minutes in diffused light)
some finely divided powder is brushed lightly over
the sensitised surface, the powder adhering to the
sticky portions. The development can therefore be
controlled to almost any extent, and local intensi-
fication and reduction can be carried on simiil-
taneously. The process requires some experience in
order to secure the best results, and the exposure
is very difBcult to gauge; an actinometer is used,
but atmospheric changes have great influence on the
result. Prepare the following. Grape sugar, ioz. ;
dextrine, i oz. ; bichromate of potash, i oz. ; water, 10 oz.
Design for a Doll's Wooden Bedstead,
kind of wood may be used. The posts and rails can
be jointed by stub tenons and mortises as shown at
Fig. 4, then glued together ; they may also be further
secured by round-headed screws. The head- and foot-
boards may be housed into the posts a little distance
as shown at Pig. 5. This design, carried out on a larger
scale, would make a neat little bedstead for a chud.
"Whilst this solution Is filtering, clean some glass plates,
coat them, and dry them slowly over a spirit la;°'P:
Expose as above directed, and allow the ^ilate to stand
aside and absorb some moisture from the air. Dust oyer
the powder, and coat with collodion as a proteotlye
varnish. A good washing in water serves to remove the
bichromate salt.
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
71
Hollowing Tlnplate.— A hollowing block cut prefer-
ably from the trunk of an oak or beech tree will be
required for hollowing tinplate ; a convenient Bize will
be about 3ft. high and 2 ft. 6 in. in diameter. The
holes on the top end are cut in varying depths and
diameters with a small ad»e. If a variety of hollowed
articles is to be worked, a set of block hammers will be
required. These comprise a bullet-faced hammer for
covers ; a -hammer with the faces curved to a greater
radius than the first named for kettle bodies and similar
work ; and one with the faces flaxter than either of the
two former ones for canister bodies, etc. When working
the metal, if a circle Is to be hollowed, place the metal
80 that the edge of the circle is over a hole in the block
of suitable depth, and then hollow it by delivering
regularly with the hammer a series of blows first round
the edge, and then in a series of concentric circles as
far in towards the centre as may be desired. The work
is then smoothed by again going over the hollowed part
with light regular blows, or giving a series of radial
strokes upon a planishing wheel. 'Wnen hollowing ovals,
Buch as a kettle top, the sides of the oval do not require
BO much hammering as the ends. If the shape is a rect-
angle, or an oblong wi^h round corners, the corneis are
the parts that require most working. Hollowed work in
tinplate is usually executed in " tacks " of four or six
discs or ovala, according to the thickness of metal used.
Stephenson's Thermometer Screen.— The sketch
■hows a Stephenson's thermometer screen, which
consists of a box, either square or oblong, raised 1ft.
is say 501b. per square inch, and the end of the
piston an area of Isq. in., then 501b. of weight could
be balanced. If one-third of the power is absorbed
by the friction between the cylinder and the packing or
gland, then 59jLl = 33-3 lb. equals the load that would
be raised, the load including the weight of the piston
and carriage, ear, or platform upon which the load to be
lifted rests. If the area of the above piston end was
equal to 100 sq. in., then 10" "SO x 2^ 3,333'3ii3. (which is
the load piston, cage, etc.) that wovild be raised.
Construction of Fireguard.— Fig. I shows the fire-
fuard complete as it would stand round the fireplace,
t should be of a size to fit against the centre of the
mantelpiece jambs, and should stand about 30 in. high,
though the height may be varied according to the posi-
tion. The top rail should be of flat iron J in. wide by
4 in. thick, and the bottom bar I in. by i in. These
are bent as shown in ITig. 1, leaving the ends 12 in.
long. This size may be either less or more accord-
ing to the size of the room. The rails are drilled to
receive the standard bars at intervals, leaving Sin.
space between the bars. The bars of round iron iin.
FiQ 1 FiQ 2
Stephenson's Thermometer Screen.
from the ground. The box may have louvred sides, that
is, the sides may be made in a similar way to wooden
shutters for windows, thus allowing air to penetrate,
but keeping out the direct rays of the sun. But it is
preferable to have the louvred side^ double, as illus-
trated in section by Fig. 2, and not single louvred. In
strong winds, direct draught on the damp cotton sur-
rounding the hygrometer wet bulb would produce undue
evaporation, and give a lower temperature than would
be given by the same thermometer when standing in
still air of the same temperature. The double louvre
minimises the risk of direct draught, and keeps the en-
closed air as still as possible. The box is open belotr and
has a wood partition through the middle upon which
the thei-mometers may be fixed. TheTroof is sloped, and
may be painted or covered with tarred felt. The size
of the box is notimportant ; but if it is made smallerthan
3ft. by 24ft. by 2ft., it will be necessary to have a
hinged door at each end through which to take the
readings of the thermometers.
Principles of Hydraulic Lifts, — Hydraulic lifts
are of many forms and sizes, from the small dinner
lift to the passenger or luggage elevator. The prin-
ciples on which they work are very simple, and can
be illustrated by a common syringe or squirt. If
the nozzle of such an appliance is attached to a cock
on a water pipe, a piece of ludiarubber tubing will
do for making the connection, and the piston or
8 lunger is pushed in as far as it will go before starting.
In turning on the water, the piston will be forced
outwards, and if stood or held upright a load or weight
placed on the top would be raised. The weight of the
load it would lilt would be in proportion to the pressure
of the water in the main and the area of the end of
the piston or plunger. If the pressure in the main
Fig. a
Construction of Fireguard.
FIG. 2
in diameter must be reduced at each end and then
riveted into the rails (see section, Pig. 2). The
back standard bar should be of flat iron Iin. by iin.,
with a round hole drilled through at 6 in. from the
top to receive the screw on the plate, which is fixed
to the mantelpiece, and to which the fireguard is
secured by a thumb-nut (see Fig. 3). Another method
of securing the guard to the mantelpiece is shown at
Figs. 5 and 6. The top rail is turned down to form a
hook, which falls into an iron eye on a plate fastened to
the mantelpiece. The guard may be made more orna-
mental by using an angle-h-on rail instead of flat iron
for the bottom, and fixing on the front a brass ogee
moulding (see Fig. i) and on the top rail a half-round
brass moulding (see Figs. 2 and 8). The guard maybe
painted dead black or any tint of enamel as individual
taste may direct.
Repairing Broken Cornice of Celling. — If the
broken cornice is a fluted one, make a zino mould of
it, using the good part of the cornice »* a pattern.
Remove all loose plaster, dust with a stiff brush, and well
wet the cavity with water. Mix to aproper consistency a
sufficient quantity of Keene's plaster, beat it uptoathick
paste, and apply with a trowel and sash tcol; gradually
fashion the cornice by drawing the zinc mould back-
wards and forwards until the new portion of the cornice
lines with the old. If the cornice is an ornamental one,
the broken part must be made good by a easting from a
mould taken from the unbroken part of the cornice.
72
Cyclopsedia of Mechanics.
Whitening a Discoloured Celling.— In whitening an
old paper-lined ceiling that has gone a bad colour,
clean off the ceiling and remove all loose paper;
then apply a coat of size, whish may he made by dissolv-
ing 6 oz. of glue In 6 pt. of water, and stirring in a hand-
ful of plaster-of-Paris. To make a good job, line the
ceiling with lining paper and butt the joints; for a
strong job, catch-lap the joints. The ceiling may then
be whitened in the ordinary way. If the ceiling is a
very large one, use Irish moss instead of size witu the
wliiting, as the moss will keep the joints from setting.
An Easily-made Snow Plough.— For the construc-
tion of the snow plough here illustrated, two elm slabs
about oft. by 10 In. by IJin. are required; the planks
might be longer and wider with advantage. Out one
end of each plank as at A B (Fig. 1) ; then place it on
the second, and draw a line along A B as a guide by
which to cut the second. Place the planks edgeways,
as in Fig. 2, and decide the- angle at which to fix them.
A suitable angle will make the ends and E 2 ft. 6 in.
or 3 ft. apart. Lay E ]? edgewaj's on the edge of C D
at D at the proper angle, and mark the bevel at D.
Then, having fixed OD edgeways, out down this bevel
line with a saw. EP, when placed against this bevel,
will now form the angle required, the outer edge
being bevelled to a sharp edge. Two strong pieces of
wood should then be cut to the length of the cross rails.
Place all in position before nailing together, and mark
with a pencil the ends of the rails on both planks. Then
bore holes from the inside to the marks, and, when all is
ready, nail the side pieces together with 3-in. or 4-in.
side. Along the bottom of the central groove glue a
strip of cork. Having laid the dead insect in the groove,
a pin is pushed vertically through the centre of fts
thorax down into the cork ; the height of the latter
should be just sufficient to bring the wing above the edge
of the side cork, and packing must be inserted where
necessary to ensure this. An entomological pin, long and
thin with a small head.is used. If the wings can be spread
with a couple of sparrows'-tall or flight feathers fixed in
a handle, all the better. Contact with lingers or tweezers
or such like spoils the wings. Small slips of letter-writing
paper are used as straps to hold the wings in their ex-
tended position, a couple or more of ordinary pins being
stuck through each strap, but not through the wings.
Use plenty of straps to keep the wings extended ; putthe
set insect aside for a week or so, remove the straps, and
stick the sample inside a store box or case. Camphor
enclosed with the specimens will preserve them from
mites, which otherwise might spoil a valuable collection.
In the busy insect season many adopt the system of
leaving the killed insects to dry unset, so that they may
be relaxed and set properly at leisure. Dry insects are
easily relaxed by keeping them on damp sand for a few
days, when they may be treated on the setting board
precisely as if they had but just been killed.
Table for Silvering Plate Glass.— The Illustration
shows a hot table suitable for use in silvering glass;
it has the middle slate removed. One -inch board
should be used for the top of the table, the slate
top S being IJin. thick. The inside should be lined
with zinc to make it airtight, the zinc being brought
FIG. 2
An Easily-made Snow Flougli.
Table for Silvering Plate Glass.
wire nails. Place the rails in position, and nail from the
outside through the holes already made. A piece of tin,
such as a tin canister flattened out, will, it nailed on the
front edge at D, ease the passage through the snow. A
strong staple should be placed at each side, as at JP, for
harnessing a pony or horse to draw the plough, when
in use, some heavy logs or a box of stones should be tied
on the plough to prevent it rising over the snow.
Setting and Preserving Butterflies, etc.— Insects
tp be preserved In a collection should be lulled separ-
ately, in a wide-mouthed stoppered jar, at the bottom
of which is cyanide of potassium covered with plaster-
of-Paris. As soon as it is quite dead, remove the
Insect from the bottle, catching hold of it by the middle
— that is, where the legs join the body— and use a pair of
tweezers, not fingers or anything as clumsy. Suitable
tweezers can be bought at many shops, and can be made
by bending double a strip of thin sheet steel or brass
Jin. or j in. wide and 61n. or Sin. long tUlthetwo ends
meet and form a delicate substitute for forefinger and
thumb. The spring of the metal at the bend should keep
the ends about I In. or lln. apart. The ends can be filed
to a blunt point. Touch' the insect as little as possible,
and always catch hold of it by the thorax. The wings
and other par-ts of butterflies and moths are covered
with minute feathers, which are rubbed off and de-
faced at the slightest touch. The dead insect stiffens
and dries up rapidly; therefore, have read.y a setting
board, on which to hold it in position whilst drying.
The setting board is made by gluing two strips of soft,
smooth corkj each 9 in. by 1 in. by i in., to an under-piece
of wood 9 in. by 2iin. by lln. The two cork strips are
glued to the wood with tv i-in. groove between their
longest edges, and the cork is slightly bevelled off on the
outer edge. Insect setj;ing boards used by Continental
naturalists are, however, quite flat; but English
naturalists consider Insects to be spoilt if s6t flat. Of
course, the larger the insect the wider will the board
require to be. In the i-in. groove the body of the insect
lies whilst its wings are extended over the cork on each
over the side. The slate slab should be bedded in red-
lead, all joints being filled with red-lead mixed with
varnish. The table must be quite level. A blanket or
piece of felt should be placed over the slate when in use,
and made wet with water before the steam is used.
Steam should be turned on gradually by a valve at
I ; the hotter the table the quickerthe silver wUl deposit.
The outlet pipe O lor steam is absolutely necessary, and
could be regulated by a valve, as the confined steam
would lift off the slate. The outlet pipe should be led to
a convenient place so as not to interrupt a clear passage
round the table. The pipe W in the bottom of the table
is to let out the water formed by the condensing of the
steam. The zinc is turned into the groove G, which is
also for the bed of red lead. The glass to be silvered
must be chemically clean, and whilst still wet from
the washing it should be placed on the hot table and
have a solution of gelatine or other mordant poured
over it. Before this hardens, cover the glass with a
saturated solution of nitrate of silver, and allow to
remain untouched for about ten minutes. After
wiping with a leather squeegee, again apply the silver
nitrate solution, and complete the process by a final
wiping with the squeegee.
Polishing Cornelian Stones.— Perhaps the best way
of polishing cornelian stones in the rough is first to grind
them level on a suitable stone, or on a piece of York-
shire grit obtained from a tombstone cutter. The stone
must lie kept wet. When a level face is procured,
grind out all the markings with emery powder, not
too fine ; use this on a thick sheet of lead with water.
On another sheet of lead grind with a finer emery all
marks left by the first emery. Then grind with finest
emery on another sheet of lead ; by this time there will
be a dull polish. When no scratches are visible, polish
with putty powder on a piece of felt or leather. Two
things must De remembered : Do not stop grinding with
one powder until all markings of a previous grinding
are removed; and secondly, all the grindings must
be wet.
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
73
Spinning Copper.— Copper ia one of the easiest metals
to spin in the lathe, because It is pliable and can be
annealed straight off when it becomes hard. The tool must
bear on the metal with firmneea, but it is best not to take
too large feeds, but to mould the metal gradually. It is
•of great advantage to hold a piece of hardwood against
the back of the blank, particularly in the earlier stages.
When the blank is first put on the chuck, or after it has
been annealed, it feels very soft ahd yielding, but after
a short time it gets harder, and it is not wise to work it
too hard. The tool should not be moved from centre to
circumference only ; that would tend to draw the metal
away from the centre and make it thinner there and
more liable to break. When the tool has travelled from
the centre outwards, let it travel back again to the
centre ; in this way the metal can be kept of the same
thickness throughout. If the blank is fixed to the chuck
by a screw through the centre, turn the chuck gra4ually
during the spinning and anneal rather often.
Bier Stand for a Mortuary.— The accompanying
sketch shows the construction . of the frame of a
mortuary bier stand. All the dimensions are clearly
marked on the sketch, and when the top is boarded over
with 1-in. boards (which should run across the frame),
been heated in an oven. After the application, lay the
carbon paper on an old newspaper and return to the
oven to allow the mixture to soak in. After about halt
an hour's heating any excess of fluid may be removed
with a cotton rag ; the paper will be fit for use on cooling.
Making Opalines In preparing opalines, immerse
a photographic print in a 5-per-eent. solution of gela-
tine. Warm the glass, and pour on it in a pool a por-
tion of the gelatine solution; immediately lay the,
print, face down, upon this, and squeeze out any air
Dells. The glasses are generally edged round inside
with a rim of gold paint. The prints should be cut
slightly smaller than the glasses, and be just large
enough to cover the rim. Before the print dries a
piece of waterproof paper is mounted over the back.
Finally, the strut is afBied with glue.
Air Pump for Blowlamp An air pump for a blow-
lamp, and particularly suitable for the apparatus
described on p. 151, may be made from brass tube lin.
in diameter and Bin. long. Take a thick circular
41sc'of brass of the same diameter as the tube, and drill
a conical opening in the side, and also a cross channel
to join it as at S ; then braze the drilled disc on the
end of the tube. File away the surplus spelter, and
with emery and oil grind the conical opening true, so
that when the metal ball shown is dropped in it will .
<
1
L
Bi ;!llill
1 j
j
' 1
H
W'
Bier Stand for a Mortuary.
Air Pump for Blowlamp.
overhanging at the sides and end about an inch, the
stand will be complete. The stands may be made of deal,
but oak is preferable, though of course more expensive.
Particulars of Microscope Slides.- Some Jnicroscope
cells are made by painting rings of marine glue upon a
elide, and repeating this until the cell is deep enough.
Other cells are formed by cementing pieces of plate glass
(with the interior removed) to the slides; whilst others,
known as " sunk cells," are formed by grinding out a
hollow in the sjide. Others, again, are known as "tube
<!ells," being formed by cementing a section of round or
rectangular glass tube to the slide glass. These may be
of any size. There are also "buOt-up cells," made by
cementing separate pieces of glass together.
Making Carbon Paper.— In preparing black carbon
paper either of the two following compositions may be
used, (a.) Finest lampblack 5 parts, olive oil 5 parts, eerasin
wax 1 part, and pfetroleum ether 10 parts. (6) Lampblack
5 parts, eerasin wax 6 parts, olive oil 5 parts, and petroleum
«ther 15 parts. The lampblack and oil are ground
together in a mortar, transferred to a small dish or
pan and slightly heated, and the eerasin wax added ;
when tbe latter has thoroughly melted, well stir the
mixture, remove it to a safe place, and while still
warm add the petroleum ether. For a bluish-black
shade, add a little Prussian blue. The mixture, whUe
■warm, should be applied with a brush to paper that haa
completely close the passage. If any difBculty is experi-
enced in making the ball fit air-tight, line the cone with
thin leather ; the ball will then act satisfactorily. C is a
plug of leather well soaked in oU, and attached to the
plunger rod by means of a small nut as shown. When
In use, the back pressure exerted on the lower end of
the plug causes it to expand on the down stroke, and so
closely fit the tube that all the air in it is forced through
the outlet D. On the upward stroke commencing the
ball closes down the hole at D, and air passes the sides of
the plunger as it is drawn upwards. A screwed cap B
made to fit the barrel completes the pump.
Cementing Joints Round Cooking Ranges. — A
cement that will not crumble and break away from
joints in a cooking range and from around the front
edges of range covings cannot be obtained. The heat
appears to affect the cement, but the real cause is the
expansion and contraction of the range parts when
heating and cooling. A slow-setting cement might be
used, so that when the fire is lighted the range parts
and cement may accommodate themselves to each
other. If care is taken to keep the joint very small
common glaziers' putty could be used ; this answers well,
as it eventually hardens with the heat. But better Btill
will be to have the stone jambs tight up or overlapping
the edges of the covings ; or provide a moulded edge up
each side and across the top of the range to overlap
the jambs and frieze.
74
Cyclopsedia of Mechanics.
The Pulsometer.— The illustration shows a sectional
elevation of a pulsometer, which is an appliance for
raising water hy the alternate pressure and condensation
of steam. To describe the pai-ts, K is a pipe from a boiler
containing steam under pressure. The gunmetal spheri-
cal valTe is free to move and to alternately cover the
necks I and J. The latter form the upper parts of the
chambers A A, into which water passes througnthe valves
E E from the suction pipe F. 6 G are doors for access to
the valves E E for repairs or other attention. Near the
bottom ends of A A are side outlets, as shown by the
dotted circles, covered by the valves r r, also shown 'by
dotted lines, opening into a chamber with which are con-
nected the air vessel B and the outlet branch D, to which
the delivery pipe is attached. The action is as follows.
The pump is first charged with water through plug-holes
Sectional Elevation of Pulsometer,
provided for the purpose, and then steam is turned on
at K. This presses on the water on the right hand
chamber A (which is not covered by the spherical valve),
and forces it, as shown by the arrows, through the right-
hand valve P and up the delivery pipe. The steam in
the right-hand chamber A then condenses, and causes
the spuerioal valve to roll over and cover the neck j, and
also creates a vacuum, which is again fllloA with water
through the right-hand valve E from the suction pipe 0.
When the valve has rolled over j, the steam passes
through the open neck I and presses on the water in the
left-hand chamber A, forcing it through the dotted left-
hand valve ]? into the delivery chamber. When the left-
hand chamberAisnearly empty, the valve is again pulled
back by the condensation of the steam in the chamber,
which again fills with water during the time the other
chamber is being emptied, and these actions continue
as long as steam under efficient pressure is supplied. As
water will not rise in a vacuum beyond a certain height,
a pulsometer should not be fixed more than about 15 ft.
or 20 ft. above the water to be raised, although theo-
retically the limit Is a little more than 30 ft. The pump ca»
be slung on chain s in a well or sump, so that there is very
little trouble in fixing it, or lowering it when necessary
for keeping within a working distance of the water.
The height to which a pulsometer will raise water
depends on the pressure of steam in the boiler, which i»
used In conjunction with the apparatus.
Making Typewriter Inks.— One of the most popular
recipes for ink for typewriter ribbons is as follows.
Melt some petrolatum, having a high boiling point, on
a water bath. Petrolatum is a soft hydrocarbon obtained
from the residues left after the distillation of lighter
oUs from crude petroleum, or it may be deposited by the
latter on standing ; its commoner name is vaseline. In-
corporate as much lampblack or powdered dropblack as
the petrolatum will take up without becoming granular.
When the mixture is partly cool, dissolve It, a little at &
time, in a mixture of equal parts of petroleum, benzine,
and rectified oil of turpentine. Eegulate the quantity
of the latter solvents to produce a solution of the con-
sistency of fresh oil paint. Try on one end of the ribbon
and, if too thin, add wax ; if too faint, add colour ; if
too hard, add vaseline. Apply to the ribbon and brush
off the excess. Many typewriter '" ks have glycerine, a
very undesirable Ingredient, as the rehlclefor the colour-
ing matter. The following recipes are typical of the com.
position of such Inks. (1) Dissolve i oz. of aniline dye in
4 oz. of glycerine, and add 2 oz. of alcohol and 2 oz. of
water. (2) Dissolve 1 part (by weight) of powdered
aniline dye in 6 parts of glycerine, and add 3 parts
of soft soap. Warm until the soap dissolves and
well mix. (3) Dissolve i oz. of aniline dye in 15 il. oz. of
alcohol, and add 15 fl. oz. of glycerine. (4) A good ink is
made by dissolving 1 part of aniline dye (soluble in
oU) j«» 6 or 8 parts of oil of cloves ; gentle heat
assists the solution. The aniline dye in these four
recipes may be of any smtable colour ; black and violet
are perhaps the most serviceable. Another method of
making a black ink is to grind 1 part of gas black
with 5 parts of oil of cloves. All inks containing
aniline colouring matter and glycerine are copying
inks. Two other recipes for copying inks are here
given. (1) Grind 1 part (by weight) of suitable ani-
line colouring matter with 6 parts of glycerine. (2>
Dissolve, by the aid of heat, 1 oz. of transparent soap in
a mixture of 4fl. oz. of glycerine and 12a. oz. of water; ,
mix with a solution of a sufficient' quantity of aniline
dye in 24 fl. oz. of alcohol. If the ink is too thin, add soap.
The unsatisfactory results given by home-made type,
writer inks appear to be caused by the use of glycerine
as one of the Ingredients, according to Prof. Shuttle-
worth. The hygroscopic properties of glycerine make It
an undesirable ingredient, and the addition of glucose,
soap, alcohol, or water does not Improve matters.
Vaseline, with or without the addition of wax, gives
better results, but its consistence is appreciably affected
by temperature. Prof. Shuttleworth proposes castor oil
as a more suitable medium ; the colouring matter maybe
any of the salts of the aniline series, and of these methyl
violet IS practically soluble in the oil mentioned. In
preparing the ink, triturate the powdered colour with the
oil in the mortar, the work being facilitated by the
addition of a very little alcohol A suitable formula
for such an ink is that of Higgins. Castor oil, 4 oz. ;
carbolic acid, 1 oz. ; oil of cassia, 1 oz. ; suitable aniline
colour, loz. Printing inks may be modified for service
In the typewriter by adding vaseline to make them non-
drying on the ribbon ; if it is found that they are too
soft, add wax also.
Fog on Photographic Dry Plates. — If light
reaches a dry plate by any other way than through
the lens when the plate is exposed in the camera, the
result is fog ; that is, the sensitiveness of the plate is
destroyed, and development produces black patches of
greater or less intensity according to the amount of
light that has accidentally fallen on the plate. This
fog may be due to defective slides, to cracks in the
camera, to leakages of outside light into the dark room,
or to an unsafe lamp. In a score of other ways, all of
which may be classed under careless or faulty handling
of the plates during their journey from the maker's box
to the developing dish, light may reach the sensitive plate
and cause fog.
Lead-light Glazing.— As a cement for fixing lead lights
to steel frames, the following preparation will probably
give satisfaction. . Mix liquid glue with a sufficient
quantity of wood ashes to form a thick mass ; the ashes
should be added in small quantities to the glue (while
boiling) , and constantly stirred. A sort of mastic is then
obtained, which, applied hot to the glass and metal, fixes
the two firmly together. A good hard stopping can b*
made of fine litharge, 2 parts; white lead, 1 parti
copal varnish, 1 part ; boiled linseed oil, 8 parts ; the
whole is well triturated together. Lead glazing may be
fixed in either wood or metal frames.
Cyclopasdia of Mechanics.
75r
Making Triad Pictures.— A triad picture is simply
three pictures in one; from a standpoint exactly in
front of It a certain view, represented by X (Pis. 1), is
seen. Prom a point a little to the right-hand side is seen
a totally different view, represented by T (Pig. 2) ; wUle
movement to the left discloses a third picture Z (Pig. 3).
The construction is very simple. Pirst get three pic-
tures and select the central one. For the purpose of
description, suppose it to be 13 in. wide ; the height is
tures. Divide it into thirty-seven parts, and mark each
etc. (Pig. 7). Now, with a very sharp knife
A
X ,
cut off the central picture the slip marked -j (Pig. 4) , and
paste it on the division marked j (Pig. 7) .
Z or left-hand picture and cut off' the slip marked -j
Next take the
z
Fics.3
Fig. I
Fig. 2
m
m?
i
Z' z
7 8
nil
m
'z 'z
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m
Fig. 6
Fig. 4'.
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t 2I3I 4 5] 6 Tja 9 10' II
IB
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Fig. 5,
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M
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21
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iil
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37
FIG. 7
llppllll}pllll
XZYXZYXZYJ(2YXZYXZYXZYXZYlX Z.Y Xi Z Y X Z Y X Z Y )<
I I, I 2 2 2 3 3 3 4 4 4 5 5, 5 61, 6 6 r 7 7. 8. S 81^ 9 9 91 10 ICI lOl II II II, I2j 12, 12, 1'S..
iiLiilJ:i .iiiyyjia^^
Fig. 8
x^
■"t
Fig. 9
Making Triad Pictures.
not material at present. On the back of the picture
rule pencil lines, dividing it into thirteen divisions,
each lin. wide, and mark these divisions ^, 2, ?, and
1 2 o
so on, as shown on Pig. 4. Next take the picture repre-
sented by T (Pig. 2) . Suppose it to be 12 in. wide ; on the
hack rule pencil lines, dividing it into twelve divisions,
V T V
and mark the divisions =-, i, -j, and so on, as shown
1 2 o
on Fig. 5. Space the third picture (also 12 in. wide) into
twelve divisions, and mark each -, ^, -, etc., to Fig. 6.
Next t?,ke a sheet of paper (lining wall paper will do),
37 in. long, and in width equal to the height of the iiie-
(Pig, 6), and paste it on .f (Fig. 7). Then off the T or
2
right-hand picture cut the slip y (Pig. 5) and paste it on
3 (Pig. 7). Now return to the X picture, and cut off the
slip ^(Pig. 4) and paste it on ^ (Pig. 7), and so on, until
all the slips are pasted in the order shown on Pig. a.
Now fold the combined picture on a piece of miUboard
slightly larger than the central picture, paste down the
first strip X' (Fig. 8), paste Z' and ¥' back to back, secure
X^ close to the first strip, put 7? and Y' back to back, and
so on (see Fig. 9). It the pictures are comparatively
narrow, say 9 in. or less from top to bottom, do not cut
^6
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
the centre one but paste it on a sheet of card, which
should be 1 In. larger all round than the picture. Now
glue a 1-ln. by 1-in. wood slip, neatly mitred at the
angles, round the edges of a sheet of stout millboard,
meike saw cuts iin, long and lin. apart in the top and
bottom pieces, and Bx the frame round the picture.
Paste the other pictures on paper having i-in. margins
at the top and bottom. Cut them into 1-in. strips, paste
corresponding strips back to back, run the brush along
the proper edge of the connected strips, and iix the ends
Into the i-in. saw cuts. If the centre picture is wider
than the others, the height of the upstanding strips will
be less than the width of the centre picture strips ; when
■uprights and flat strips are of equal width, as In Fig. 9,
shadows are apt to Interrupt the side views. Spaces as
X' in Pig. 9, lin. wide, with uprights T* Jin. high, will
suit a centre picture 15 in. wide, and two others 104 in.
wide, or one 10 in. wide, two 63 in. wide, etc. ; dimensions
respectively of lin. ana J in. suit a centre picture 15 in.,
and two other 7 in. ; and dimensions of } In. and i in. suit
a centre picture 12 in., and two others 7i in. Oleographs
and photographic enlargements make good triad pic-
tures. Triad signboards having worded announcements
ai-e made as in the section (Fig. 10) with wedge-shaped
pieces having 1-in. sides and i-in. base. Paint these
«ame as gi'ound, and put a letter in each division.
The Manufacture of Artificial Gems.— As early as
1837 Gaudin made artificial rubles by heating ammonia,
alumina, and potash by means of an oxy-hydrogen blow-
pipe; the Intense heat volatilised the potash and
alumina, afterwards producing crystals in rhombohedral
forms identical with those of the natural stone, and
liaving the same specific gravity and hardness. Methods
of producing crystals of corundum, ruby, sapphire, etc.,
were discovered about 1858, but both these and Gaudin'a
processes had but little commercial value, the great
expense precluding their adoption. Until quite recently,
the only artificial gems known to commerce were
coloured glass, and, in some cases, wax preparations
backed with silver or a mercury amalgam. Wow, how-
ever, the chemist can produce imitations that, in lustre
.and hardness, equal the real or found gems; perhaps
" imitation " is not the correct word, as the composition
of both manufactured and found stones is supposed to
be the same. Sometimes it is quite impossible to dis-
tinguish between the two kinds of gems, although
generally examination under the microscope discloses
some difference. As seen through a microscope, natural
rubies contain minute cracks which indicate the lines of
cleavage ; the artificial gem shows very minute bubbles
or gas holes. Analysis has proved that the sapphire is pure
alumina, that is, oxide of aAuminium (AI3O3) . This is found
in the form of a white powder fusible at high tempera-
tures only. The colour of a sapphire is supposed to be
4ue to the presence of chrome, and is dichroitic, that is,
it varies with the point of observation ; thus, it is
«uecessfully imitated only with difficulty. M. Sidot, the
French chemist, accidentally discovered a method of
producing gems that possessed dibhroitio properties.
His method is to heat an Iron pot 'jo dark red and to
place in it 4oz. of superphosphate of lime ; this is brought
to the same heat and stirred with an iron rod, being
then converted to crystallised pyrophosphate, which,
on being further heated, becomes a fluid resembling
molten glass. It is supposed that in this state a part of
the phosphoric acid is changed to a tribasic phosphate.
The fused mass is stirred continuously until it is quite
transparent and free from bubbles, when It is transferred
to another pot and kept at a white heat for two hours,
the, stii-ring being kept up all the time. After standing
for an hour, it is poured on to a metallic surface and
allowed to cool slowly until as soft as putty, when it is
put on plate glass. When cold, a number of sjones
almost equal to i the genuine sapphire may be cut from
the plate. Another formula is : Smelt a mixture of i oz.
of oxide of aluminium and 4oz. of red lead (PbsOJ, and
stir in lOgr. of bichromate of potassium (KoCrsO?) and
17 gr. of oxide of cobaltum (CoO). When cold, stones
may be cut that are as hard, if not quite so brilliant,
as the genuine ones. The ruby, also, is oxide of alu-
minium coloured by chrome. Crystals of the rose-
coloured ruby may be produced by melting together
aluminium oxide and powdered silica, Tvith the ad-
dition of fluoride of barium to form a flux, and then
adding a trace of bichromate of potassium; 5001b.
of these ingredients, after perhaps a week's fusion,
will produce rubles of 5 or 6 carats which may vary much
in colour, running through all the shades of bluish
sapphire and rose to the deep colour of the so-called
pigeon-blood ruby. Ordinary borax fused with a little
■chromium oxide for a week or so produces large ruby
crystals; but 2001b. of ingredients may be required to
obtain even two or three gems of any marketable value.
One method of making artificial rubies is to smelt a
mixture of 4oz. of oxide of aluminium and4oz. of red
lead, and add from 7gr. to 16 gr. of blohromate of
potasBium. Ifatural emeralds are a combinatiou of the
rare element beryllium or gluciuum with silicon ; chrome
gives the colour. Beryllium is too expensive for use in
producing imitations, so oxide of aluminium is used,
i OZ. of this being smelted with 4 oz. of reii lead, to
which from 8 gr. to 12 gr. of uranate of sodium (Na^TJaO?)
have been added. Hautefeuille & Perry, the French
chemists, produce some beautiful emerald crystals
by fusing silica, alumina, glucina, and a trace of
chromium oxide with acid molybdate of lithia. After
a fusion of fifteen days some very small crystals, having
all the mineralogical and physical characters of the
natural emerald, may be obtained. The longer the
fusion the larger are the crystals. Emeralds and other
gems nave been produced from gas retort refuse by a
method discovered by Mr. Srevllle Williams, F.E.8.. who
modelled an emerald composed of from 67 to 68 per cent,
of silica, 15 to 18 per cent, of alumina, 12 to 14 per cent,
of glucina, and traces of magnesia, carbon, and car-
bonate of lime. The colour was an intense green, due, it
is believed, to the presence of sesquioxide of chromium.
Imitations of the amethyst, topaz, etc., have been
made very successfully by Donault Wieland, of Paris,
whose method of preparing "Parisian diamonds" or
" Alaska diamonds is to smelt a mixture of 65 per cent,
of pulverised crystal quartz, 20 per cent, of i-ed lead,
8 per cent, of pure carbonate of potash, 5 per cent, of
boric acid, and 2 per cent, of white arsenic. The brilliancy
of the resultant stone depends principally on the purity '
of the red lead and of the carbonate of soda.
Frinclples of Sewing Machines.— The principle
of the lockstitch sewing machine is, roughly speak-
ing, as follows. The needle descends to the bottom
of its stroke, and simultaneously the shuttle slides,
vibrates, or oscillates as far as the end of its backward
movement. Continuing the movement of the balance
wheel, the needle begins to rise, and the shuttle
immediately after begins to move forwai-d. As the
needle rises the material through which it is passing
holds the needle cotton long enough to cause it to loop
out behind the eye of the needle under the needle-
plate. The shuttle, still moving forward, enters this
loop and passes through it, the necessary amount of
slack cotton being si^pplied either by the " time " of the
needle-bar or by the check or take-up lever, according
to the style of the machine. By the "time " of the needle-
bar is meant the movement which is caused by a cam
on the bar, causing it to descend the second time after it
has risen sufficiently to throw out its loop and to allow
the shuttle point to enter it. This descent throws off
enough slack cotton to pass over the body of the shuttle
without causing any strain on the cotton, and as soon
as the shuttle has passed through the loop the needle-
bar rises to its highest point and draws up the cotton
into the material being sewn and the bottom or shuttle
cotton with it, completing its stitch. Under the material
and under the needle-plate is a teed dog which rises just
before the needle has reached its highest point, and,
moving back, carries the material with it the required
distance and sinks below the needle-plate before the
needle enters the work again. If the machine is a
rotary hook machine, the hook, instead of sliding or
oscillating backwards, continues to revolve, and is so
arranged that when the needle is at the lowest part of its
movement, the point of the hook is a little behind It,
fenerally about Vjin., a little more or less according to
he style of the machine. The main points to remember
are ; (a) Short groove of needle is always toward the
shuttle or hook, (b) When the needle is rising and the
point of the shuttle is just level with ' it, the eye of
the needle must be iVin. or more below the shuttle
point, (c) The shuttle must not start to come forward
before the needle begins to rise, (d) The feed must carry
the material while the needle is well out of the work.
(e) See that the shuttle point is sharp, and that the
shuttle driver wherever it touches the shuttle is per-
fectly smooth, and that all points over which the cotton
runs are also smooth. The movements of chalnstitoh
machines are similar generally to the rotary hook
lockstitch machine, but the hook having picked up the
needle cotton does not drop or allow it to slip off un^iil it
has picked the second needle loop. It is very essential
in chainstitch machiues to have the right make of
needles, as poor needles cause endless trouble. The
short gi'oove of the needle is again nearest the hook, and
the hook should pass as near the needle as possible
without touching. See that the hook is perfectly smooth,
and in putting together such machines do not alter in
the slightest the shape of this hook.
Removing Rust Marks from Wood.— In re-palnting
wooden structures disfigured by the marks caused by
iron nails having turned rusty, first rub out the rust
marks with sandpaper, getting as much i-ust as possible
off the nail heads ; then with a small brush worn down
to a stump rub well in around each nail head some good
oil varnish. When quite dry, apply the paint. The
above method will check the rust to a great extent, but'
it will still form in the holes against the wood.
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
77
Testing Gravel for Gold.— In testing a hard rocky
grayel for gold, first finely powder a sample of the gravel,
moisten it In a tall cylinder with water, and pass chlorine
gas through it, whereby Soluble chloride of gold is formed.
After treating with chlorine the gravel should be washed
with hot water, the solution collected in a dish, boiled to
expel the chlorine, and then heated with solution of
ferrous sulphate. If gold is present it will separate as a
fine brown powder. Another method is to take, sajf, i lb.
of the powdered gravel, mix it with litharge (oxide of
lead) and flour or cream of tartar, and heat it in a
crucible in a furnace. The litharge is reduced by the
flour or crealm of tartar forming metallic lead, which
melts and, as it passes through the gravel, takes the gold
with it to the bottom of the Crucible. After heating, the
crucible is broken open and the button of metallic lead
is removed. It is first roasted in a dish in a muffle
furnace to get rid of the greater portion of the lead as
oxide ; the oxidation is then finished on a bone-ash
cupel, which absorbs the oxide of lead formed, leaving, at
the end of the operation, a button of metallic gold,
providing that metal was present in the gravel.
Water-tight Sliding Door.— The opening to which a
sliding water-tight door is to be fitted in a ship should
have an angle frame all round at the edges of the plate
to stiffen up the plating. This angle is on the side of the
plate opposite the door. The sketch shows the general
construction of a slidin g watertight door at the en d which
takes the screw for sliding the door open. A and D are
the sides and top of the cast-iron frame which forms the
and tne topping. The bottoming, which is composed of
slag, clinkers, etc.. Is mixed with a hot composition of
gas-tar boiled in a cauldron, a little pitch and resin
being added. Before being used, the materials must he-
allowed time to become thoroughly incorporated with
the tar. The formation level being ready, a thickness of
2 in. of this bottoming is laid and well rolled. The top-
layer, 1 in. in thickness, is now laid on this and well
rolled. The topping differs from the bottoming only in
the smaller and finer quality of the materials which, in-
the case of topping, are mixed with the tar. The surface
is now flooded with the tar composition in a boiling-
condition, and, whilst wet, is blinded -with clean white
sand or fine granite dust. A footpath of -this kind lasts-
a long time without requiring any repairs worth men-
tioning. Inequalities and bad patches must be cut out
as soon as they occur, and new material well rammed in.
Every two or three years, according to the character
and extent of the traffic, a fresh top should be laid over-
and blinded. These footpaths will, however, last usually
six or seven years -without requiring absolute renewal.
Cleaning and Mounting Antlers.— Below are given.
instructions on cleaning and mounting a pair of stag's-
antlers. Well wash and scrub the antlers with warm water
and soap. Thoroughly dr.y them with a cloth Or towel,
then give another smart rubbing with a perfectly dry
cloth to remove some of the dulness from the sharp edges-
o4-F
Water-tight Sliding Door.
Cleaning and Mounting Antlers.
bed for the door to slide on. B shows pieces of plate,
generally about Sin. broad, which form the back sliding
surface. The door itself (C) is a casting. Across the
centre and bottom of this is a web, as well as that shown
at the top. These webs are solely for stiffening the door.
A hole is made through at the centre to allow the door to
travel up the screw when the door is being opened. The
centre of the screw is usually kept about 6 in. from the
bulkhead, and it and the gearing rods are supported, by-
cast-iron brackets. When the geai-ing has to be angled,
bevel wheels are used about 6 in. in diameter, wi^h thirty
teeth of l-in. pitch. The gearing rods are usually
about 11 in. in diameter.
Proportions for a Compensation Pendulum.- A zinc
and steel compensation pendulum for a regulator clock
having a dead-beat escapement is of fairly simple con-
struction. For a seconds pendulum the central rod
is of steel, •^t in. thick, and measures 45 in. from the
bottom of the thread for the rating nut to the point
of suspension. Over this rod, and resting on the rating
nut, is a zinc tube 26 in. long andfrom Jiu. to -j^ in. thick.
This tube slides freely over the rod. Outside the zinc
tube, and depending from its top end, is an outer steel
tube (bicycle tube) 23 in. Ibng. At its lower end an
outside collar is fixed, on which the bob rests. This is
of lead, cast with a central hole having a shoulder in its
centre. The upper part of the hole just trees the steel
tube, and the shoulder rests on the collar. The lower
part of the hole is large enough to clear the collar.
Thus the bob is supported at its centre and expands
as much up as down. Its length is 9 in. and its shape
cylindrical. For a 14-lb. bob 21 in. diameter will be suit-
able i for a 17-lb. bob 2J in. wiU do.
Laying Tar Footpaths. — Tar footpaths are inex-
pensive as compared with fiagging, etc., and if properly
laid, water will not soak into them, nor will the heat of the
sun melt the tar. It is laid in two layers— the bottoming
and iirominences. The antlers can be mounted by one of
the following methods. Fig. 1 shows how, by cutting a
piece off the back of the antler, it may be fixed to the
mount by means of a screw passing through a hole
previously di-illed in the antler. Fig. 2 shows an arti
ncial forehead of wood , with short processes or projections-
upo'n which the antlers rest, being screwed from the
back. Another method is to drill a large hole length-
wise into the antler from the base, and in this hole
to place a dowel (see Fig. 3), by means of which the
antler may be fixed as in Figs. I or 2. Beslgns of shields,
or mounts are shown by Figs, i to 7. To make these,
double a piece of paper, draw half the shield as shown,
and cut out through both pieces of paper. Flatten
out the paper and mark round on the wood with a
• pencil. The mounts can be made of oak, mahogany,
or walnut, the first-named for preference. Ebony or
ebonised wood is rather too gloomy, though often used.
Gilding Steel Pins.— Highly polished steel pins, free
from grease and oil, may be gilded in an electro-gilding
solution of gold cyanide. When a quantity of pins ia
required, they may be gilded in dozens at a time if
suspended in the solution in a basket of platinum gauze,
which must be shaken whilst the gilding process is
going on. Any gold deposited on the platinum may be
afterwards dissolved off in the gilding solution without
doing it any injury. The pins are scratch-brushed and
polished in the usual manner. This method is applic-
able to all small steel articles.
Varnish for Walnut Gunstock.— A walnut gunstock
may be coated with a very bright varnish made accord-
ing to the following recipe. Take 4 oz. of best orange
shellac, 4 oz. of gum sandarach, 2 oz. of gum benzoin,
I oz. of Venice turpentine, one pennyworth of carap4ior,
and 1 pt. of methylated spirit frequently agitate, and
carefully strain through muslin. The varnish should be
applied with a camel-hair brush in a warm room.
78
Cyclopsedia of Mechanics.
How to Make Fbotographlc Silhouettes. — In
making photographic silhouettes, as the exposure re-
quired is BO much less than that necessary for an
ordinai-y portrait, a slow lens can he used. Stretch a
sheet across an open doorway where it can be well
Illuminated from without, and set the camera up in the
room, the figure being close against the sheet. BemoTe
from the room any articles likely to throw light on the
figure, which should be dressed in black, and focus the
dark outline shown on the sheet. A brief exposure must
be EiTen, as it is necessary to expose lor the sheet only ;
backed plates must be used to prevent halation, that is,
a, spreading of light around the edges of the shaidow due
to the light reflected from the back of the dry plate.
Kagnesium light is particularly suitable for this work.
When the feet are to be Included, the figure must be
supported upon plate glass covered with thin muslin.
Working Circular Mouldlntfs.— Fig. 1 shows a piece
of circular moulding worked on the fiat surface. First
cut out the rectuired shape or plan ; get the piece equBl
in thickness and parallel in width. Sink squares as
shown by dotted lines, taking out No. 1 square first,
and so on ; then, with a router, as shown in Figs. 2 and
3, work the mouldings from the outer edge. To work
the rebate at S (Fig. 1), place the piece in the bench
chops C (Fig. 2) and work in the same manner as shown
skins are spread over an oval-shaped wooden bench, and
the hair is scraped off with a tool resembling a car-
penter's draw-knife. A similar bench Is used in fieshing
—the next operation— in which all particles of flesh are
cut off , the skin is given an even thickness, and the ragged
ends are trimmed. After being washed in the revolving
drum for thirty minutes, they a;re again fleshed to
remove the grease, paddled in warm water, spread out
on benches, and slated to remove surplus dirt. After
again being paddled, the skins are drenched in a tub of
bran and water, being paddled in the drench for twelve
hours; this removes the last traces of lime and opens
the pores preparatory to tanning. The latter operation
is performed in a revolving drum, the tanning liquor
being a mixture of alum, salt, flour, yolks of eggs, and
water. The drum makes eighty revolutions per minute,
and at the end of twelve hours the skins are removed
and hung up for twenty-four hours in the drying-
room, heated to a temperature of llO' P. The dry skins
are damped with water and softened in a mill, con-
sisting of two perpendicular swinging planks, having
heavy wooden blocks at their lower ends ; in front of
Fia2
Working Circular Mouldings.
tor the small member on the inner edge. Fig. 3 shows
how the moulding may be worked on the edge of a shelf
bracket. The router can be bought at a toolshop, or
made with a piece of hardwood and a piece of iVih-
thick steel. E (Fig. 2) and A (Fig. 3) show the cutter.
The fence C (Pig. 3) may be either of brass or iron slotted
BO as to.be adjusted.
Preparation of Skins for Glove Making.—" Eid "
gloves are made chiefly from lamb and kid skins,
wliick have to pass through many processes, such as
washing, hairing, paddling, tanning, staking, colouring,
and polishing. First the skins, each about lit. long and
3 ft. wide, are soaked for one or two days in cold water
contained in wooden vats : the soaking tubs each con-
tain about 600 skins. The latter pass to a circular
drum having a horizontal axle, a diameter of about
8 ft., a width of about 4ft., aad making about one revo-
lution per second. Wooden pins projecting into the
interior of the drum keep the skins in motion, so that a
continuous stream of water thoroughly saturates the
skins and frees them from dirt. At the end of flfteen
minutes the skins are removed to the lime pits, which
may be about 8 ft. long, 5 ft. wide, and 8 ft. deep, and
capable of holding many hundreds of skins. The lime
and water loosen the hairs, and at the end of a fortnight
the skins are taken out with long-handled tongs, and
the excess of lime is removed by placing them in cold
water and running them backwards and forwards over a
paddle wheel, 3 ft. in diameter, 6 ft. long, and making
forty revolutions per minute. After this paddling, the
these blocks the skins are placed and squeezed and
pressed together until soft. The next operation is
staking, performed by drawing the skins over a knife-
edge. After a little time in the drying-room, the skins
are again staked, this staking tending to soften the
skins and to remove the dried flour left from the tanning.
After ripening for a few months, the skins may be dyed,
being first washed in a drum or cold water for twenty
minutes and then placed for twenty-four hours in a
revolving bath of egg-yolk, which softens the skins and
makes them pliable. In colouring, the skins are slicked
out smooth on a lead-covered table and washed with
potassium bichromate and soda. The dye is then poured
on and rubbed in with a brush. Iron sulphate is used
for black, zinc sulphate for drab, and sulphate of alum
for tan. After dyeing and staking, the skins are finished
by polishing on a flannel-covered wheel. The tanned
skins are made up into gloves as described on p. 286.
Follsblng Paste for Brown Boot8.-A good polishing
paste for brown boots can be made with 20 fiuid oz. or
good malt vinegar, 10 fluid oz. of filtered water, 2 oz. of
good glue, 1 dr. of soft soap, and 1 dr. of isinglass.
Colour with annatto or turmeric to the shade required.
First mix the water and vinegar, then dissolve the glue
in the fluid by gently heating it ; add colouring and
other ingredients, and boil from ten to fifteen minutes.
When the mixture has been strained thoroughly, it is
stored in jars until required for use. To use this com-
position, lay it on with a clean sponge, and rolish with
a soft rag or flannel.
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
79
Tools for Engraving Letters.— Generally speaking,
the shank or some other portion ot a letter is engraTed
with a flat tool and finished with a lozenge graTer
whetted at three angles. Block lettering Is wholly cut
with a flat tool. Old English is cut with two flat
tools of different widths, and finished with an angle
firaver, as above. This is the reason that the work
ooks regular and of ecjual size throughout, and is kept
straight by worldng between parallel lines. To make a
fiat tool for lettering, whet each side of the belly or
underside of a lozenge graver at an acute angle, the
sharper the better, and then rub away the angle thus
formed until a flat is formed of a width suitable for the
lettei-s to be cut; then sharpen as from the back as
usual. A very_ moderate set-off or bevel is required for
flat work, as if the bevel Is too great it will cause the
tool to slip over the boundary lines, and consectuently
spoil the work. Before attempting engraving on articles
of value considerable practice should be had on a plate
of German silver or sheet brass. For drawing outUnes,
the onl.v instrument used is the steel tracing point or
etching needle.
Construction of Camera Shutter. — A camera
abutter similar in working to the unioum is made
as follows. Construct a grooved framework A con-
fiistlng of a board B with an opening for flange and
frooved rails A'. Cut two blades in ebonite, C and D.
'he lever E, with slots F and G, is made in thin
metal. Fasten to A' a cylinder made from a piece of
hrass tube H, having a well-fitting piston-rod I. (A
Construction of Camera Shutter.
simple substitute may be made easily by winding some
paper tightly around a piece ot knitting needle.) Two
small rivets, fastened to the blades C and S, pass
through the slots P and G, so that when the piston-rod
that is attached to E is forced upwards C is raised and D
depressed, thus opening the lens. The return ot the rod is
caused by the suction due to the release ot the press bal}.
Folisblng Painted Furniture.— Before painted furni-
ture can be French polished, the paint must be removed ;
do this as explained on p. 237. Should the furniture
have been finished out with enamel paint or varnish
with a spirit basis instead of paint, strong soda water,
or a solution of hot borax and rock ammonia, should be
used; or, If the lime is objected to, try the following,
ilb. of American potash, ^Ib. of soft soap, ilb. of rock
ammonia, lib. of washing soda, and 1 gal. of water. The
outer coverings of the upholstering should have been
removed before commencing, and they should not be
replaced till the polishing is completed. K the furniture
Is of mahoganjr, it should now be a dark colour, which
only needs wiping over with red oU, made as on p. 41,
and a trace of red in the polish to ensure a rich dark
mahogany or Chippendale colour. A red colour Is im-
parted to the polish by adding one pennyworth of
Bismarck brown to each pint. In French polishing, apad
of wadding enclosed in fine rag is used. Saturate the
wadding, cover it with the rag, and draw it up tightly
till it presents a face tree from creases. The pad should
then be applied with continuous, uniform, circular
strokes with slight pressure at first, recharging the pad
with fresh polish at frequent intervals, taking care that
every portion of the wood receives an equal but not
excessive body of polish. A few spots of linseed oil
should be occasionally applied to the face of the pad to
prevent it sticking. If the surface of the furniture is
uneven, it is impossible for an inexperienced worker to
ttnish it out perfectly bright with polish only. When
the furniture appears uniform in colour, and the grain
is filled up, it should be finished by the application
of at least two coats ot best quality brown hard spirit
varnish.
Pattern for Compassed Bed of Under-carrlage.—
Below is described one way ot marking out a pattern
for the compassed bed of an under-carriage. As an
example. Fig. 1, which represents an ordinary com-
passed bottom bed of a brougham under-carriage, is
given. To set it out, draw the straight line A (Fig. 1) ;
square off a line B, and from C mark oft the compass 4J in.
to D, which is the centre of the bed. From B, mark off the
width ot the bed back and front, as E P. At G and G, which
ax-e the spring bearings, on each side of the centre line
mark off distances equal to the width of the bed ; this is
governed by the wheel-iron head. Mark off the size of
the wheel plate, as at HH, cutting these points by half
the width ot the compass of the bed ; then, using I on
the square line as centre, strike a true line to the points
D and H H. With the same radius, continue the sweep to-
wards the end until it meets the square line/whioh should
be about lin. inside the spring bearing G. With the com-
passes of the same radius, describe the inner line of the
pattern. Fig'. 2 shows the elevation of the beds when
together, and the method of sweeping them out. The
parts K represent the top and bottom bed plates, L the
.
'
^
s
■^
■
^
^
^
" '
1
~^
-^
^
L-
_
^
FiG. 3
Setting Out Pattern for Compassed Bed of Under-
carriage.
wheel plate, and M the transom plate ; the beds are left
straight in the centre until the top and bottom plates
are fitted, these being screwed on temporarily. The beds
must be swept out as shown, care being taken to leave
intact the bearings for the wheel plate and transom plate.
In testing a carriage for truth, tne tools used generally
are a straightedge, square board, and wax line. If these
do not give a sufficiently exact result, draw a diagram as
Fig. 3, setting the squares off perfectly true, when any
error can be quickly seen.
Jointing Electric Wires.— In jointing up seven-strand
electric cables, the insulating covering is removed for
several inches from each of the two ends to be joined,
and the copper surfaces are scraped absolutely clean.
They should be touched as little as possible by the hands
to prevent any moisture reaching them. Tinned wire
is preferable. Care must be taken that nicks are not
made in the strands while the insulator is being removed,
since such nicks decrease the sectional area ot the wire
to a considerable extent. The wires are then taken and
opened out, the two sets being placed together and inter-
linked^ the central strand of a seven-strand cable being
cut off short to allow this to be done. The ends are then
well wrapped round each other, and trimmed over fairly
smooth with pliers. Using resin as a flux, and taking
care throughout the whole operation that everything is
clean, the whole is then well soldered. The insulation
on the cable will determine whether strips of pure rubber
or ot gutta-percha should be then wound round the joint.
The latter should be warmed by a spirit-lamp and well
kneaded by thumb and fingers. After several layers ot
this strip nave been applied, the whole is wound round
with specially prepared tape.
80
Cyclopsedia of Mechanics.
Bints on Choosing a DwelUng-house.— In ascertain-
ing whether a house is a desirable dwelling place, first
examine the walls of the house, and if settlements or
cracks are discernible, it Is more than likely that the
foundations are faulty; these should be bared and
examined. Renewing or underpinning a foundation is a
•very expensiTe operation. When any serious settlement
takes place, stone heads ol windows show defects as soon
as any part of the building. If the external walls of the
house are buUt of rubble stone or brickwork, see that
the mortar Is of good quality; a simple test is to rub it
between the finger and thumb, when, if it crumbles
into duet, the work will require to be repointed in a short
time to preyent moisture penetrating. If the house is
coyered with slates, see that zinc soakers are placed
against the party walls. If it is covered with tiles, see
that cement fillets ioistead of mortar fillets are used. In
the selection of a cottage the sanitary arrangements are
the object of most importance. It is essential, before
purchasing, to have the drains tested by an expert.
Never have a dustbin built again st the wall of the house i
the contents of the dustbin will saturate the wall and
contaminate the air of the interior. The damp course
should be in accordance with the reciulrements expressed
on p. 259, and must not be made of tarred felt material.
Find out whether a proper circulation of air exists
under the ground-floor joists, to prevent dry rot. It
there is a drinking-water cistern, see that it does not
directly supply a water-closet, and that the overflow
from the cistern does not directly connect with the
drain. The soil pipe should never be placed inside the
house, because if it is defective in its original con-
struction, or if it be subsequently damaged, a serious
leakage of foul air takes place. The water-closet should
have direct light and ventilation. The long hopper pan
should be objected to, because it always becomes filthy.
The sink should be in a well-lighted position and always
against an external wall. See that none of the rain-
water pipes have any connection with the soil pipes. As
to the interior, see that the doors fit and are out of
winding ; , observe the framing and see whether the
shoulders are off— that would oe an indication of un-
seasoned wood having been used. Look to the hinges ;
there may be only a screw or two in each hinge. Try
the locks and see that the furniture is fixed on securely.
Examine the windows to see whether the sashes are too
loose i if so, have the rattling remedied.
Repairing Worn Watch Pivot Holes.— It la not
necessary to plug and re-driU watch pivot holes when
they are worn. Pui-chase some watch bouchons. These
are brass pins, turned true and drilled accurately to
centre. Select one that will nearly go on the pivot.
Put it in a pin vice, and very slightly file it tapered.
Then open out the pivot hole with a broach until the
bouchon can be hammered in tight and broken off. File
it level with the plate, and smooth off by stoning. Then
open it out to fit the pivot. This method leaves the
depth unaltered.
Waterproofing Fabrics. — Woven fabrics may be
rendered waterproof in a variety of ways, one of the
commonest methods being to apply a coating of rubber
solution and then to vulcanise the film of rub ber remain-
ing after the evaporation of the solvent. By the water-
proofing method of Hime & Node, zinc is added to a
solution of cellulose in an ammoniacal copper solution ;
copper is precipitated, and the fabric to be proofed
is immersed in the remaining colourless viscid solution
of ammonium, zincate, and cellulose. The impregnated
fabric is pressed, dried, and wet-calendered, that is,
passed between rollers. By another method, a fabric
having a close texture is treated with sulphuric acid
(115° Tw.) , the fibres being partly parehmentised thereby,
and the interstices closed without the texture of the
cloth being in any way injured. The excess of acid is
washed out, with or without previous treatment with
alkali, and the fabric is passed between calendering
rolls, which complete the closing of the interstices.
Holfert's process is to pass the fabric through a bath of
gelatine and then expose it to the action of gaseous
formaldehyde, the gelatine becoming insoluble. Another
method of treatment is to apply to the fabrics boiled
linseed oil, paints, varnishes, asphaltum, etc., as in the
production of oilskin, tarpaulin, etc. (see p. 69). But
one of the best of the waterproofing processes is ex-
plained below, in which the fabric Is treated with an
alumina ^oap. The word "soap" refers generally to
a material used in removing dirt, and this it does by
attacking grease and by removing the harshness or
"hardness of the water in use. But there are soaps
which are insoluble in or quite incompatible with water,
and these have their use in rendering fabrics water-
proof. The ordinary soap of commerce is in one of two
classes— " hard " or "sott" — and is formed by boiling
fats with alkalis. With soda as the alkaU a hard soap
results, with potash a soft soap, these products being
the alkaline salts of certain fatty acids— oleic, palmitic,
stearic, etc.— derived from the fats used. When a soin.
tion of the salt of any other metal is added to a solu-
' tion of either of the above soaps, a precipitate of an
insoluble soap of that metal is formed, because all but
the alkaline soaps are insoluble in water. In this^
manner it is possible to produce soaps of lead, copper,
iron, aluminium, etc. Alumina soap, so largely used in
waterproofing, is formed from alum and soap in the-
manner above described. In waterproofing fabrics with
an alumina soap, one of two different methods may be
employed. For the first method two solutions are
required. (1) lib. of alum in Igal. of boiling water;
(2) lib. of ordinary soap in 1 gal. of boiling water. Keep
these solutions In separate tubs or troughs. The best
soaps to use are palm-oil or white -curd soap, but
common yeUow soap answers very well. The soap must
be dissolved entirely or the coating wUl be patchy.
When the solutions have cooled slightly, but while
they are still warm, the cloth to be waterproofed should
be immersed in the soap bath for about fifteen minutes^
so that the soap sinks into the fibre. The cloth
previously should have been soaked in water andi
wi'ung out. After wringing out the excess of soap-
solution, immediately plunge the cloth into the alum
bath, in which it may remain for an equal period, and,
being removed, excess of alum solution may be wrung
out also. It a thick coating of the alumina soap is
required, the cloth may be put through this treatment
two or three times, and, after steeping in clean water,
it may be hung out to dry. The cloth on drying will
be rather stiff and white, and somewhat rough, but
will be quite waterproof ; if the roughness is objected
to, pass over the surface a hot iron, or calender the
cloth between rollers. Any kind of cloth may be treated
by this method, but the most suitable kinds are those
that are closely woven, no matter how coarse the fibre is.
Fabrics waterproofed in this way are but little altered ;
their feel is, however, somewhat harsh, and water
poured over them will run off without wetting any
part, the alumina soap having filled up all the inter-
stices, and formed over the fibres a protective coat,
which prevents the water touching the cloth. The
second method of applying the alumina soap is in the
form of a solution in petroleum ether. The alumina
soap is formed by mixing together the boiling alum and
soap solutions as previously prepared; for complete
precipitation 2i lb. of soap will be required to every lib.
of alum. The alumina soap separates out as a large
cake, which should be collected on a piece of cloth, and
the water sc[ueezed out. The cake may be broken up
into small pieces, thoroughly dried at a low temperature,
put into a dry, wide-mouthed bottle, and covered with
petroleum spirit (benzoline) ; paralBn oil is unsuitable,
because it forms an unmanageable stringy mass. As the
soap absorbs the benzoline it swells and should be stirred
from time to time so that it is mixed thoi'oughly. The
paste thus formed may be diluted as required with
benzoline, but care should be taken not to add too much
of it at any one time, because on standing the mass
becomes unaccountably fluid, and possibly too thin ; it
this should occur, a little of the alumina soap is
added. The waterproofing solution made in this manner
may be laid on the cloth with a brush or, better, by
passing the material through rollers fed with the solu-
tion. After treatment, the cloth should ibe hung out for
a short time in the open air to allow the benzoline to
evaporate. If a thicker dressing is required, the cloth
may be coated two or three times ; for ordinary pur-
poses, however, once is quite enough. The alumina soap
may be coloured reddish-brown by the addition of a
little perohloride of iron in place of some of the alum,
and green by the addition of sulphate of copper (blue
vitriol). It is also possible to obtain other colours by
employing solutions of other metals, but these are more
or less expensive. The common colours, yellow and
black, may be imparted by stirring in yellow i chre or
lampblack with the soap solution in the first method, or
by kneading it with the alumina soap in the second.
Carrying Camera on Cycle.- The best way of carry-
ing a camera on a ojrcle is a much-debated question.
The slides may be carried knapsack fashion on the back
of the rider, the stand across the top bar of the frame,
and the camera slung in a case over the back wheel. On
a lon^ journey, however, it is uncomfortable to carry
anything on the back. If the apparatus is carried on
the handle-bar the vibration is very great, and shutters,
etc., soon get out of order ; dust also readily accumu-
lates. The dust trouble, however, may be easily overcome
by carrying the camera and slides in dust-proof or close-
fitting oases, and where the springs in the dark slides
do not keep the plates tightly in position, a piece or
rubber tubing put between one of the plates and the
backing card will often overcome any vibration. But
anything bulky on the handle-bar is liable to affect the
steering, and increases the danger of side slip, while
anything carried within the frame of the machine may
make the pedalling very uncomfortable.
Cyclopasdia of Mechanics.
81
Killing Butterflies.— To kill, plnoh them under the
wlngB between the finger and thumb, or, for a collec-
tion, procure a " killing bottle," which may he bought
from most naturalists, or may he home-made. Get a
wide-mouthed bottle, provided with a good cork or
§lass stopper, and into this put an ounce (for a 4-oz.
ottle) of cyanide of potassium in lumps. Then mix up
some plaster-of -Paris, and pour this upon the cyanide, io
as to cover it completely. Give the bottle a shake as the
plaster is setting, so that it forms an even surface, and,
when quite set, cover the plaster with a piece of blotting-
paper to absorb the moisture and to keep the insect
from contact with the damp plaster. This blotting-paper
should be renewed when necessary. The cyanide is a
deadly poison, so must be used with care, and the bottle
kept corked. Put the insect into the bottle, cork it up,
and leave the Insect in for about ten or fifteen minutes.
A few drops of strong spirit of ammonia poured on a
piece of cotton-wool in a bottle will also form a killing
bottle. Bruised laurel leaves may also be put into a
bottle, and prussic acid will be given off, thus forming
another killing bottle. A few drops of chloroform poured
upon blotting-paper at the bottom of a bottle will also
stupefy the insects to death. Nothing is required to
preserve butterflies.
British Association Screw-threads.— The following
table gives particulars of the Swiss small screw gauge
as adopted by the British Association ; —
No.
Diameter (ap-
proximate)
in Inches.
Pitch in
Diameter in
Pitch i»
Threads
Inches.
Millimetres.
Millimetres.
per IiKh.
25
•01
•0028
•25
•072
353
2i
■Oil
■0031
•29
•08
317
23
■013
•0035
•33
•089
285
23
•015
•0039
•37
•098
259
21
•017
•0013
•42
•11
231
20
•019
•0047
•48
•12
212
19
•021
•0035
•54
•14
181
18
•024
•0039
•62
•15
169
17
•027
•0067
•7
•17
143
16
•031
•0075
•79
•19
134
15
•0'35
•0083
•9
•21
131
14,
•O-'fl
•0091
1
•23
110
13
■on
•0098
1-2
•25
101
12
'031
•Oil
1-3
•28
90-7
U
•059
•0122
1-5
•31
81-9
10
•067
•0138
1^7
•35
726
9
•075
•0154
1^9
•39
651
S
•086
•0169
2-2
•43
59^1
7
•098
•0189
2-5
•48
52-9
6
•11
•0209
2-8
•53
■ 47^9
5
•126
•0232
3^2
•59
43
i
•142
■026
3^6
•66
38^5
3
•161
•0287
41
•73
34^8
2
•185
•0319
4-7
•81
31-4
1
•209
•0334
5-3
•9
28-2
•236
•0394
6
1
25-4
Double-action Harp.— The action is complicated,
and unless it works with the greatest accuracy it is
worse than useless. Briefly, the principle consists in
placing beneath the wi^est-pin a small collar having
two studs fastened on its " flat " similar to a " wing-nut,
the whole working on a stud through the head. These
are connected by a system of levers in head and pillar
to the pedals, pressure upon which causes a partial
revolution of these collars, between the studs of which
the string passes, audis consequently tightened or raised
in pitch, various pedals are required; for instance,
one for P sharps, another for sharps, and so on, each
pedal affecting only the notes of the same name through-
out the instrument.
Laying Bed Tar-paving. — A very duU red tint
may he obtained by using crushed red granite
instead of limestone. The objection is that each
particle of granite has a smooth surface, and the tar
does not adhere satisfactorily. The cost will be from
Is. lOd. to 2s. 3d. per superficial yard. Another method
is to dye the limestone with red oxide of iron ground
very fine. The ordinary method of laying may be
adopted, and the cost will be from Is. 6d. to 23. per
square yard.
Toughening Paper.— Soak ordinary unsized paper in
sulphuric acid {2 parts of acid to 1 part of water) for a few
minutes, then thoroughly wash it with water containing
a little ammonia until no trace of acid remains, and let
it dry. This is "parchment" paiier, and it is not much
less pliable than the untreated kind.
Straightening Warped Fretwork. — The warping
or twisting of fretwork is ofttimes counteracted by
the use of three-ply wood — that is, three pieces of
▼ery thin board or veneer glued together the middle
one being transverse to the others. 'Warping is often
caused by excessive polish being applied to one side
only, without a coat of varnish on the back to counter-
act. Nothing can afterwards he done, except to take
the brackets apart and slightly damp them with clean
water ; screw tneni down between two stout boards till
straight, then apply polish or varnish on both sides.
There will still be the tendency to twist back again
if the brackets are put in a hot place.
Bending and Fitting Rlhs for Small Boat.—
Use straight-grained American elm or oak, the former
for preference. After being shaped and dressed, the ribs
are steamed or soaked in Doiling water till pliable, and
bent over the knee where necessary. The ribs on either
side are notched to fit over the keelson, and butt against
each other where they cannot be carried right across.
The keelson must not be cut ; the ribs are usually spaced
closer in the bow to add strength. Floor ribs extending
on either side of the keelson and between the others are
also notched and fitted over the keelson. A fore and aft
stringer on either side is then screwed to both sets of
ribs, which bind the whole together.
Cementing Felt to Iron Rollers.— To make a cement,
cover glue with moderately strong acetic acid instead of
with water, and treat it as for ordinary glue. Another
cement is made by dissolving 2 parts of shellac and 1 part
of Venice turpentine in 7 parts of methylated spirit. For
a firm hold the cylinders should not be quite smooth.
Electric Current Carrying Capacities of Copper
Wires. — The following table is based on a current
density of 1,000 amperes per square inch ; the loss will
then be 2 volts for 80yd. :—
No. S.W.G.
DiaTMter in
Inches.
Area in Sqimre
Inches.
Current in
Amp^es.
22
•028
•0006
•6
20
•036
•ooio
1
19
•040
•0012
1^2
18
•018
•0018
1^8
17
•056
•0024
2-4
16
•064
•0032
3^2
15
•072
•0040
4
14
•080
•0050
5
13
•092
•0066
6^6
12
•104
•0083
8^5
11
•116
•0105
10^5
10
•128
•0128
12^8
It is unnecessary to add stranded cables to the above
table, as their working currents may be calculated
direct from it. For instance, 7/16 S.W.G., consisting of
seven strands each TSo. 16 S.W.G. in size, will carry 7 x 32
= 22^5 amperes (say). Similarly, 19/14 S.W.G. will carry
19 X 5 = 95 amperes. For currents at other current
densities, multiply the current given in the table above
bjr the density required in amperes per square inch
and divide by 1,000. Thus, with a current density of
600 amperes per square inch, with a drop of 2 volts per
160 yd. (see reply 16210 on p. 333) , No. 22 S.W.G. would carry
■6 X ^35_ = '3 ampere. It may be well to add that the size
of any single wire should not he reduced below No. 18
S.W.G. ; smaller sizes are mentioned in the above table
so that the current capacities of stranded wires may
be calculated. Also, sometimes the simplest way to
find the drop in volts is to multiply the resistance in
ohms of the given length of cable by the current in
amperes.
White Spots on Polished Furniture.- These may be
caused by water spotting, damp, or the use of plaster-of-
Paris as a grain filler. Try rubbing the surface with a
mixture of equal parts of linseed oU, turpentine, and
vinegar ; then clean oft any greasiness that may remain
by means of a swab of clean soft rag made f aix-ly damp-
not wet— with methylated spirit. Apply this lightly at
first, then, as it becomes drier, press a little harder and
finish in the direction of the grain.
Making Tongues on Spokes of Cart Wheels.—
Take off the tips of the spokes to about the size of
tongue required with a tool somewhat like a large coun-
tersink inverted, with cutters inside, then with the hollow
bit cut down to ttopth ; this outs the shoulder at the same
time as it makes the round tongue. To do it by another
method, mark in the trout of the tongue parallel with
the set-stick fixed to the front of the stock, by which the
spokes were guided when driven in ,: then mark off the
diameter, saw in to these marks to ' ck and front, split
off, and with the draw-knife pull It out short at the
sides and trim up round, using a fitter to guide the size.
A tongue made this way is much stronger than when
the shoulder is cut in square all round, as the grain at
the side of the spoke is not cut so short.
82
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
Preparation of Pitch Pine for .Varnishing.—
Pitch-pine furnitui'e is generally flnished by the
application of several coats of good auality spirit
vai-nish. Interior fittings likely to oe euDject to hard
wear ai'e hest flnished with a good oil Tarnish, such as
Chnrch oak. Pitch-pine goods are sometimes first coated
with size, with a Tiew to prevent suction. Many have a
preferencetor first coating with spirit varnish, as it gives
the articles a good colour, and any good quality oU.
varnish will dry thereon. If a first coat of varnish is
not sutflciently hard to allow fiatting with pumice in
three days' time, the drying qualities are poor, or it may
have been applied too thickly or by a dirty brush. Drying
may sometimes be hastened by sponging down with cold
clean water. Another plan is to coat with naphtha or
spirit varnish ; the result can also be gained by coating
again with a thin oU varnish, the dr.ving qualities or
which have been hastened by the addition of japanner's
gold size.
Cutting out Umbrella Covers.— For umbrella covers,
first malce the pattern by which to cut out the
sections or gores. This may be of strong paper, but for
permanent use sheet zinc is best. First cut a square of
paper, each edge of which is exactly the same length as
the frame on which the cover is to be placed— that Is, a
25-in. frame would take a square of paper with edges
25 in. long. Cut tills across from one corner to the oppo-
site corner to produce a piece shaped Uke A B in the
Pattern for Umbrella Covers.
illustration. Measure from A towards C the same distance
as from A to B (in this case 25 in.), and then cut along the
line D B. The part A D B now forms the complete pattern.
By measuring down the centre as shown by dotted line,
the width of cloth necessary to cut the cover will be dis-
covered. For 25-in. covers cloth 22 in. wide is required.
Always place the edges B D towards the selvedge edges
of the cloth being cut, and allow a margin for hemming
and sewing together. Sew the top of the cover with
strong thread after machining.
Flow of Water over a Weir.— The following is a rule
for finding the exact discharge of water in cubic feet,
or gallons per second, passing over level weii-s. The
depth of the water on the weir x width x velocity,
all in feet, will give cubic feet, and this x 6i will
give the discharge in gallons. To find the exact
quantity of water that is flowing over a weir would be
a very difficult matter unless proper provisions were
made for gauging the depth of the water and its velocity.
For rough approximation the depth would be the differ-
ence in level between the weir and surface of still water
above it, but with an allowance for curvature of the
surface on the weir, which varies considerably. For the
velocity it would be necessary to time the movement
of a floating object, and from this make a deduction, as
the surface travels at a higher speed than the bottom.
Hints on the Manufacture of a Speculum,—
In the manufacture of specula, plate glass is used,
provided the size of the mirror is not such that the disc
has to be specially cast. The thickness is in proportion
to the diameter, the general ratio being as 8 to 1— that is
to say^ the diameter of the speculum should be eight
times Its thickness. A safer ratio is 6 to 1— at any rate
for large mirrors, where the question of flexure is an
Important consideration. Supposing the diameter of
the speculum to be 10 in., its thickness would be l|in.—
certainly not less than It in. Before deciding the
curve, the focal lenifth of the speculum must be de-
termined, as this, of course, in turn determines the
length of the telescope. If the latter must be short, the
former must be short also, and the cui-ve of the mirror
must be correspondingly deep. This will rendfer the
figuring much more difficult to work than when the
speculum has a long focus. The general practice is to
make the focal length twelve times the diameter of the
mirror, which, in the case of a 10-ln., will be 10 ft. The
curve of a speculum, though first ground spherical, is
not left so, but is deepened to a j)arabolic form, as it is
found that a spherical surface is unfitted for astro-
nomical work. Parallel rays, when received on such a
surface, result in an indistinct image at the eyepiece.
Practical experience shows that the cui've should be
such that parallel rays received on it will come to a
focus midway between the mirror and its centre of
curvature. Therefore, in a 10-in. speculum the curve
must be part of the circumference of a circle having
a radius of 20 ft.
Making Zinc Stencil Plates.— Zinc stencil plates foi
marking boxes and sacks maybe cut by hand with the aio
of a mallet, a sharp chisel, a pair of bent-nosed snips, and
a plate of thick sheet zinc. Taking the letter 0, shown by
the accompanying diagram, commence by drawing the
Ilalcing Zinc StencU Plates.
letter ; then , assuming that the inside part of the figure
is to be held by the straps A B, A B, take the chisel, and,
laying the stencil plate upon the sheet zinc plate, cut it
through along the lines A a, B b, then, with a circular
hollow punch, punch out the holes X, X, X, X. Insert
the nose of the open snips through the holes alternately,
and cut through the zinc to the corners A a, B b on both
sides of the figure ; then, from the open spaces formed,
cut round with the snips upon the lines drawn, smooth
the burr down upon an anvil with a few blows from
a smooth mallet, and trim the cut edges with a smooth
file to finish the plate. Letters formed by straight lines,
as E or P, can be out by the use of the chisel only.
Etching on Steel.— To write names, etc., on steel
cover the surface to be marked with a thin layer of
asphaltum varnish, making a little bank at the edges.
On the varnish write the names, etc., with a steel
scriber, and, in the small basin formed by the asphalt
banks, pour a weak solution of nitric acid. TVlien this
has eaten in to the required depth, wash with hot water,
removing the varnish with hot turpentine. Instead or
asphalt varnish, soft beeswax is often used, and an
etching fiuid may be made from iodine I oz., iron filings
4 dram, and water about i oz. A solution of iodine,
potassium iodide, and water is sometimes used ; also a
solution of I part of nitric acid (by measure), I of hydro-
chloric acid, and 10 of watet.
Dyeing Curtains and Tablecloths Turkey Bed.—
The red ^ye fastest to light, washing, etc., is alizarin or
Turkey red. For wool, mordant with a bath of sulphate
of alumina and cream of tartar, and dye in a bath of
alizarin paste and acetate of lime. For 100 lb. of wool
use 10 lb. of sulphate of alumina, B lb. of cream of tartar,
10 lb. of alizarin paste, and 5 lb. of acetate of lime. The
dyeing of cotton is a more complicated process.
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
83
Faint Blistering on Woodwork.— Blisters in almost
all cases are due to the escape of moisture that is
present in all wood, new or old. Nevr wood is, of course,
more liable than old to glye off moisture, and the paint
to become more blistered ; but old wood will show the
■ same effect if exposed to the heat of the sun. It may be
that exposure to the sun Is the cause of the paint blister-
ing on this particular door, and in that case the only-
remedy is to hang oyer it a kind_of sun-blind, made of
plain or striped canVSis, during the summer months.
This is a very general practice in the London suburbs,
and is found to be the best protective. If the door is to
be repainted, then see that the work is done in dry
weather and with dry brushes. The old paint wilj have
to be burnt off, and more turps and less oil may be
used with advantage in mixing the new paint, as a more
porous film of paint will in this way be obtained.
Fixing Mooring Bollards.— For mooring steamers of
about 900 tons, the concrete block for the mooring
posts or bollards should be not less than 7 ft. 6 in.
square and 8 ft. deep, with a block of Bramley Fall
stone 5ft. square and 1ft. Bin. thick on top. The
part of the bollard above the ground line is usually
a separate casting, securely bolted to the founda-
tion column, which is bedded in the concrete, with a
flange at the bottom bolted to two 12-in. by 12-in. baulks
of creosoted memel. The shape of the upper casting
varies from a post with rounded head and hollowed side,
or a capstan-head shape, to a tall or short hook shape.
The thickness of metal is about IJ In., tapering to 1 in. at
the bottom of the concrete. The diameter where the
rope goes is about 18in., and the bottom end 15 in. The
engineer of the dock usually gives the design both for
the bollard and the foundation, as every part must be
calculated to do its duty efficiently.
Adding an Electric Alarm to a Clock,— To fix
an electric bell to a Vienna regulator clock, arrange
the electric circuit so that the battery is in a con-
venient position, and the beU in the bedroom ; include
the clock in the circuit. One wire should be carried
through the case and soldered or screwed to any part
of the brass movement, preferably the front plate.
The other wire should be carried to the edge of the dial,
and should lie flat upon it pointing towards the centre,
the end being brightened and hammered flat so as not to
stand up much from the dial surface. A piece of paper
gummed on the dial beneath it yrill serve to insulate it.
The connection is made by the hour hand having a thin
flexible piece of brass soldered to the end of it to make
contact with the copper wire at the dial edge as it passes
over it. This extension may be painted white, so as not
to confuse the eye. This arrangement will make contact
every twelve hours, but may be switched off during the
day.
Reading a Gas Station meter. — The gas made
on a gasworks is always measured by the station
meter, and in modern establishments corrections are
made for temperature and pressure, in order that
the gas may be measured under standard conditions,
since, as the height of the barometer, and more
especially the temperature of the atmosphere, varies at
different seasons of the year, the measurement of the
gas w affected in accordance with the atmospheric con-
ditions prevailing j hence, in practice, the volume of gas
passing through the station meter is always reduced to
the standard conditions of 60° F. an* a barometrical
pressure of 30 in. of mercury. Thecalculations are based
upon the following physical laws. By the law of Boyle or
Marlotte, the volume of a given mass of any gas, assum-
ing that the tempern.ture is constant, varies inversely as
the pressure to which it is subjected j or, in simple
language, doubling the pressure reduces the volume to
one-half, while, conversely, reducing the pressure one-half
doubles the volume, and so on in a similar ratio. Now,
supposing a station meter registered 10,000 cub. ft. oi gas
under a barometrical pressure of SO'Sin., and we wished
to reduce the volume to the standard pressure of 30in.,
since the pressure under which the gas is measured is
greater than the standard pressure (30 in.), it is plain
that under the last-mentioned pressure the volume
would be greater ; consequently, we say.
As 30 : 30-5 : : 10000 : 10166 cub. ft.
Or, supposing that we measure the same volume of gas
under a pressure of 29'5in., and we wished to know the
volume at the standard pressure j in tills case, the gas is
measui'ed under a lesser pressure than the standard,
consequently, when reduced to the latter pressure, the
volume would be reduced ; so in this case we say.
As 30 : 29-5 : : lOUOO : 9833 cub. ft.
It will be noticed that in each case the standard pressure
(30 in.) occupies the first term in the statement. With
regard to temperature, as is well known, gases expand
with heat and contract with cold, and the amount of this
is expressed as follows. The volume of a gas expands or
contracts by tH part of its volume at 32° F. for every
increase or decrease of 1° P. Now supposing we measure
10,000 cub. ft. of gas at a temperature of 80° P., and we
wish to correct it to the standard temperature of 60° F.
(the pressure remaining constant) , 492 volumes at 32° F.
become 492 + (60 - 32) = 520 volumes at 60° P., and
492 -I- (80 - 32) = 540 volumes at 80° P. The volume,
therefore, of any gas at 80° P. would bear the same ratio
to the volume which it would occupy at 60°iF., as 540 does
to 520 i consequently,
As540 : 520 :: 10000 : 9629 cub. 'ft.
If the gas, instead of being measured at 80° F., had been
measured at 40° P., then, as before, 492 volumes at 32° P.
would become 520 volumes at 60° P., and 429 volumes at 32°
P. would become 492 + (40 - 32) = 500 volumes at 40°
F. Then the ratio of the volume at 60° F. would be
obtained as follows—
As 500 : 520 :: 10000 : 10400 cub. ft.
It will be noticed that 520 always occupies the second
term in the proportion. In practice, the volume of a gas
is always corrected for temperatui-e and pressure at one
operation by combining the two corrections and making
a compound proportion sum of it, and as two of the
terms always , occupy the same position, by cancelling
we obtain this expression-
■ "^.L" .''.'' ^ = corrected volume.
400 -t- 6
p being the pressure under which the gas is measured,
V the volume, and t the temperature under which the
gas is measured. In gasworks, however, these correc-
tions are usually performed by means of a series of
tables drawn up by the Metropolitan Gas Referees, based
on the principles already explained, but also taking into
account the tension of aqueous vapour, the formula from
which their numbers are obtained being —
17-64 (6 - g) X V
460 + t
a representing the tension of aqueous vapour to be
deducted from the height of the barometer according to
the temperature under which the gas is measured, while
17-64 only differs from the 17-333 previously given by
deducting from 30 the tension of aqueous vapour at 60°
P. By the aid of these numbers all that is required is to
observe the temperature of the thermometer at the inlet
of station meter, and the height of the barometer, then
find the number corresponding to them, and multiply
the volume of gas by the number, when the corrected
volume at 60° P. and 30 in. will be obtained.
Smoky Kitchen Chimney.— It 1^ unusual for close-fire
kitcheners to give trouble bjr smoking, and unless
the cause is dawn-blow (which only opcurs when
the wind blows from certain quarters), then it
must be concluded that the range is not properly
fixed. Supposing the chimney is clear, it should be
ascertained whether the brickwork of the chimney
above the range is well clear of the fiiie outlets. There
should be at least 12 iu. clear space between the flue
outlets at the top of the range and any brickwork
that may come above them. If all is right in this
direction, then ascertain whether there are any means
by which air can enter the chimney from the room
without passing through the fire, which is a common
cause of kitcheners working badly, though it may not
always make them smoke. The range should be set
sound and air-tight, and there must not be any other
flues running into the range chimney, except, perhaps,
the copper flue, which must have a damper, to be closed
when the copper fire is not alight. There must not be
openings of any kind by which air can pass into the
kitchen chimney except it go through the fire. It must
be ascertained that the soot doors are complete and in
their places, and that there are no apertures in the
chimney. The position of the fire in its relation to the
room door need not be considered with these close-fire
ranges.
Removing Fat from Sheepskins.— Practical curriers
immerse the skins in fermented bran and water. "Wash-
ing the skin in a solution of potash will also remove
surplus oil; so also will soap andT soda and water. Having
taken away the oil, stretch the skin out to dry, and,
whilst it is doing so, scrape it and rub it iu every direc-
tion to prevent it drying hard.
Brass Polishing Composition. — Crocus is very
good for polishing any metal under the hardness of
iron, and it may be used for finishing iron and
steel, after the rough polishing is done. It may be
made into hard cakes by mixing with lard, suet, or
tallow, first melting the tallow and then stirring in
as much crocus as the tallow will hold, and pouring
into an open oblong box, the sides of which may be
taken apart to release the cake. For a paste to be
put up in tin boxes, the crocus may be mixed with
soft soap, with a percentage of a common oil to be ascer-
tained by experiment, the oil preventing the paste from
becoming hard. The former composition would be use-
ful for lathe polishers, and the latter for domestic and
general use.
84
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
Fbotographlng a Procession Instantaneously.—
To take a series of photographs of a procession, the
camera shoulcL be directed up the road so that the
procession is shown approaching. Do not attempt to
take the procession broadside on, as the exposure will
need to be much more rapid owing to the moTeraent
appearing far more noticeable. The most rapid plates,
Oadett "Lightning" or Ilford Special Rapid, should be
used. The light varies so that it Is practically impossible
to say what exposure to give. Much will also depend upon
the surroundings, direction of light, and the character
of the procession— that is to say, whether the clothing of
the processionists Is dark or light. Experienced photo-
graphers usually endeavour to make a couple of trial
exposures on the crowd a little before the event ; by
developing the plates at once they are enabled to get an
idea of the exposure required. For the trial exposure use
full aperture, and let the shutter work as quickly as
possible. Develop one plate first and make a print ; from
the result it may be possible to suggest how the subse-
quent prints may be improved. Two or more cameras
clamped to the window frame should be used. They
should be focussed before the procession arrives.
Forging Rods for Engine.— To forge the two rods
shown In the accompanying dimensioned sketches.
If steel were used and a steam hammer available In an
T^^
[t
Fia 1
C
8
Forging: Rods for Engine.
engineer's shop, the webs might be drawn down from
the larger ends. Iron of common quality should be
welded so that the fibre in the flat ends may run length-
ways of the ends ; or the ends would be opened out to
form the flat. Again, Where there is uncertainty about
exact centres, as In valve setting, welding up to length
is often done after the fitting of the ends. For con-
venience, the web may be drawn down from both ends,
and welded about the middle or towards one end. The
forked ends are, when in the dimensions given by the
ooiTespondent, forged solid, and then slotted out. They
might, however, be forged roughly to dimensions over
a former block, leaving little to be tooled out. As a
general rule, the greater the difference In the dimen-
sions of the two enlarged ends the greater the reason- for
drawing down from two pieces, and then welding. Up-
setting to any considerable amount is objectionable
both in iron and steel. If the whole of the work must be
done on the anvil without a steam hammer, make the
two ends as separate forgings, and weld the web to them
with two welds (O, r) in the case of Pig. 1, and with one
only (H) in Pig. 2, more drawing down being necessary in
the case of Pig. 1. For the feet A, take a piece of flat bar
and draw down the portion as far as H, fullering it on
faces and edges alternately, and leaving the end upset
for welding to the web. The inner face J is brought
fairly flat by up-ending the broad face on the anvil and
going over J with a hammer first, and Hatter afterwards.
The blows tend to make the forging strike backward, so
a block (Fig. 3) must be set in the shank hole of the
anvil as a support. For the other ends B, B a bar will be
taken a little larger than the finished section, and the
webs will be drawn down to J? in Fig. 1, and to H in Fig. 2.
There is very little drawing down In the latter case. AU
the weld ends must be upset, and the joints scarfed and
rounded (Fig. i). The lengths of the welds need not
exceed It in. Centre pops and a fixed trammel must be
used to check the lengths during welding.
Damp Preventive for Brickwork and Stucco.—
For painting brickwork and stucco exteriors to repel
the damp, amongst many other materials the following
have been recommended: (1) Boiled oil applied hot;
(2) soft soap and alum, the latter applied twenty-four
hours after the former ; (3) Ozerelmy fluid, presumably
a silicate ; (i) boiling tar ; (5) silicate or other-good oil
paint. For stucco work a coat of Portland cement as
thin as cream, applied with a whitewash brush i boiled
oil applied hot and afterwards painted regularly;
ordinary oil paint applied regularly.
Making Trousers Stretchers.— The simplest form
of trousers stretcher Is that Illustrated by Pig. 1;
It is known as the " Invisible " trousers stretcher,
as It is used by putting it inside the trousers leg.
It Is made of stout iron wire. The dimensions are
as follows: A to B (Pig. 1), 30 in.; C to D, 29i in.;
Ato G, 14} iu.; B to D, 15in.; A to E, lin.; E to r,14in.
Trousers Stretchers,
Of course, one Is required for each leg. The device Is
patented. Another kind is that shown by Pig. 2, which
18 drawn on a larger scale than Pig. 1. Pour pieces of
wood, iln. thick and U in. wide, are required; two 16in.
long, and two 13 in. Holes are bored near the ends, and
the pairs are fixed together by small bolts and thumb-
screws. The longer pair belong to the top of the
stretcher. A metal socket is screwed on at A (Fig- 2>
to receive the end of the bar, and there is a receptacle
at B (Fig. 2) having a thread in It, through which the
screw of the rod is turned. The rod, which is of metal,
is about 33 in. in length, and has a screw for about 6 in.
of its length from the top. Trousers should be folded by
bringing the two front brace buttons together with the
left hand, and then taking each bottom at 31 in. from the
side seam, and bringing them together also ; the crease
thus formed is the centre line of the leg. The trousersare
thus laid in the stretcher, the bottom being fixed first,
and the screws tightened ; then the top as far up the leg
as it will go, and the stretching Is accomplished by
turning the ring at the top. The articles should then
be left for some time.
Filling Cracks In Blackboard.— As a filling for
cracks and holes in a wooden blackboard, if the
crack is Jin. or more in width, a slip of wood should
be fitted and glued in the opening and afterwardB
planed down level to the surface of the board. But il
the crack is less than i in. wide, it can be filled in with a
mixture of plaster-of-Parls, glue, and a little lampblack.
This should be allowed to dry, and then scraped and
glasspapered flush with the surface of the board.
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
85
Benovatlng Lacciuer of Microscope.— To clean a
microscope that has become rusty through lying in a
damp place, well rub the affected parts with paraffin. It
the spots are merely superftoial the paraffin will fetch
them off; but it the damp has penetrated deeper, the
only remedy is to remove the entire coating of faoqiuer,
re-polish the metal, and re-lacquer. To do this, remove
the lenses, take the microscope to pieces, and boil the
lacquered parts with a handful of strong soda in water.
This will remove every trace of the old lacquer. , When
dry, with some No. 1 blue-black emery paper grain the
pieces as before. The old graining will give the direc-
tion. When all the pieces, screw-heads, etc., have been
separately grained, they must be separately heated and
lacquered. The draw tubes, if stained, need only be
cleaned up with paraffin ; but if it is thought desirable
to paper them also, they miist not be lacquered, but
should be rubbed over with vaseline instead.
Silvering Brass and Copper.— Any article of brass
or copper can be silvered bj^ the Frenchtsilvering
process as follows : Dissolve a stick of nitrate of silver
in i j)t. of water ; add common salt, which will deposit
the silver in a white mass at the bottom. Pour oft the
water and add fresh, stir up, allow to settle, and pour
off again. The residue is silver chloride. To use it,
clean the metal with fine emery-cloth, wash it in
cold water, and rub its surface with salt brine. Then
rub it over with a rag on which is a paste composed
of equal quantities each of silver chloride, cream of
tartar, and water. Continue rubbing until it is evenly
silvered all over, then wash in jjleuty of water and dry
with a soft clean cloth. Any silver chloride not used
can be dried in the dark and kept in a bottle away from
the light for future use. It is best to silver by gaslight
or weak daylight.
Duresco and Petrifying liquid.- The nature of
DuresQO and petrifying liquid, ana the proper way to
use them on damp walls has been explained as follows : —
Duresco is a water paint consisting of pigments
ground up in a medium containing water; petrifying
liquid, as made by the Silicate Paint Co., is a solution
containing certain chemicals which combine with stone,
etc., to form a hard, impervious coating ; the same result
Is obtained when Duresco is thinned with the petrifying
liquid and applied to walls. For application to damp
walls, the Duresco body colour must be thinned with
petrifying liquid or Duresco liquid in the proportion of
1 to i. Duresco is very often effectual on interior damp
walls, but the benefit cannot be considered permanent,
as continual dampness entering the walls from the out-
side rots the plaster. Duresco is no good in cases of
dampness arising fi-om foundations., The cause of the
dampness must first be removed. Three coats of Duresco
should then be applied thinned down with the petrifying
liquid. Petrifying liquid alone will prevent moisture
penetrating, but is not so effectual as Duresco, and Is
only used where a painted effect is not required. Three
coats of this should also be given. Duresco and petrify-
ing liquid are both patents. For porous bricks, Duresco
should be applied outside the house.
Camera View Finder.— A view finder is an apparatus
in which can be seen a miniature representation
of the picture that is thrown on the ground-glass
screen of the camera. It is fixed outside th6
camera in such a position, that when the image is
focussed sharply on the ground-gI6,ss screen, the
finder shows the same image just as sharply focussed.
When a finder is used, therefore, it is unnecessary to
focus the picture on the screen, the finder being used
instead, and the convenience of such a procedure is
obvipus. A finder is absolutely necessary with a hand
camera, and a very valuable adjunct to a stand camera.
Care should be taken to see that the finder includes
no more of the view than is shown on the screen of the
camera. If the finder includes too much, reduce it to
the proper dimensions by pasting strips of dark-coloured
paper on the screen of the finder.
Tuning a Piano.- A wedge, a tuning hammer, a piece
of ivory, and a tuning-fork are necessary. About
7s. 6d. should be paid for the hammer, for unless tbe
temper is good the continual strain will soon cause it to
wobble on the pins. Care should also be taken to ensure
its adaptability for the instrument in hand ; thus, some
instruments are fitted with square heads, others with
oblong ones to the tuning-pegs. The wedge is used to
stop the vibration of one string of a note whilst the
other is tuned. Wedges are usually made of lancewood,
rosewood, or whalebone about 8in. long, Jin. wide, and
i^in. thick, each end being covered with varying thick-
nesses of doeskin ; they cost about Is. each. The piece
of ivory is generally a portion of an old key covering,
and is used for the purpose of plucking the wires in the
first stage. A C tuning-fork costs aboijt Is. 3d. Tuning-
forks should never be struck on any hard substance ;
such practices have a tendency to flatten them. Tuning
may be said to embrace four stages— chipping up, rough
tuning, tuning, and fine tuning! space will not permit
of each stage being full}; dealt with. Briefly, after the
Instrument leaves the stringer's hands it is chipped up—
that is, the action is left out, the wires being merely
plucked with the piece of ivory referred to ab.ove. When
all the wires have been somewhat pulled into tune the
action is put in and the tuning is followed through
various stages by means of the hammer and wedge. As
the tuning-pegs are merely held in position by being
turned into a wood plank, care should be taken to
prevent any unnecessary wriggling about; especially
avoid straining the pegs upwards or downwards, instead
of turning them. It requires a firm grip and strong wrist.
Yellow Stain for Oak. — A suitable stain is
gamboge, steeped in methylated spirit ; this yields a
powerful yellow tone. It this, or turmeric, does not
suffice, try lemon chrome mixed In 1 part French polish
and 3 parts spirits ; or a yellow aniline dye, mixed with
3 parts water and 1 part vinegar.
Stain for Edges of Brown Boots.— To make this,
get a pennyworth of burnt sienna in water, and
mix it with water; shake well before applying to the
edges of the boots so as to get an even stain. Put it
into two small bottles, say tworthirds in one bottle and
the remainder in the other, with equal parts of water ;
this will give two shades of brown.
Hoisting the Materials for a Tall Chimney.—
The usual method of hoisting the materials for a
tall chimney in course of construction is to have out-
side the foot of the chimney a steam crab or winch, pro-
vided with a wire rope of sufficient length to reach to
the top of the chimney and down again— about 400 ft. in
length for a chimney 160 ft. high. In the base of the
flue, a snatch-block is attached to a rail, or a rolled joist
is built in. As the chimney is carried up, a couple of
rolled steel joists are laid across the flue, on which is
laid a plank floor, with a square opening in the centre
for hoisting through, and three shear-legs with pulley-
block are erected. The brickwork is carried up about
9 ft., and two other steel joists are laid across, the shear-
legs being dismantled and refixed at the higher level, as
is also the plank floor. When the next stage is reached,
the first two joists are taken out and refixed at the
higher level, and the shear-legs again moved, the opera-
tion being repeated every 9 ft. or so until the top of the
chimney is reached.
Producing Squeak for Punch and Judy Perform-
ances. — A penny squeaker is used to produce the
peculiar squeak by professional Punch and Judy men
for their performances, but, as a rule, these instruments
are too large and roughly made. Pronounce the
word "cow" or "come," and notice where the hinder
part of the tongue touches the roof of the mouth. This
is where the Instrument must be placed, and held in
position by the tongue pressing it against the palate,
while the .front portion of the tongue, the lips, ami
cheeks are left tree to modulate into words the sounds
produced by blowing through the squeaker. A service-
able one may be made of two pieces of tin, 1 in. by it in.,
slightly curved, with a silk ribbon, fin. broad, stretched
tlgntljr between and wrapped round once or twice. The
whole is tied round with thread. The corners should be
cut off the pieces of tin, or they will injure the roof of
the mouth. The silk produces a clean, smooth voice,
although for open-air performances, where a very loud
voice is requisite, ordinSiry tape in a larger squeaker is
preferable.
Heating Cucumber House,— To heat a glass house,
size about 10 ft. square, for growing earljr cucumbers,
a boiler to burn coke, with 3-in. or 4-ln. cast-iron
hot-water pipes, is recommended. A gas boiler would not
prove so economical and requires careful fixing to shelter
it from the wind and weather, which may cause it to
light back or be extinguished. The Loughborough type
of boiler, which is supplied with pipes, etc., complete,
is generally found to be suitable. The pipes have
expansion joints, and the whole is expressly made for
amateurs' requirements, no skill being needed in putting
up the apparatus. The boiler is fixed in the thickness of
the wall and requires no pit or special provision of this
kind. If the height of the house averages 7 ft. , then 35 ft.
of l-in., or 46 ft. ol 3-in., pipe will be required. The pipe can
be carried along two or three sides, below the glass,
where the house is expected to be coldest.
BemoTlng Stain and Varnish from Furniture.—
To each bucketful of freshly slaked hot lime, add about
21b. of common washing soda. Apply liberally by means
of old brushes. Carved portions may be cleansed by
making the mixture into a paste by adding more lime
or sawdust. Spread this over by means of a palette
knife. Several applications may be necessary. SwUl
off with clean water, and finally wipe over with common
vinegar to neutralise any trace of acid left in the wood.
86
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
Solutions for Etching on Brass.— A reliable solu-
tion may be made by diaaolving nitric acid in about
flye times the quantitj; of water. Another solution is
made by mmug a solution of nitric acid and water (1 to
10 parts respectively) with about an ectual quantity of
potassium chloride dissolved in 16 of water. A mixture of
nitric acid 20 parts with 1 of muriatic acid, may be used,
or a solution containing equal quantities of nitric acid
and water and a few small pieces of copper may be tried.
Jewel Case with Secret Drawers.— The following
instructions tor making a jewel case with secret drawers
refer to one about 12 in. by 10 In. by 8 in. Pig. 1 Is a
view of a jewel case when open ; the carcase is put
together with secret dovetail and mitred joints. The
front or flap is mitre clamped and veneered on the
face ; the four drawers which the case contains are all
hidden. The front AB (Pig. 1) is made in two parts,
and represents the fronts of five drawers, A being made
the height of drawers C, D, and E, whilst B Is the height
of drawer r and tray G. The bottom of G is a fixture,
as are also the divisions between drawers PE, ED,
DC; the front A is made as shown, with two scratch
beads at equal distances. The bead M, which divides the
front, is loose ; to it are fixed two steel forks, which fit
Into the square mortises (Pig. 3) ; the two drawer knobs
K K (Pig. 2) have a small square spindle attached, over
which the steel fork passes, and fixed on the end of the
is not exactly correct i for Instance, suppose we have an
absolutely correct standard acid, and we then make a
standard soda solution which is rather too strong, in-
stead of diluting it to the correct strength, we may use
it as it is, and multiply the results by a " factor." Sup-
pose 10 c.c. of the standard acid requires 9 c.c. of the
soda solution, then the latter is ^ = I'll times too
strong J the figures I'll constitute the " factor."
Laying Concrete Floor. — Although some experts
recommend that, for stability, a concrete floor should
be laid lin three layers, the upper and lower of strong
material, having the bulk of rougher material between
them, this plan is not followed to any great extent,
and the utility of the intermediate course is doubtful.
In order to make a strong homogeneous concrete,
the voids in the aggregate must be filled with some
finer material; it would be an improvemant if the
material intended to form the first two layers were
incorporated and laid as one. The finishing coat
may, it desired, follow closely upon the laying of the
rougher material, but it will be better it the bulk is
allowed to set first ; and three days afterwards will be a
very suitable time to finish off the floor, provided there
is no need of hurrying the work forward. After
the fine stuff has been ruled oft, as soon as the
I
G>
e
O
ffl
M °.
OQ
Oe
e
<t
D
s
FIG. 2
Jewel Case with Secret Drawers.
Bpindle is an iron tongue and nut forming a turn-buckle.
When the knob is turned so that the front is fixed, the
fork K is dropped and fixes the front A, and, until lifted,
the latter cannot be moved. N N are dowels fitted into
the bottom of the ease ; the front B is made to work on
pivots J J and is fixed by springs HH (Pig. 2). These
springs are hidden by the silk lining of the tray, and,
until released, the front A will not move; when the
springs are released the front will fall on the bottom of
tray 6, giving access to the bead M. In a shallow case
it will be necessary to form the movable knob at 0,
or the forks L L will not draw out sufficiently to release
the front A.
Glazing Tobacco Pipes.— For a glaze, dissolve 1 part
of acetate of lead (sugar of lead) in 5 parts of water, and
dip the pipes into the solution or apply with a brush ;
then, after drying, fire at a low red heat. Another glaze
is made by melting together in a crucible 1 part of car-
bonate of potash and five parts of borax; pour the
melted mass into an iron plate, powder it very fine, and
mix with turpentine. Apply the wash with a brush and
fire as above.
Standard Acid and Alkali Solutions. — Standai-d
acid and alkali are solutions of an acid or alkali
the exact strengths of which are known. The usual
standard solutions are the "normal" and the "deci-
normal." The normal solution of hydrochloric acid
contains 36'.5 gram, hydi'ochloric acid in 1 litre ; the decl-
normal contains one-tenth of this amount. The strength
of a solution of an acid or an alkali is determined by
measuring, say, 10 c.c, and titrating with either alkali
or acid, as the case may be, and using some indicator,
such as litmus, which changes colour when the point of
neutrality is reached ; the standard solution is dropped
in from a burette, and when the titration is finished, the
amount of standard solution used is read off, and from
this it is easy to calculate the amount of acid or alkali
present in solution. A " factor " is sometimes used for
cnloulation when the strength of the standard solution
surface begins to get firm, is the proper time to com-
mence finishing-ofl! ; if this is commenced too soon, an
unequal surface will result, whilst if the stuff is left to
get too firm, the surface will be rough and patchy. A
hand float should be used at first, and with this the work
should be beaten lightly, or patted until the " fat
appears ; then trowel oft with light strokes until the
desired face Is obtained.
Preparation Used by Fire-eaters.— The preparation
used by so-called fire-eaters to make the skin resist the
action of fire is strong solution of calcium chloride which
would remain moist on the skin and protect it to some
extent. The fire Is obtained by burning a small quantity
of the lightest naphtha. This rapidly dies out, and pro-
duces but little warmth. This naphtha is often poured
on tow and ignited, but the flame at once dies out
when placed inside the mouth.
Boiled Oil as a Damp Preventer for Brick Walls,
—Boiled oU has been highly recommended as a cure for
dampness caused by absorptive bricks. Its efficacy is due
to the fact that it fills the pores of the bricks. It
should be applied boiling hot, and rather lavishly, mth
a large paint brush or even a Turk's head brush. A dry
summer day should be chosen, and If possible, a time
when the wall is warmed by the sun. The coating
should be renewed every two years. It may rather dis-
colour the brickwork if the facing is new stock or terra-
cotta bricks, but will hardly be perceptible with old or
common work. A small area should be tried at first, so
as to afford some idea as to the ultimate appearance of
the whole.
Re-enamelling Bath,— To re-enamel a hot and cold
water bath, specially prepared enamel paints are used.
Thoroughly clean the sui'f aces of the baih wi th petro-
leum and well scour rusty places with emery cloth ; when
clean and dry, rub in a paste of lime and petroleum;
wipe this off before painting. Apply two thin coats of
paint; allow the first coat to dry hard before applying
the second. Pale green or eau-de-nil are good tints. '
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
87
Printing Photogrraphs on Fabrics. — There are
several methods o£ printing photographs on fabrics. The
simplest is the platinotype, as the material— silk, satin,
linen, calico, etc. — is supplied sensitised and ready
for use by the Platinotype Co. It Is treated in the same
way as paper, being printed to the required depth and
developed hy Immersion in a saturated solution of oxalate
ot potash or in the D salts supplied by the company. It
is ttxed by immersion in one or two baths of hydro-
chloric acid— strength 1 in 60— and merely requires half
an hour's washing in running water. A very permanent
image which will stand washing may thus he produced.
The prepared material is somewhat costly, therefore the
following plan may be preferred. Procure some pure
silk- not treated with acetate of lead— and immerse tor
two or three minutes in a salting solution prepared as
follows : Boil 2 dr. of arrowroot in a little water and
dissolve and add 75 gr. of chloride of ammonium and
make up to 32 oz. of water and filter. When the silk is
dry, a sensitising solution of silver nitrate 40 gr., citric
acid 11 gr. , water 1 oz. Is brushed over It, the fabric being
pinned flat on a board. Print as usual, but very deeply,
and tone with water 5 oz., sodium acetate 7 gr., chloride
of gold 3i gr. Allow this bath to mature for twenty-four
hours before using it. Very pleasing results are obtained
by merely fixing without toning. Well wash before
toning, and place in a bath of common salt and water
before fixing in hyposulphite ot soda 2oz., water Ipt.
The pictures may be coloured with crayons and a very
beautiful effect produced. The crayons may be fixed by
spraying with a solution of rubber in benzole. The
picture, if not coloured, may be washed in cold running
water. By the " Primullne " process prints on a yellow
ground may easily be obtained in red, scarlet, crimson,
maroon, orange, brown, etc., by sensitising with primu-
llne and treating after exposure with a developer.
In printing fabrics, great care must be taken when
examining the print lest the material should he stretched,
when a blurred and distorted image will result. Gauge
the exposure by experience, or use an actlnometer,
when the material may be stretched on a light frame.
Absolute contact must, however, be assured. The grain
of the material must not be too marked or a coarse
effect will result.
Sinking a. Tube Well througb Chalk. — A deep
stratum of chalk would be penetrated by boring, for
which purpose a tube of large diameter is necessary.
A frame, which holds the first length of tube in position
vertically, is set ov^' the selected spot. The lower
edge is not sharp, but rough jagged, and the work
is performed by revolving, the tube by means of a
portable engine and horizontal pulley wheel on the
frame through which the tube passes and to which it is
wedged i a bag of sand placed on the top of the tube adds
weight when reciuired. When one length is nearly down,
the boring is stopped and dredging commenced. A
heavy piece of tube, about 2ift. or 3ft. long and small
enough to go inside the well tube, has its lower end
edges slightly sharpened and is fitted with a valve ; a
small bar is riveted across the upper end, and filed off
flush outside. To this bar is attached a piece of strong
cord— that known as " cod line " is suitable. By re-
peatedly dropping this down the vf ell tube and pulling it up
and emptying, etc., the borings ai* withdrawn; when
advantageous, water is poured in. Lengths of tube are
added as the boring proceeds.
Welding Cast Steel. — In welding cast steel, the
flux may consist of borax i lb., washing potash
ilb., and a srdall quantity of powdered white glass.
These should be melted together and pounded. Cast
steel should be kept from the air when heating over
breeze— not coal— and should not be raised to too high a
temperature, as it is liable to burn. The blows should
be light at first. The flux mentioned above should be
thrown over the surface to be worked before the material
is put into the fire, more being added afterwards as
required.
Cutting Steel Type and Dies.— For steel type and
die-cutting a considerable plant of tools is required,
consisting of, for steel -type work, a strong bench,
heavy vice (about 561b.), an assortment of large coarse
and small fine files, gravers, hammer and chisels, spring
dividers, rule, square and straightedge, pump drill,
grindstone, oilstone, scriber, long pliers or tongs, hand-
shears, sheet-tin, and cast steel in rod ; and for die-sinking
work, a die-sinker's vice and hollow pad, chisels, punches
and matts, curved and straight rifllers, and hand-vice.
To cut type, first soften a suitable piece of cast-steel rod,
flle up the sides with a slight undercut, and dress the
face ; then scribe in the type, or, better still, mark it
from a tin template. Any round holes In the face are
drilled with the pump-drill ; the inside work is chipped
out with lozenge and round-nose chisels ; the outside
edges are filed in a series of vee-shaped notches to form
the outline of the type. Finishing is done with gravers,
holding the work (if long enough to be handled) in the
left hand, or in a hand-vice against a filing slip
of wood projecting from the edge of the board, and
lightly cutting and skimming with lozenge and round-
nose gravers. Try the work from time to time on soft
lead or wet clay ; when perfect, put it into a clear coke
fire, heat to a cherry red, and quench in clean cold water.
Then temper to a middle brown. Should any further
. dressing be required, procure some boxwood splints and
dress off with fine emery and oil. Dies are made with a
backing ot iron faced with steel, the better to withstand
the blows ot the stamp. Most dies are either planed
level top and bottom, or turned in a lathe. In this state
the blank is screwed up in the die-sinker's vice, and the
face dressed up with a dead smooth file. A template is
now placed in the centre of the face, and the shape
deeply scored with a scriber. The line may then be cut
round, using hammer and lozenge chisel. If no pattern
is supplied, a model must be made in modelling wax,
clay, or plaster-oJ-Paris ; and to get the depth of the die,
use a sectional tinplate template. After rough chisel-
ling, use hand-gravers to remove the chisel marks, and
follow by rifiiers of various curves and contours. The
die can be finished dull smooth with emery and oil, using
a light or heavy stick for dressing, according to the size
of the work. These dies are hardened and tempered by
the blacksmith who forged them, and then further
dressed, using a stick, finer emery, and oil. Other dies,
in addition, require to be burnished with small curved
steel burnishers, lubricated with ordinary soap and
water. The various plain and ornamental punches and
matting tools used by the die-sinker are generally made
by himself, and it is seldom that the branches of type-
cutting and die-sinking are carried on by the same
person.
Photographing Coloured Pictures. — Coloured
pictures, or any coloured object, can only be photo-
graphed successfully by the help of a screen or
interceptor, which gives the true tone values of the
colours. In addition, the emulsion with which the plate
is coated must be specially sensitive to red and orange.
Such plates (termed chromatic, isochromatic, or ortho-
chromatic, or colour-correct) may be had ot all dealers
in photographic materials, those of Edwards being
particularly good. These plates must be developed only
in a duU ruby light. Pyro-soda is the most suitable
developer. The screen may be fixed either before or
behind the lens, and may either be made by staining a
sheet ot gelatine in a weak solution ot picric acid, or
Purchased ready for use. Generally, the screen should
e a. very pale lemon yellow, but the more the two
colours named above predominate, the deeper should be
the tint.
Making Taps for Watchwork.— Taps for tapping
screw-holes in watchwork should be made of good steel
wire. First soften it by heating to a red, and allow to
cool. Then file to a slow taper and thread it cautiously,
using plenty of oil. When a full thread has been cut, file
it triangular, and smooth the flats with a pivot file.
Harden it by heating to a bright red and plunging in
oil or water. Brighten the flats with a smooth emery stick,
and lay the tap on a brass plate held over a lamp fiame
until the brightened flats show a pale straw colour.
Red Terra-cotta and Blue Bricks.- The varieties
ot clay used in the manufacture of terra-cotta are
the blue, buff, and red clays ot Cornwall, Devon,
and Dorset, red London clay, and many others. Some
varieties ot Leeds clays are also employed. These are
plastic clays, containing a moderate but variable
quantity of oxide ot iron— from 14 to more than 11 per
cent. The clay is treated in several ways. In some
districts it is ground in the dry condition, and then
mixed in pug mills ; in others it is ground wet to a
"slip," which is dried to the proper consistency for
working on the "slip" kiln. It is usual, especially for
large objects, to mix the clay with a moderate propor-
tion of ground-baked clay, old pots, ground flint, sand,
or Cornish stone, in order to prevent excessive shrink-
ing and warping, and it is essential to allow the
tempered clay to stand for some time before working.
The ordinary terra-cotta bricks, facing blocks, orna-
mental tUes, etc., are machine-pressed, but fine objects
are pressed in plaster moulds, and the larger objects are
often built up and modelled by hand. Blue bricks are
usually made by incorporating " mill cinder " or " iron
scales " with the clay, the bricks being burnt at a very
high temperature.
Lacquering Copper and Brass Candlesticks.—
Take them to pieces and boil in a strong solution of soda
to remove old lacquer and dirt. Dip in a weak solution
of nitric acid and re-polish them. Then make them
hot in an oven or on a hot plate and brush over with
pale gold or gold lacquer. Candlesticks may be freshened
up by brushing them over with a coating of zapon or
brassoline, which may be procured through a chemist or
oU and colour stores.
88
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
Wiping a Plumber's Underhand Joint. — The
pipes having been dressed out straight, square the
ends with a rasp. The horr should be cleaned out ol
the end ot one pipe, and the outer arris cleaned off (see
Fig. 1). Open the other pipe-end (Pig. 2) by means ot a
turnpin, so that the first pipe will enter as far as it is
rasped off. Clean up with glasspaper and smear the
pipes with a little whiting or chalk. Now mark the pipes
at 6 in. from their ends by means ot a gauge (Pig. 3).
Paint the end ot the pipe as far as the gauge mark with
warm soil or smudge, and then with a shave-hook shave
the pipes to a distance of IJin. from the end of the first
(Pig. J), and IJin. from the end of the second (Pig. 2).
Shave also the rasped parts of both pipes. They must
now be rigidly secured in position by laying each pipe
upon two bricks set on edge or upon two lengths of
quartering and then holding them down by string as
shown in Fig. i. On the bench immediately beneath the
pipes place a sheet of brown paper to catch the solder
which falls in the process of wiping the joint. Smear the
shaved parts ot the pipes with tallow, which acts as a
flux. Bfave conveniently near a pot of solder of the
proper temperature, and then,, with a ladle in one hand
and a wiping-cloth In the other, commence to make the
joint. The first stage is to pour on the metal and " tin "
the joint, the second is to shape the joint, and the third
there will be a further decrease in bulk by about 20
per cent., thus reducing the bulk to about 4 cub. yU.
Painters' Fillings.— The fillings used tor stopping the
suction ot wood, plaster, etc., previous to painting,
may vai^y according to the nature ot the work. A
very commonly used filler is made from starch by
incorporating with it some linseed oil and varnish,
adding a drier, and then thinning with petroleum
naphtha. The American fillers are made from inorganic
materials, such as ground silica, steatite, china clay, or
barytes, and these are ground with raw linseed oU,
grinding japan, and turpentine or liquid driers. These
fillers set extremely hard. They are coloured when
necessary with the usual pigments. A very common
filler for plastered walls is made by dissolving good jelly
size in hot water, and thoroughly mixing with it sufficient
whiting to give it body.
Wash for Stained Stucco Work.— There Is a wide
range ot choice in the many washable distempers
now on the market; but whether any ot them would
cover defects so as to prevent their re-appearance
depends entirely upon what causes the stains. If
they are lichenous growths, an application of dilute
sulphuric acid will have a beneficial effect in the
matter of destroying the vegetation, but a deleterious
Fia 5
Wiping a Plumber's Underhand Joint.
and final stage to wipe it smooth. Pour the metal on to
the shaved part and on about 2in. of the soiled portions.
Hold the cloth under the joint to catch the surplus
solder. As the solder runs down the sides of the pipes
it is caught by the cloth and pressed up against the
bottom, thus helping to get up the heat and to tin the
pipes. The joint should be formed quickly by wiping it
with the cloth, which should be kept at the same curve
all round the pipe, and pressing the edges so as to get
them clean. Fig. 5 illustrates the finished joint.
Quantities for Concrete. — Approximately, the
voids in gravel, if tree from sand, may be estimated
at from 25 to 30 per cent, of the bulk, and in
broken brick or stone at from 40 to 50 per cent, :
but if it is desired to obtain an accurate estimate
of the voids in any sample of aggregate, fill some
known measure with the material, then add water
until the measure is filled ; the quantity ot water neces-
sary for the purpose will be the amount ot the voids.
When dealing with porous materials, the water should
be measured beforehand, and added to the aggregate
quickly; subtracting the remainder from the original
measurement of water will then indicate the extent of
the voids. But in calculating the amount ot sand and
cement necessary to till the voids, it must be borne in
mind that Portland cement and sand both lose bulk
when water Is added to them, the former by about 10
fer cent, and the latter by about double this percentage,
t will thus be seen that the resultant cubical measure-
ment ot the materials indicated in the question will be
only about that of the rough aggregate, namely, 5 yd. ;
and if the concrete is consolidated by ramming,
effect upon the stucco, the surface of which will be
more or less disintegrated, according to the strength
ot the acid. Try the effect of a good brushing with
a stiff bass dandy; then, for a cheip wash, and one
that will look better than a white preparation, add
Portland cement to water in which white copperas has
been dissolved at the rate ot lib. to 3 gal. Apply the
mixture, with frequent stirring, in the same manner as
distemper. A second coat may. If considered necessary,
follow as soon as the first is dry.
Papier-mach^ Mouldings.— For making papier-mAohS
mouldings as need for theatrical purposes, obtain
some thick, coarse brown paper; tear it into smaU
pieces 3 in. or 4 in. square, and soak them in cold
water. Now make some good fiour paste, and while
hot, to half a gallon of paste add about half a pint of
linseed oil and about half a pound of melted glue, well
mix these together. Now squeeze the water from the paper
and paste each piece thickly on both sides, placing them
one on the other to keep them moist. These pieces are
taken up separately and pressed into the mould, which
need not be filled level, but left hollow so long as the whole
ot the design is well carried out. Plaster-of -Paris is used
for making the moulds. The design is first made in clay
or out in wood. Make a strong box a little larger than
the model : pour into this box the wet plaster, and press
in the model, having previously brushed the model over
with a little sweet oil so that it will not adhere to the
plaster. When the mould is hard set, line it with oilea
tissue paper before pressing in the papier-mdohiJ s allow
this to well set and get partially dry before turning out.
The mouldings may be fixed with needle-points and glue.
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
89
Vanadium.— This is one of the metals of the antimony
group, and may be obtained as a greyish-white powder.
It will decompose water at a temperature of about 90° C,
and does not tarnish in the air. It is insoluble in hydro-
chloric aeid, but dissolves rapidly in nitric acid and
slowly in hydrofluoric acid. It burns readily and, in
a current of chlorine, takes fire. It has been found
In some iron ores, in copper-bearing beds in Cheshire,
and in iron slag in Staffordshire. Its symbol Is V, and
its atomic weight 51'4.
Heating Greenhouse by a Flue.— In heating a small
span roof greenhouse, 12ft. by 8ft. by 5ft. to eaves, by a
flue, the chief points to remember are that the horizontal
portion of the flue must have a rise of 1 ft. in 10 ft. , and the
vertical part of the flue at the end of the rise must not
be less in height than the length of the horizontal part.
At the base of the vertical part there must be a soot
door for sweeping, and also to admit of some burning
shavings being inserted to start the draught, as will
very Htely be necessary whenever the flre is freshly
lighted. A small furnace will do, and the flue, built of
ordinary stock bricks, can be 7 in. by 7 in. Inside. If the
flue is carried across the 8-ft. end it will do, as close to
the floor as possible. This wiU give a slightly different
temperature at the two ends of the house, so that both
half-hardy and very delicate plants can with care be
accommodated.
Curing Goat's Skin.— Trim it on the flesh side with
a sharp knife, and then well brush with a solution of
2i lb. of alum and 1 Ih. of common salt in 1 gal. of
warm water; the skin should be treated two or three
times with this solution on successive days. Now
sprinkle bran ail over the skin, brush out, and nail the
skin to a board and dry it. As a preservative against
insects, the flesh side of the skin may be treated with a
mixture of arsenic and black pepper previous to drying
on the board.
Inlaying Raised Frets in Finger-board of Guitar.
—Get a small piece of a bi-oken keyhole-saw, and insert
it, teeth outwards, in a block of wood ; this will cut a
groove of uniform depth. The projection of the teeth
must be correctly determined beforehand. The frets
may be made of stout brass wire hammered carefully
so as to partly flatten it.
Reeds of Organ Pipes.— These consist of a piece of
hard-rolled brass, fixed by a wedge upon the flattened
segment of a short cylindrical tube closed at one end,
as o. This is inserted in a solid block resting in an
inverted cone of sheet metal (termed a boot) and
supports a tube which reinforces the tone required.
Heating Schoolroom.— A schoolroom 66 ft. by 35 ft.
by 22 ft. high has nearly 61,000 cub. ft. of space in it,
which, with an ordinary ai'ea of window glass and good
walls, can be heated by 9 ft. of ^^in. pipe per 1,000 cub. ft.
of space. This will give 55°F. in very severe weather, and
80" F. at any other time. If 60° F. is reijuired in severe
weather, then 10 ft. of 4-in. pipe per 1,000 cub. ft. must be
allowed. If 2-in. pipe is used, then double the length will
be required. The advantage of 2 in. pipe is that 2ft. of this
only holds half the water that I ft. of i-in. does, and this
means getting the heat up in half the time after lighting
the flre. If radiators are used, the heat can be got up
still more quickly, as they hold the least practical
quantity of water lor a given radiating surface.
Putting Geneva Watch In Beat.— To see roughly
where to put the hairspring on a balance so that the
watch is in beat, af terputtiug in a new hairspring, look at
the opening in the cylinder ; this should face the 'scape
wheel. Usually there is a small dot on the balance rim
against which the hairspring stud should be placed. To
try finally, see that, when the watch is wound up, the
baJB,nce when stopped by the finger has no moi-e tendency
to stop on one side than the other, and always starts on
immediately it is released.
Repairing Hole in Boat.— Cut out the plank at the
part and replace it with a well-seasoned piece, butting
the remaining parts of the plank over a rib. If thought
necessary, put in an extra rib or two, if the hole is
above water-line. An easier method is to push the ed^e
of a piece of sheet copper under the plank, double It
over the hole, hammer it close, and tack down with
plenty of copper tacks ; the part should previously b6
painted. Cracks may be filled with a putty made of red
lead, white lead, and copal varnish.
Soldering Spout on a Copper Kettle.— To re-solder
a spout on a copper kettle, first thoroughly clean
the copper where the spout is to be inserted with
apiece of emery cloth, and also clean the spout around
Its large end. Then tin' the copper inside the kettle
where the spout is to be soldered, and also the spout,
using killed spirits as a flux Pass the small end of the
spout through the hole from the inside of the kettle,
and press It up so that the small flange on the large
end of the spout butts against the side of the kettle ;
then solder round the spout on the inside of the kettle,
and leave a thin body of solder floated smoothly round
where the join occurs, the same flux being used as lor
the tinning. Solder composed of 14 lb. of tin and 1 lb.
of lead would be suitable for this purpose.
Clarifying Glue or Gelatine Syrup. — Decant it
into a tall tank and let ' it rest for several hours,
when most of the impurities will settle to the
bottom, and, after decanting the glue, the bottoms
may, be added to the next boiling. If a large quantity
of glue solution is to be treated, the heat contained in it
will be suftteient to keep it fluid ; but for a small quantity
a jacketed pan must be used for clarifying. The addition
of a very small quantity of alum to the glue solution is
beneficial, as it coagulates the fiocculent matter and
renders it heavier. For gelatine, moist alumina would
be suitable as a clarifying agent, or inert white powders,
such iJs chiua clay or French chalk ; these substances
should be stirred into the gelatine solution and allowed
to settle out. Expei'iraents on the lines indicated should
be tried on a small scale first.
Repairing Damaged Stonework.— It is presumed
that the stone from which a piece has been aftcidentaUy
broken is one of the Yorkshire "grit " stones, similar
to that obtained from the Howley Park or Idle quarries.
For mending this kind of stone, mix resin and
beeswax in about equal parts over a fire, or preferably
over a hot plate, till both are thoroughly incorporated.
Pour the mixture into water, and, after it has been well
manipulated and allowed to cool, make it up into sticks.
To unite the broken pieces, warm the stone, by means oi
hot irons, sufficiently to just melt the cement. Apply
the cement to the fracture, then press tightly and
firmly till set. This cement, however, ■ has no lasting
properties when exposed to the weather, but wOl answer
for internal work. If the piece broken off is not too
large, use Portland cement mixed with some of the
pounded dust of the stone, and a little mineral
oxide to give it the necessary colouring. This will
make a far more satisfactoi-y and lasting job.
Proportions of Sand and Lime for Mortar.—
In mixing lime and sand by bulk, and not by
weight, it is necessary first to ascertain the cubic feet
contained in the lime, a cubic foot of which weighs
39 lb. J hence 5 tons x 22401b. -i- 391b. = 287cub. ft.-,
multiplying this by 3, it is found that 861 cub. ft. of
sand wUl be required, the weight of which can only be
obtained by experiment, pit sand being given variously
as from 901b. to 1001b. per cub. ft. ; river Thames sand,
from 911b. to 1021b.j river sand, 1171b. to H81b., etc.
Thus, with sand at 90 lb. per cub. ft., 344 tons will he
required; with sand at 1001b., 38i tons; with sand at
1121b., 43 tons; and with sand at 117 lb., 45 tons. About
8 tons of water will be required for slaking and mixing ;
there will result from 45 tons to 55 tons of mortar,
varying both according to the weight of the sand used
and the consistency to which the mortar is mixed. The
exact weight can only be ascertained by experiment.
Enlarging Photographs without a Camera.—
The best enlargements are made by utilising a room
as a camera. The window should be blocked up with a
screen in which should be cut an opening just large
enough to be covered by the reversing back of the
camera ; outside the window, fix, at an angle of 45°, a
white board or other reflector, which should be about
three times the diameter of the reversing frame, but if
the window has a clear view of the sky, the reflector may
be dispensed with. Adjust the camera against the
opening, with the lens pointing into the room, and
insert the slide containing the negative, both shutters
being drawn out. The picture should be focussed on a
sheet of white paper or board placed on an upright easel
or other support, the easel being moved and the lens
racked out until the proper focus is obtained. Then cap
the lens, place the bromide paper in position, and expose.
Autograph Moulds for Rubber Stamps.— To get a
satisfactory mould, great care lu all the processes is
essential. Coat a piece of flat metal plate evenly with
melted beeswax to a depth of about ^in. Before this
has got quite 'hard write slowly what is required ; make
the pencil or stylus penetrate to the metal, quite through
the wax, from end to end of the aiitograph. Clear out
any shavings or chips of wax that may clog the writing.
Sift some plaster-of-Pai-is through fine muslin ; dry the
powder in an oven, making it hotter than the hand can
comfortably bear. Grind it up with a pestle and mortar
to remove all traces of lumps, then sift again. Replace
in the mortar and add enough water to make a thick
cream, using the pestle to get thorough m.ixture and to
leave no unwetted powder. Pour the cream upon the
wax autograph and pat it with a light stick, so as to
force the cream into the grooves of the writing. When
the cream has set quite hard there should be a perfect
facsimile. A similar procedure wUl obtain the true
mould from the plaster facsimile.
90
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
Ink Eraser — One kind is made hj dissolving 1 pai-t of
oxalic acid in 10 parts of water. Another kind can he
made by adding 1 part of chloride of lime and i',; part of
strong acetic acid to 10 parts of water. Oxalic acid is a
powerful poison, and should therefore he handled care-
lully. Chloride of lime solution should tafl kept in small
closely stoppered bottles.
Thermo-electric Piles.— The simplest form is shown
in Fig. 1. It consists of a number of strips, say of
bismuth and antimony. These are joined, and alternate
.lunctions, as 1, 3, and 5, heated as shown, while the other
.lunctions are cooled. The action is very weak; for
instance, for a single pair of these metals the electro-
motive force is only about 120 microvolts l.-^—- volt")
\1, 000,000 /
per degree centigrade difference of temperature between
the junctions. Even this electro-motive force is lowered
antimony and lead the potential difference is the differ-
ence between '000068 and 0, or -000068 volts. The physical
conditions of the metals have much effect on the voltage ;
thus, hard platinum is thermo-electrioally negative to-
soft platinum. A section o( Clamond's thermopile is
shown in Fig. 2. The elements consist of block A, of an
alloy (two parts tin and one part zinc), and arms of
sheet iron F. The latter project and offer considerable
surface to the air, so that the joints numbered 2, 4, 6,
etc., to 20 are cooled. The inner junctions 1,3,5, etc.,
to 19 are heated, an earthenware cylinder with holes
across it allowing coal-gas jets to play on the joints.
Five such layers were used. Another form of Clamourt
pile is shown by Fig. 3. In this the hot gases from a coke
turn-ace 1' pass up through the flues T, o, and P, and out
at the chimney at A. The elements are shown at (\
while copper radiators D attached to the outer junctions,
but insulated, from them, serve to increase the difference
of temperature. It is said that from a battery with
3,000 couples the total electro-motive force obtained was.
109 volts, the internal resistance being IS'S ohms. The
temperatures of the junctions were not stated, but 11 lb.
of coke was burned per hour.
Pendulum and Rod for Dutch Clock. — The
pendulums of Dutch clocks only weigh an ounce
or two, and the bobs are tisually made of turneii
wood about 2 in. diameter and i In. thick. The rod is of
Fig. 2
Thermo-electric Piles.
by the " Peltier " effect, and the piles are racked by
stresses due to expansion and contraction. The follow-
ing table gives particulars of the thermo-electric pro-
perties of some metals, the electro-motive forces given
being those obtained by junctions of the particular
metal with lead, the difference of temperature being 1° C.
Miinh.
Electro-^inotive
Force.
Metals.
Electi'o-vwtive
Force.
Bismuth ...
Nickel ...
German '
silver 1
Aluminium
Tin
+ -000068 volts
+ -000024 „
+ -00001.5 „
+ -0000006 „
+ -0000001 „
Lead
Copper ...
Silver ...
Zinc
Iron
Antimony
- -0000017 volts
- -0000029 „
- -0000035 „
-•000015 „
- -000046 „
The cuiTent flows from the metal that is higher on the
list; thus, comparing bismuth and antimony, from the
flrst to the second. The value of the electro-motive force
for any pair of metals is the algebraic difference of the
numbers given in the table ; thus, of bismuth and
antimony it is the difference between + '000068 and
- -000046 = '000068 + '000046 = '000114 volt, and between
iron wire, hammered flat at the top end and turned over
into a hook. This is hung on a wire loop at the back of
the clock for a suspension. The usual length is from
24 in. to 28 in. One should be made full length, and then
shortened until correct. There need be no regulating
nut, the wooden bob merely sliding on the wire rod
friction tight.
Colouring Matter Used for Gelatine Photographic
Films. — The colouring matters used depend on
the purpose for which the plates are requii'ed. Eosine,
alizarine blue, ceriiline, etc., are employed. Eosine is
generally used for isochromatic plates. This colour
fades in direct sunlight, but would not do so in the
fraction of time required for exposure.
Dry-cleaning Valencia -Waistcoat. — To drycleau
a striped Valencia waistcoat and lining, out 2oz. of
Sunlight soap into shavings, and pour over it IJ pints
of boiling water in which is placed a small piece
of alum. Beat this into a lather and leave to cool.
When cool it will be the substance of a jelly. Apply this
to the waistcoat with a close sponge ; do a few snuare
inches at a time. With another sponge, wash off the
substance with a very little tepid water. Then saueeze
the water from the sponge and dry the material. Repeat
this process till the vest is finished. Then hang it up
until thoroughly dry, and dry-press.
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
91
Iilntng Out Cart Wheels.— When lining out a cart
wheel one of the best ways is to tilt the horse hack, by
patting a block underneath the front part, to any angle
required (being careful not to overdo it, or wheel and
horse will overbalance), then gently revolve the wheel,
gauging the lines on in the usual manner. By this
method there is not so much chance of getting jumps
In the lines as when done on a box. The fronts of the
spokes can also be done when in this position; the
stock should be done with the wheel on the horse in its
ordinary position. If, after lining the surface, it Is
ilneven, take some glasspaper and ciit down the ridges
caused by the lines, and give another coat of paint. The
prices of colours vary according to quality, but for
experimenting a green Is, best ; this can be mixed to so
mansr shades, and various colours In lines blend well
with it.
Making Opaque Coloured Glass.— Opaque glass or
enamel may be made by adding white insoluble
substances to the ordinary flint or soda glass while
it is in a melted condition. Bone phosphate or bone
ash and barytes are most commonly used, but cryolite,
white arsenic, and oxide of antimony ai"e also em-
ployed. To render the glass dull, add to it as much as
possible of either bone ash or barytes consistent with
proper working and to keep the temperature high while
it is stirred into the glass. The colours used are the
same as for transparent glass, but more colouring
matter is required to give intensity on the white base.
For blues, cobalt oxide, smalt, or black oxide of copper
are employed ; for violet, oxide of manganese ; for ruby,
oxide of gold, suboxide of copper; for emerald green,
copper oxide and oxide of iron, chromium oxide (chrome
green) ; for yellow, uranium oxide, oxide of antiifaony,
etc.
Ink-pad for Rubber Stamp.— To make a pad, cut
from the lid of a cigar-box a piece of wood of the
desired size. Upon this place several thicknesses of
sheet-cotton cut to size. A stretch of fine woollen
cloth and a top or surface of linen (a piece of an old
handkerchief Is excellent) is now put on. The two
latter coats must be long enough to come well over the
wood round the edges. Finally, tack on a binding of
leather or tin. If a lid of a tin is handy, it is a good
plan to make the pad to fit into it.
Making Painters' Knotting.— To make a gallon of
knotting, as used for painting knots in new woodwork,
i lb. of powdered shellac is dissolved In li gal. of
methylated spirit ; to do this, place it In a warm place,
and frequently agitate it. Made this way, It will require
shaking up before being used. This is the patent knot-
ting of commerce, to which, however, something is
added to keep the shellac in solution. It will not pay to
make it, patent Jinotting being much superior, where
patent knotting is not available, French polish will
answer the purpose of stopping-out the knots.
Length and Weight of Clock Pendnlums There
is no rule as to the weight of a clock pendulum; it
is regulated according to the quality of clock. The
best clocks cari-y the heaviest pendulums. Weight
does not affect the time of vibration ; that depends
solely on the length. There is no formula for determin-
ing the friction or resistance to the air of a pendulum.
To find the length of a pendulum for any given clock,
first find the number of vibrations it Ls required to
make in one minute, and then find th0 length of a pen-
dulum making that number either from a table or by
calculation. To find the required number of vibrations
per minute, multiply together the numbers of the teeth
in the centre wheel, third wheel, and 'scape wheel. Divide
this by the numbers of the third pinion and 'scape pinion
and 30. Thus, suppose the centre wheel is 64, third
wheel 60, pinion 8, 'scape wheel 30, pinion 8, then
64 X 60 X 30 „. , . .-u J.- -4.
8 X 8 X 30 ' = 60 = number of vibrations per minute.
To find the length of the pendulum making this number
of vibrations per minute, divide 375'4 by the number and
375*4
square the result. Thus -jg- = 6-26 ; this squared = 39'18,
which is approximately the length of the seconds pendu-
lum in England.
Pipes Keptuired to Heat Drying-room by Steam.—
The quantity of pipe required depends on the pressure
of steam available. With a low pressure, say 101b.
per square inch, to obtain 150° Fah. 150 sq. ft. sm--
lace of steam pipe per 1,000 cub. ft. of space will be
wanted. The room has just over 10,000 cub. ft. of space
in it, and therefore requires 1,500 sq. ft. of heating
surface, or, say, 2,860 ft. of 2-in. pipe. , This is supposing
the ventilation to be free. With high-pressure steam,
considerably less pipe will suSBce. A single 2-in. pipe
all round would scarcely suffice to heat the room 55
OTthout the full degree of ventUation that is needed in
drying-rooms. Wrought-iron pipe should be used.
Dyeing Light Cloth Black.— Put 10 lb. of loswood
and 31b. of bruised galls in 3 gal. of water ; Boil for
two hours, and strain. Place the coat in the dye, and
allow it to remain for half an hour. Take it out, and add
about 21b. of copperas. Replace the garment, and boU
till the dye has thoroughly impregnated it; the time
this will take depends on, among other things, the
quality and original colour of the coat. Kemove it, and
hang up for an hour ; then rinse it twice, or three times,
in cold or slightly warmed water, and dry. Bometimes
a garment requires a second or a third dipping. Finish
by pressing into shape. Common or old cloth will not
stand much boiling, and pure woollen goods have to b»
treated with extreme care.
How to Preserve Blown Eggs. — To prevent
birds' eggs cracking or crumbling after they are
blown, well rinse them out with corrosive sublimate
dissolved in spirit of wine (a few grains to the
ounce) ; this is a deadly poison. Insert a small
quantity into the egg by means of a glass egg-blower
with a bulb, then shake the egg so that the solution
comes into contact with all the inside skin. Now draw
the solution out of the egg by the blower, and return it
to the bottle. Now place the egg with the hole resting
Upon blotting-paper, so that the last drop or two may be
drawn out, and finally cover the hole with a small piece
of gummed paper. Water containing a few drops of oil
of cloves may be used in place of the sublimate if
desired.
Concrete to Cover a Brlofc-paved Floor.— The
materials used should be broken bricks, clean sharp
sand, and Portland cement, in the proportions of
6 parts aggregate to 1 part cement. An area 16 ft. by
14 ft. by 2 in. contains 34 cub. ft., or about Ucub. yd.
The quantities required will be about I cub. yd. of
broken bricks of the size of a walnut, 1 cub. yd. of
sand, and ^ cub. yd. of cement, or say about 7 cwt.
These materials should be well mixed together in a dry
state, a minimum quantity of water applied from a
water-can with a rose nozzle, and carefully laid to the
desired level, being worked with a trowel until the
cement creams on the, surface and the whole is even.
Only a small quantity should be wetted at one time,
and before a start is made the existing brick floor should
be well brushed with a stiff brush, until all dirt, moss,
etc., is entirely renioved and the bricks are clean.
Cream-coloured Paint for Table Oilcloths. — For
a paint for table oilcloths, try white lead or zinc
white ground in oil, with 4 oz. of patent driers to the
pound, and enough boiled linseed oil to make it flow.
This paint should be applied in a warm room and dried
I'apidly while hung in a room heated by flues running
along the floor. The cloth should previously be coated
either with a thick boiled starch or with glue size.
^ow to Make Sarsaparlll:^ Beer.— Dissolve li oz. of
compound extract of sarsaparilla in 1 gal. of hot water,
and vrheu the solution is complete stir in 2 lb. of
moist sugar. When the liquid is lukewarm, stir in a
wineglassful of brewer's yeast and keep in a warm place
overnight. Next day, skim off the yeast, strain the
liquid, and bottle : tie down the corks, and leave for a
week to become brislr. Instead of the extract, i lb. of
sliced sarsaparilla root may be used, but this will have to
be boiled with the water ; 1 oz. of liquorice root and i oz.
of aniseed added to the beer are considered by some an ,
improvement.
Bbonising Pine.- To ebonise pine, take 1 gal. of water,
lib. of logwood chips, ilb. of copperas, i lb. of extract of
logwood, 2 oz. of indigo blue, and 2 oz. of lampblack. Put
into an old iron pot and boil slowly. When cold, strain
through canvas, then add ioz. of powdered nut galls.
Or take I gal. of vinegar, 2 lb. of extract of logwood Jib.
of green copperas, 2 oz. of China blue, and 2 oz. of nut
galls. Boil over a slow fire. Give at least two coats with
an old brush. When dry, intensify the black by brushing
over with iron solution, made by steeping a good hand-
ful of iron filings or rusty n ails in 4 pt. of vinegar ; smooth
down with glasspaper, then fill in the grain with a filler
made of finely crushed whiting, lampblack and turps
made into a stiff paste; finish with polish— to make
which add to 1 pt. of methylated spirit 4 oz. to 6 oz. of
best orange shellac and i oz. of black aniline spirit dye.
White Ground for Drawing Boards To obtain a
white ground on drawing boards so that drawings made
with charcoal and coloured chalks may be easily rubbed
out, mix dry white lead to a stiff paste with gum arable
dissolved in water; add water till it works easily, like
paint. When applying it, either stipple it with a hog-
hair brush or cross and re-cross it till no brush marks
are seen. A little of the white should first be tried on
the corner of the board. Let it dry, then rub the fingers
over it. It it rubs off on the fingers, add more gum ; if it
shines, there is too much gum. To dissolve the gum,,
saturate it with water and stand in a warm place.
92
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
Matt Surface on Fhotoeraphic Prints. — To
obtain a matt surface on photographic pi-ints, matt
P.O.P. should he used, thia giving the finest results.
But a matt surface can be given to an ordinary glazed
print hy squeegeeing it on to the rough side of a piece of
f round glass, the mode of procedure being the same "as
hat for producing a highly glazed surface on ordinary
glazed P.O.P., substituting ground glass for the ordin-
ary glass or other polished surface.
Determining Po\rer of Engine from Indicator
Diagrams, — To calculate the horse-power of an
engine from diagrams, each diagram should be marked
off, as shown, by ten lines perpendicular to the
atmospheric line AL. The extremities of the diagram
are marked on the line AL and the distance between
divided into twenty equal parts, perpendicular lines
being erected at the first division, third division, fifth
division, and so on. The diagram cuts each of these
lines in two points, and the distance between these
points should be measured to obtain the effective
pressure shown by the card at that line. This, however,
is not the effective pressure on the piston at that point in
the stroke ; to obtain this the two cards, front and back,
must be superposed, and vhe back pressure shown on one
deducted from the f orwai d pressure shown on the other.
This, however, has no effect in the mean pressure as
obtained below. The pressure as obtained from the
diagi-am depends on the spring used. On cards with
which a jV spring is used a length of lin. shows a
pressure of 401b. per square inchj so that a length of
Determining Power of Engine from Indicator
Diagrams.
It in. on the diagram would indicate a pressure of
18 X 40 = 651b. per square inch. Owing to reduction, the
actual scale of the illustrations is A. or lin. = 801b. per
square inch. , Measured in this way, the pressures are,
commencing from the left in Pig. 1, 68, 80, 60, 50, 40,324, 25,
lei, 15, and 101b. per square inch, and, in Pig. 2, lOi, 15, 20,
25, 30, 35, 45, 55i, 77i, and 72i. The mean of each of these
is their sum divided by ten. Thus the mean pressure
shown by Pig. 1 is ?^
by Fig. 2 is
10
91b. per square inch, and
= 38'6 lb. per square inch. The mean
pressure during the two strokes may therefore be taken
at 39"0 + 38-6 ^ 39.35 n,. per square inch. The horse-power
may now be determined.
Flat-flame and Bunsen Gas Burners Compared.—
Comparing the heat given off by gas burnt in an ordinary
ga»-burner and that burnt in a Bunsen burner, Pro-
fessorLewes states that aluminous flat-flame burner gives
a temperature of ^,462° P., and an ordinary Bunsen flame
a temperature of 2,732" P., while by increasing the
quantity of air until the flame is on the point of flashing
down the tube the temperature rises to 2,966° P.; in ten
experiments the amount of gas consumed is not stated.
A Bunsen burner consuming 4 cub. ft. per hour will
require about 36 cub. ft. of air per hour, while the air
would be contaminated to the same extent by both
descriptions of burner, since the total amount of gas
burnt and consequently the products of combustion
given off would be the same in both cases. When the
igaa is mixed with too much air It forms an explosive
mixture. With regai-d to the proportioning of the gas
and air supplies of Bunsen burners, the information on
this point is mainly due to the labours of Mr. T. Fletcher,
P.O. 8., the well-known gas-stove maker of Warrington.
In a paper read before a meeting, of the Gas Institute in
1888, Mr. Fletcher states "that the mixing-tube [of a
Bunsen burner] it horizontal should not be less in
length than four and a halt times or more than six times
its diameter." With regard to the diameter of the
mixing-tube, " with large flames, given a certain size of
gas jet, the diameter of the mixing-tube should not be
less than ten times as great." " Given a certain area of
tube delivering a combustible mixture, the outlet for
this mixture must be neither more nor less than the
size of the tube." " The variation from the rule, how-
ever, must be a matter of experience with each form of
burner. There is also \he fact that with small divided
flames it is not necessary to mix so lai'ge a proportion of
air, as each flame will take up air on its external surface:
but in this case the flames are longer, hollow, and of
lower temperature. As a matter of actual practice,
where a burner is used which givesa number of separate
flames or jets the diameter of the mixing-tube does not
need to exceed eight times the diameter of the gas jet,
the remainder of the air required being taken up by the
surfaces of the flames." It wiU be seen from tne fore-
going that it is advisable to regulate the air openings
according to the quantity of gas passing.
Catch for Fastening Door of Street I>amp. —
The diagrams show a catch suitable for a large
lamp. Pig. 1 is a front elevation of the angle iron
Catch for Fastening Door of Street Lamp.
forming the bottom of the door, with a small rectangular
box riveted upon it, in which a flat bolt is arranged, so
as to slide up or down. Pig. 2 is a plan of the T and angle
iron, box with slot in top and opening at bottom, and
also an iron plate riveted on the underneath side of
T-iron, a slot being cut in this tor the bolt to slip into to
fasten the door. Pig. 3 is a section on the line A B, show-
ing the position of bolt in box, and projecting plate
on T-iron with slot for bolt to eutei^.
Use of the Box Sextant In Surveyiog.— The box
sextant is an instrument about Sin. in diameter, to be
held in the hand, tor ascertaining approximate angles
between any given stations. It is made with or without
a telescope, and is in general appearance like Fig. 1.
An enlarged diagrammatic plan is shown in Pig. 2,
where A is the sight hole of the telescope ; B is a
fixed glass, the lower half silvered and the upper half
plain ; c is a mirror attached to the same pivot as the
vernier arm D. The side of the case is open at E and S ,
to admit the rays ot light from the observed objects.
The required angles may be between station poles,
church spires, or any other deflnitOi lines or points.
"i'PPPf ®,^ single pole be looked at, the angle indicated
should be 0" or zero ; whether it will actually be so
or not depends upon circumstances which the follow-
ing remarks will explain. Suppose a pole to be fixed at
G, which, bearing in mind the scale, would be abnormally
close. It can be seen through the clear part ot the glass
atB on applying the eye to the sight hole at A. At the
stoe time the rays of light from the pole G will be
streaming in all directions, and some ot them will pass
along the dotted line direct to the mirror C, and, when
the vernier arm is placed in the position shown by the
dotted line, the rays of light will be reflected to the
Slivered part ot the glass B, and from thence to the eye
at A, the appearance being as of one continuous pole
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
93
f;
down the two parts of the glass. If the vernier he now
examined, It will be seen that the broad arrow falls
short of the zero of the scale owing to what may he
called the width of base line of the instrument. If the
■lole be placed farther off as at H, the rays of light
oUowing the stroke-and-dot line will require the vernier
arm to he shifted rather nearer the zero of the scale-
but until the pole is at a distance of two chains from
the observer there will be a similar error of less and. less
' H
i
Sow to Use the Box Sextant.
amount. Between two chains distance and an infinite
distance the rays bf light from the pole to B and are now
BO nearly parallel that the error is under one minute of
arc, so that the instrument can be used without difficulty
under those conditions. It is usually adjusted by
sighting it to the sun, which should appear through the
smoked glass as a perfect sphere in whatever way the
sextant may be held when the vernier is at zero, when
an angle is to be taken at one station and between two
others, the nearer station should be viewed through the
plain glass, so that the sextant may need to be held
upside down. When the angle to be read exceeds
90", an intermediate pole should be set up and the
anglfes taken in two portions, as In viewing large angles
the mirror is moved so far i-ound that its reflection,
and that of the image it carries, is viewed almost edge-
ways in the mirror at B. The vernier arm is moved by
means of a mUled head screw on the top of the case. It
should be noted that the box sextant only gives angles
in the plane of the instrument, so that if the stations
observed are not on the same level, the angle given will
be the direct angle between them, and not the horl.
zontal angle such as would be given by a theodolite.
How to Make an Sverset Photograpbio Shutter.—
A shutter suitable for use with a single lens at the
diaphragm (as employed in the bull's-eye kodak, and
shown complete at Pig. 1) may be made as follows :— Cut
thin brass or zinc to the shape shown by Fig. 2. The
centre part A is punched in, and upon it the shutter or
circle turns. The projections are turned up, and the part
E, after beihg pierced and out round, is turned up on the
dotted line. Wow cut the releasing arm (Fig. 3) in the
metal, bending in the dotted lines to the form J. Note the
slot L. Around the screw or pin fitting the screw hole M
How to Make an Ererset Photographic Shutter.
goes one end of the steel wire shown in Fig. 1, which passes
from it through O across L, and very loosely through the
large hole in B. The fixing of the shutter is shown
in Fig. 1, and when attached to the camera front by a
broad-headed screw through D and another at Z, the catch
P is fixed in the correct position. Through the arm the
wire pulls the shutter round when out of the way of pro-
jection Q or G. As the shutter stands away from the front,
space is left for the diaphragms between it and the lens.
These consist of three holes formed in the triangular
plate E worked by the arm S and guided by the semicir-
cular piece T. The position of the first audlast diaphragm
is governed by the slot TJ, hut the middle one is centred
with the lens by having a dent T' in E, which receives
a similar projection (the under part of the dent) in T.
For tilne exposures the arm V (Fig. 1), also shown at Fig.
4, is lifted, the slot W passing around the screw X, and
when raised it meets the projection F, and, on pressing the
release in the opposite direction, it returns. Projections
H and I then come into use. The method of bending
the arm may he gathered from Fig. 1, which shows the
shutter set for an Instantaneous exposure, it having
travelled halfway.
94
Cyclopsedia of Mechanics.
Method of Hinging Screen Frames.— It Is often
difficult to decide which is the test and cheapest way ot
hanging screen frames. A screen should be hinged so that
It will close both ways, but the expense of the double
folding joints made specially for that purpose Is too
great to admit of their frequent use. The following
describes a cheap, simple, and efficient substitute.
Assuming that the frames are ready for hanging, and
that the screen consists of four frames, there will be
three separate hangings, which will require six laths
laced together In pairs, as shown. The laths should be
sawn out ot a i-ln. board the full height of the frames,
and if the thicliness of them is I in., the laths should
be A in. wider, to allow the screen to close flat together
without any strain. Gauge and plane up the laths
both in width and thickness, neatly finish oft the
ends so that all of them are exactly the same length, and,
to prevent the sharp edges cutting the tapes, rub them
well oft with sandpaper. They are now ready for paint-
ing, staining, varnishing, or polishing, as may be pre-
ferred. When they are dry, proceed to put on the tape,
which may be got in various colours from Jin. tolin.
wide ; about 3yd. will be required for each pair ot laths.
Mattress binding is good j being made of lin en it does not
Fig. I Fic. 2
Hethod of Hinging Screen Frames.
stretch. Begin by tacking the end of the tape to the top
end and under side of one ot the laths in an oblique direc-
tion ; lay the two laths together, pass the tape up between
them from the under side, and lace them together rather
loosely, over and under, first left, then right, and leaving
a loop as shown at Fig. 1. When sufficient turns have
been put on to reach the bottom, begin again at the top
to pull the laths tight together, turn by turn, and
regulate the distances ; fasten the end off at the bottom
to the underside, as before. It is of great advantage to
hold the two laths edge to edge in the bench-screw while
pulling the tape tight, as it leaves both hands at liberty
to manipulate it. Proceed now to hang the frames
together ; bore f oiir holes in each lath, at equal distances
between the tapes, neatly countersink for screw-heads,
and screw them to the edges of the frames. This
joint has a very pleasing effect if it is neatly done
and the tape is made to harmonise with the material on
the frames. It is very durable, draught- and sight-proof,
and can, if necessary, be renewed at a very small cost of
time and money.
Transferring Photographs to China, etc.— To
finish off a photograph so that It will look like china
without enamelling, several simple methods of trans-
ferring are available. Among these is the use of
Eastman Transferrotype paper, and various makes ot
stripping P.O.P., which are to be had of photographic
dealers. Ordinary P.O.P. may also be used, but the result
is somewhat uncertain. In the case ot ordinary P.O.P.,
thoroughly wash the article to which the photograph is
to be transferred, then coat It with a weak solution con-
sisting ot gelatine 10 gr., water loz., and bichromate of
PotSish 5 gr. Crush the bichromate, and add the gelatine
last. Expose the coated side to the light, and wash for
some hours. Take a very darkly printed proof finished
and dried, but not alumed, soak it in cold water, and
then place on the article to be decorated ; squeegee the
print thoroughly into contact, and dry. Now pour on
hot water till the print blisters badly, when the paper
may be stripped away. If the water is too hot, the
gelatine will melt. Cfreat care must be taken not to
move the print, which should be laid flat ; and when dry
a coat ot copal varnish should be applied, and the article
baked. It will then stand careful washing.
Boring a Railway Tunnel from Both Ends.— In the
construction ot railway tunnels it is usual to work from
both ends, and sometimes from intermediate points also.
The line of route is laid out on the surface to facilitate
observations underground; but if this is impossible
the extreme points have to be connected by accurate
trigonometrical surveys and exact levels, so that their
relative positions are precisely known. The centre line
at formation level is then accurately set out by theodo-
lites and standard chains, a smaller heading being driven
in advance of the main tunnel, so that (apart from
facilities of construction) in the event of a slight error
in meeting the heading from the other end, the direc-
tions may be adjusted.
Garden Tripod Stand for Telescope.— A cheap
equatorial stand that does not require much lathe work
in its construction must have an axis on which to
Garaeu Tripod Stand for Telescope.
rotate, to provide the horizontal motion ; the vertical
motion being provided by a metal clasp having two
trunnions, which rotate on wooden uprights provided
with V-shaped bearings. This mounting is supported by
a wooden tripod stand similar to the ordinary camera
stand, though, of course, more substantial and rigid.
It can therefore be used either indoors at an open
window or in the garden. In the tripod shown in
Pig. 1 the three legs are bolted to a wooden
base and provided with three cheeks for the purpose.
Under the base, about halfway down and connecting
the three legs together, is a sort ot a double joint,
which folds upward when the stand ig not in use.
When open, this drops and keeps the legs stationary.
Above the base, and glued and screwed to it, la a
circular, cylindrlcally shaped block having a hole
through its centre to receive a female cone ot metal. A
recess in the block receives the shoulder at the top, which
is then screwed down to the block. This cone is shown
in section at A (Fig. 2) . A cone, shown at B, is similarly
screwed to the oblong stage of wood above the block,
to which the uprights are screwed. The two centres
are ground together, and, when fitted accurately, are
held together by a screw and washer at the ends.
The uprights, shaped as in the illustration, carry the
clasp by its trunnions, the dasp being screwed around
the body tube of the telescope. The clasp is a metal
casting about 2iln. deep, wltn two circular trunnions
and two rectangular wings. This is shown In elevation
and plan at Pig. 3. When the hole has been turned to fit
the tube, and the trunnions turned exactly equal to each
other in diameter and fitted between the uprights and
to the V's on them, the rectangular wings are drilled for
four screws, two at each wing. The ring is then severed
into two halves, the saw cutting through the wings.
Some blotting paper is then pasted In the curves of each
halt, to prevent the disfigurement ot the lacquer work
on the body tube, and, when dry, the clasp is screwed
together around the tube. In this way the two horizontal
and the vertical motions are supplied.
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
95
Time for Photographic Exposures.— All photo-
graphic exposures being somewhat in the nature of
an experiment, because of the ever-varying conditionB
of the atmosphere, It is possible only ' to give
approximate times. Over-exposed plates may be cor-
rected by careful development ; but a very much under-
exposed plate Is past remedy, and a slow plate is more
easily dealt Tvith than a fast one. As a rough guide to a
beginner, exposure meters may be of service, but, if
followed too slavishly, they may prove worse than use-
less. The following is the minimum exposure for June,
11 a.m. to I p.m. :— Clouds, A sec. ; sea and sky, .^sec. ;
open landscape (distant objects only), Jsec. ; buildings
(well illuminated), isec. ; groups (light dresses), isec. ;
groups (dark and heavy contrast), 1 sec. It is impossible '
to classify interiors as light and dark to be of any use.
The only practical plan is to make a trial exposure and
develop the plate. If it is impossible to develop a trial
plate, make several exposures of different lengths. In
aU exposures the colour or the light and the degree of
contrast in the subject and that required in the picture
must be taken into account. It may here be mentioned
that one would hardly attempt clouds, sea, or sky in the
middle of the day. Bear in mind the old rule, " Expose
for the shadows, and let the lights take care of them-
selves."
Clockwork Metronome. — To make a clockwork
metronome, a pendulum must be employed. The usual
arrangement is to have a short lead bob pendulum,
about 3 izi. long, pivoted upon an arbor. The rod
is extended upwards, and this upper portion is fitted
Clockwork Metronome.
with a sliding weight to adjust the speed. The
higher the top weight is raised the slower the pen-
dulum goes. The escapement is shown in the accom-
panying sketch. The 'scape wheel teeth are straight
pins, and they rest upon two flat steel discs fixed on
the pendulum arbor. These discs are cut, and the edges
bevelled off, to give the impulse alternately In each direc-
tion. Thus, one of the pins of the 'scape wheel falls
upon the face of disc A and, passing the bevelled edge,
gives the pendulum an impulse to the right and falls
upon the second disc B. As the pendulum returns, this
tooth gives impulse, by means of the bevel on B, in the
opposite direction to A, and the next 'scape tooth falls
upon A, and so on. An American drum-clock train will
do. The 'scape wheel must be taken away, and the next
wheel before it converted into a 'scape wheel by breaking
out some of the teeth, leaving one in every three, and
bending them forward a little.
Protecting Exposed Water Mains from Frost.—
There are incox-rect ideas as to how a bad heat-con-
ducting, material protects pipes from frost. Water
absorbs and holds heat, but the heat is readily dissipated,
or radiated, or becomes absorbed by cold air or substances
with which it comes in contact, the consequence being
that its temperature is reduced below 32° and the water
becomes ice. The purpose of a bad heat-conducting
material is to form a barrier to this heat transference,
so that should the water be, say, 50°, the air and general
surroundings can be much lower in temperature without
reducing the heat of the water in any marked degree.
The covering, therefore, does not afford any heat what-
ever, but prevents heat passing through It. Coverings,
however, to be as effective as this would require to be of
materials which are perfect non-conductors of heat, and
this is not as yet possible. There are some very effective
bad conductors, almost non-conductors, and the two
best are undoubtedly hair felt and silicate cotton (slag
wool). Both vary in effectiveness according to the
thickness of the covering. If hair felt is used it can be
i in., but ^ in, is better for good work. It should be out
in strips and be wound on the pipes soundly ; but it is
best not to bind It on too tightly afterwards. It should
be secure, but not compressed. The silicate cotton is
usually a loose material, and i-equires to be placed in a
casing. It can, however, be obtained sewn on to canvas.
Probably any one of the patent compositions used for
jacketing steam boilers would answer the purpose. The
coating should afterwards be lagged with narrow boards
secured with iron belts or bands, or be covered with
canvas and painted, tarred, or otherwise protected from
decay through damp or by atmospheric corrosion.
Simple Method of Copying Negatives for Iiantern
Slides. — The following is a simple way to make
lantern slides by reduction, the ordinary camera
and lens being used, supported preferably on a
table :— First make a carrier to hold the lantern
plate in the dark slide by tongueing together, to form
a frame, two pieces of i-in. wood 4fin. by Ijin., and
two similar pieces 6iin. by {in. Rebate the inner and
outer edges on opposite sides I'sin. Thoroughly clean a
window pane and place the negative for reduction (A) film
towards the camera in one corner. Fasten In position
safely with two drawing pins. Outside the window D
suspend at an angle of i5°, to act as a reflector (0), a sheet
of white cardboard at least four times the size of the
negative. Fasten at the bottom and attach string to
the two top corners. In a large sheet of brown paper
B cut a hole A just large enough to expose the whole or
the desired portion of the negative. Pin this up and
fasten curtains across the top of the window. Build the
camera up level with the boxes, focus very sharp, and
Apparatus for Making Lantern Slides.
expose as usual. The centre of the plate must exactly
coincide with the centre of the negative, and the corners
should all be equidistant, otherwise the lines will be
distorted. No si)ecial lens is required. When a clear
view of the sky is obtainable, a Udless box, having an
opening in the bottom capable of receiving the negative
and corner pieces to prevent it falling through, may be
attached to one end of aboard; at the other end is the
camera. The board at the box end is fastened to the
window sash with eyes ; the other end is suspended with
string so that the negative points to the clear sky and
even illumination is ensured.
Making Wax Candles.— Wax bandies are made in
machines each capable of moulding fifty or one
hundred candles at one time. The machine is simply a
framework holding a large tray having a number of
circular holes. Under each of these holes hangs a
candle mould with the point downwards. The wicks
are wound upon bobbins below, drawn through the
points of the moulds, and then stretched tight by fixing
to a frame above so that they pass up the centres of
the moulds. Surrounding the moulds is a trough. The
molten wax is poured into the tray, from which it falls
into the moulds. Cold water is then run into the trough,
and the wax immediately solidifies. The excess of wax in
the tray is removed by a scraper, and the frame carrying
the wicks is raised so that all the candles are drawn
out of the ' moulds. The wicks are then cut and the
process i-epeated. The waxes used are parafiin wax, com-
posite (paraffin wax with 5 to 15 per cent, stearic acid),
cerasln, etc.
Colouring a Malacca Cane.— To colour a malacca
cane, mix, some spirit aniline dye in thin spirit varnish.
Bismarck brown yields a rich red ; yellow may be ob-
tained in various shades, but must be very strong
in order to gain a good colour, unless the upper surface
of the cane is removed by the aid of No. 1 glasspaper.
The cane may be finished with clear spirit varnish,
though better wearing results would be gained by a thin,
even coat of best quality coach varnish.
96
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
Properties and Use of Plorlc Add. — Picric acid
Is formed by the action ot nitric acid upon phenol
(carboiio acid). Picric acid iaapale yeUow crystalline
substance sometimes used in dyeing, as it yields a flue
pale yellow upon silk. It is principally used in the
preparation o£ some of the "high" explosives. It
does not explode by applying a light or by friction,
but when a strong detonating cap is exploded in a cart-
ridge of picric acid, the latter is caused to explode with
terrific violence. The combinations of picric acid with
soda and potash are amongst the most powerful ex-
plosives, but as they sometimes exnlode spontaneously,
they are rarely used.
Small Cart for Pony.— A cart suitable for a pony
from 11 to 12 hands high is shown below. The length
of the body is 4 ft. at the bottom and 2 ft. 6 in. on the
seat. The bottom panel sides are lOi in. deep under
the seat and Tin. at the front. Tlie front board is Sin.
deep. The top sides are 1ft. deep, and are bent over
sharp at the top, each being fastened with two halt-
round irons in addition to being, screwed from outside to
pieces that the seat slides on, which, with a cross-bar,
are of birch or oak lin. thick and 3i in. wide before being
with a bright negative in the printing frame, and expose'
fully to a good light. Immerse for from fifteen minutes
to half an hour in a solution containing 23 gr. of
Rochelle salt and 2,';gr. of borax to loz. of water.
This gives a black Image. By decreasing the borax to
9gr. and adding three drops of hydroohlorle acid, a
sepia picture is obtained. Transfer for ten minutes to
a 1-per cent, solution of ammonia, then wash for halt
an hour, and the print is finished. Ferric oxalate may
be made as follows : Add to 2oz. of ammonia iron alum,
in a 20 oz. measure, loz. ot strongest liquor ammonia
with 1 oz. of distilled water. Stir well and allow the
precipitate to fall. "Wash by decantation till alkalinity
disappears ■, then add 1 oz. ot crystallised oxalic acid, and '
make up to the desired strength with distilled water,
rerric oxalate purchased ot a chemist should be tested
by adding to a solution ot it a few drops of a solution of
potassium ferrioyanide, when, it it has changed to the
ferrous state, it wUl throw down a dense precipitate of
Prussian blue.
Waterproofing Canvas.— To malce "chemical " canvas
pi-epare two baths, one contS,inlng lib. of yellow soap
in a gallon of warm water, the other containing lib.
Small Caxt for Pony.
dressed. These bent sides can be made ot i-in. walnut
finished In plain varnish, and give a nice contrast to
the black japan on the bottom panels; a piece of wide
wood bead, having a strip of plated bead fastened along
the centre, going over aU. The bottom of the body
, is 3 ft. wide, and may be made either quite square or,
U preferred, spread out each side lin., when 2ft. lOin.
will be wide enough for the bottom. The bottom
boards are 1-in. deal. The simplest way ot putting the
cart together Is to screw a batten along Inside either
side and nail the boards to these, having a good bar
of 14-in. ash at back and front, and underneath all
is nailed a couple of pieces of hoop-iron. The
elliptic springs are 3 ft. long, with four plates Uin.
wide. They are fastened to the body with angle-irons
and blocks lin. deep by 4iln. long. The li-iu. axle
is cranked Uin. deep. The dash is 22in. long and
15In. high; wings, 6in. wide, tin. thick, and 2ft. 6in.
long; wheels, 3ft. 6in. high; stocks, 7in. by 6Hn.
diameter. Thei-e are twelve If-In, spokes; felloes finish
1 j in. wide by li in. deep ; tyres, li in. wide. The shafts
are 4ft. 10 in. long in front ot splinter-bar, and 1ft. Sin.
wide at tugs, which are 11 in. from points ; they go Inside
the body, and are fastened in rubber beailngs at the
front and with a long cross spring at the back. If
required rather stronger for rougher usage, have the
stocks 6 In. or 6iin. diameter, and spokes iin. and felloes
Jin. larger than the measures given. In this case
the springs might have another plate added with
advantage.
Kallitype Process in Photography.— The Eallltype
process ot printing is the subject of a patent. It con-
sists of first coating any fairly pure paper with a mixture
of silver nitrate and ferric oxalate. The ferric oxalate is
I'educed to the ferrous state by the action of light, and
thereby reduces the silver In contact with it, thus form-
ing a visible image, which Is simultaneously developed
and toned, and afterwards fixed. Dissolve 70 gr. ot ferric
oxalate in 1 oz. of distilled water, and add 15 gr. ot silver
nitrate. Brush this solution with a sponge or tuft ot
cotton wool well and evenly over the surface ot the
paper, and allow to dry ; then place the paper In contact
of alum in a gallon of warm water. Pass the canvas
through the warm soap solution, and then through the
alum solution. To obtain a very thick coat, put the
canvas several times alternately through the two baths.
Old canvas may be treated In the same way as new.
Advantages of Copper Range Boilers.— The last-
ing quality ot a copper range boiler as compared with
an iron one, when used to heat hard water, is not
worth the extra cost. The incrusted deposit that
is the usual cause of boilers becoming destroyed in
hard-water districts will make the copper plate fracture
nearly as soon as it will the iron. An idea is preva-
lent that by using a copper boiler the aooumulation
of deposit from hard water, and subsequent fracture ot
the boiler, are prevented or avoided, but this supposition
Is groundless : a copper boiler is at no real advantage in
heating hard water. In soft-water districts copper is
largely used because iron will not long withstand the
active rusting process that the soft water sets up. In such
places copper boilers, copper cylinders, and lead, copper,'
or tin-lined pipes have to be used. The thickness ot the
plate ot copper boilers varies, for copper being such an
excellent wearing material (when water Is In dose con-
tact on one side of it), the plate need not be thick, and
J-in. plate would be ample if It were not that copper is
soft and cannot withstand heavy water pressure, nor the
blows that the cook delivers against the boiler front
with the poker. Therefore the usual thickness is iVli-
body, with (Vin. or i-in. front-plate. It the boiler is large.
and the water pressure exceeds, say, 40 ft., then either a
thicker body-plate must be used, or brass stay-bolts
must be placed across the body-plates. Brass or copper
bosses must be brazed around the pipe holes, to allow of
a sound joint being made ; and. In hard-water districts.
It is important to remember to order a manhole large
enough to insert the hand for cleaning. A 3-in. hole and
a 3-in. plug are usually sent to make the manhole and lid,
but this is too small. The cost varies with the market
price of copper, but the boilers are usually some-
thing under Is. per lb. Copper boilers, before they get
beyond repair, should have a piece dovetailed in and
soundly brazed.
Cyclopsedia of Mechanics.
97
Mounting Photographs.— Pill a large hand basin or
ilish with water, and immerse the photographs in it for
a few minutes, allowing them to drain slightly alter
renioval, and then place them with the image down-
wards on a sheet of glass. Lay over them a lew thick-
nesses of blotting paper and roll out excess Of moisture.
Now brush over the top one with some Higgins' photo
mountant or fresh starch paste, lif^ It carefully by the
corners and lay in position, cover with fluffless blotting
paper, and with a squeegee roll gently twice. If the
photographs are to be mounted iln an album, wet
mounting may cause cockling, and In such case an
alcoholic solution of gelatine should be used : Nelson's
No. 1 gelatine, 1 oz. ; water, 3 oz. : glycerine, 2 dr. ;
methylated alcohol, 10 dr. Dissolve the gelatine in the
water, then add the glycerine and alcohol last. In
this case the position the print is to occupy is marked
on the leaf ; and, the print having been dried in contact
with glass, a thin coating of solution is run rapidly round
the edge of the print or within the line on the leaf with
a small brush and the print rolled into contact. It is
always advisable for a beginner to gain skill and ex-
perience by practising on wasters or spoilt prints.
Crate for Carrying a Pig. — The accompanying
drawing is almost sell-explanatory. The size of the
crate would depend upon the size of the pig, but
about 4ft. 6in. long by 2ft. 6in. wide and 21t. 6in.
high will be large enough for any ordinary
animal. The framing should be of good yellow deal
When this first coat has dried quite hard, rub it down
with No. glasspaper ; dust the model and give it another
coat of the same paint ; repeat this process at least
six times. Then give it another coat, but, instead of
smoothing it with glasspaper, rub it down with powdered
emery and water, using a piece of hair-felt. Repeat this,
and a beautiful white will be the result. Do not varnish it.
Air Vessels on Pumps.— The bottle-shaped air
vessels are used to produce an even, uniform dis-
charge from the pump, the action of the pump
plungers being intermittent. Air is stored inside the
vessel, and the water, after having passed through the
delivery valve when the vessel is on the delivery pipe,
compresses the air. When the plunger makes the suction
stroke, the air cushion acts as a spring and delivers the
water. A suction air vessel should be used where the
length of the suction pipe is great in comparison with
the diameter and tor high-speed pumps. The contents
of the air vessels vary in different makes from three times
to ten times the capacity of the pumps.
Grotesque Target for Shooting Gallery.— The
illustration shows a front elevation of a novel shoot-
ing gallery target with the front removed. Make a
square box, say 2 ft. square, and from 4 in. to 6 in.
deep i have a circular hole about 9 in. diameter in the
centre of the box. Out a grotesque head of zinc from
4in. to6in. in diameter; extend the shoulder'and neck
Crate for Carrying a Pig.
Sin. square, and the laths 2Hn. by liin. The latter
can be either mortised into the framing as shown, or the
rails can be kept back from the face and the laths nailed
on. The roof should be of 1-iu. tongued and grooved
boarding, and the floor should be formed of li-in. boards
laid with spaces of about lin. between them. One end
of the crate should be made to open to form a door for
the entrance and egress of the pig. Two small iron
wheels, say about 8 in. diameter, can be fixed, one at each
side of the crate ; a i-in. wheel should also be mounted
In the middle of each end. The crate would thus have
four wheels, but would run on the two side ones only ;
the other wheels would pre vent the crate from ploughing
into the earth when the pig shifted its position.
Covering a Pulley with Leather.— A cement made
as follows may be used with great success, both for
covering pulleys with leather and on belt joints before
riveting. The leather wiU tear before coming ofl:, if
carefully done. Make an extract by digesting 1 part of
coarsely crushed nut-galls with 8 parts of rainwater,
let stand for several hours, and filter through, linen.
Then pour 1 part of cold water over 1 part of best glue,
let it stand for twenty-four hours, and heat to make a
concentrated glue solution. To use the above, warm
the nut-gall extract, and coat the leather with it. Warm
the pulley, which should be roughened, and coat with
the glue. Lay the leather on the warm pulley, press
firmly together, binding it tightly with cord.
White Coating for Model Boats.— Most makers of
model boats have found that it is practically impossi-
ble to give, a model a pure white surface by painting
it in the ordinary way with zinc or white-lead.
After- standing a day or two it takes a yellow or may-
be a dirty white tinge. If the following directions
are carried out in a careful and cleanly way, a ptire
white surface which will stand the test of time and sun-
light will result :— After the model has been thoroughly
glasspapered down, give it one coat of paint, made by
mixing ordinary white French polish with flake white
powder untU it has the consistency of skimmed mUk.
Grotesque Target for Shooting Gallery.
downwards a few inches, having a pivot A of wood or iron
through the neck, the bearing being at each side of the
box, so that the head will be in the centre of the box.
Attach a piece of stout wire to the bottom of the neck
piece, and, so that it swings as a pendulum in a slot
in the bottom C, fasten a piece of lead B to the bottom.
A bird or any animal may be made to work the same as
the head.
Making Angle Zinc— To make angle zinc to be
used tor constructing an aquarium, after cutting
the sheet zinc to the required width, mark it deeply
with the scriber or cutter along the bending line on
the underside. Then place the zinc along the flat
side of a beok-lron or the edge of a hatchet-stake, and,
keeping the. bending line upon the tool edge, press both
long edges downwards, commencing at one end and
working along the zinc until the opposite end is reached ;
then smooth down to the angle required with a mallet or
dresser.
Fickle for Gun-metal Castings.- The percentage of
water to sulphuric acid to be used as a pickle for
gun-metal castings depends on the composition of the
metal. Try by experiment. A pickle for the outer
skin would be 10 of water to 1 of acid ; leave in a few
hours to remove sand, and finish by dipping in aquafortis
and swilling quickly in plenty of water. Dry out in hot
sawdust ; or dip in hot water and use cold sawdust. In
the trade, old dilute aquafortis is used as a' pickle for
castings, which are left in it overnight and dipped in
strong acid afterwards.
Recharging Ink Pad of Typewriter.— A suitable
ink may be made by dissolving 1 part of aniline black
(soluble in oils) in 6 or 8 parts of oil of cloves by a
gentle heat ; while still warm, apply It to the pad vsich a
camel-hair brush. Another ink may be prepared by
grinding together very carefully 1 part of gas hlack and
5 parts of oil of cloves ; but to make the latter pro-
perly, a grinding plant is necessary. If the pad is worn,
it is useless trying to treat it.
98
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
How to Start a Dynamo.— Before stai-ting a dynamo,
examine it carefully to see that the hruBhes, mbrieatora,
etc., are in order. The machine may then he run at full
speed for a short time, with the brushes off, to see that
the hearings are in order. It should then he stopped
and the brushes adjusted to their places on the commu-
tator. The main switch may then be closed and the
dynamo set rvmning, the speed being increased until
tlie voltmeter or a pilot lamp shows that the correct
voltage has been reached. Then, as the load comes on,
the brushes may be shifted backwards or forwards, as
may be necessary, for sparkless commiitation.
Retouching Medium for Fhotograpliic Negatives.
—The simplest retouching medium is made by dis-
solTing about half a teaspoonf ul of powdered resin in 1 oz.
of turpentine. Add the resin a little at a time, shaking
well. It will probably take about two days to dissolve,
but it should be shaken occasionally. Apply with the
bnll of the finger, rubbing well with a circiilar motion
until it resists. Take the supply from the top of the
cork and not dii-ect from the bottle. Avoid streakiness
or the least unevenness. Ketouching medium can also
he bought ready made of all dealers in photographic
requisites.
"Pavodllos" Joint in Flooring.- A sketch of the
" Pavodilos " rebated joint as used in ftoor boards pre-
pared for secret nailing is shown by Pig. 1. It is patented,
and the name is I'egistered as a trade mark by
the manufacturer of the joint. "Pavodilos" jointed
flooring and matching Is, however, turned out by other
Fig. 2
"Pavodilos" Joint In Flooring.
firms who work under licence; and some specimens
are worked as shown by i'ig. 2, which, although the
second key is lost, may possibly be preferred on account
of the danger, when nailing down the flooring jointed
as in Fig. 1, of damapting the feather-edge of the board
that is being fixed.
Securing Dowelled Work Togetber.— The holes
for dowels should be made exactly opposite each other
in each piece forming the joint. Then the dowel
should be accurately fitted in. When the work is
ready for gluing up, the dowels should be glued in one
part of each joint first, then the other part of the joints,
dowels, etc., should be glued ; the whole should then be
quickly cramped up— that is the joints forced up
close. Frequently it will be round advisable to leave
the cramps on until the glue has set or become hard.
Composition of niuntz Metal.— Muntz metal consists
of 57 parts of copper and 43 of zinc, or 60 of copper and
40 of zinc, or 66 of copper and 31 of zinc.
Determining Contents of Circular Tank.— A rule
for finding the contents, in gallons, of circular tanits
is as follows : First find the contents in cubic inches and
multiply by "0036, or in cubic feet and multiply' by 6'23.
'The cubic capacity of a circular tank In cubic inches
equals the diameter in inches squared (that is, multi-
plied by itself) multiplied by ^©l and by the length In
inches. For the capacity in cubic feet, take all dimen-
Bions in feet. As an example, the contents of a circular
tank 4 ft. diameter by 6 ft. high equals 4 x 4, x -7831
X 5 X 6-2:3 = 391 gal. (roughly).
Proportioning Rooms for Sound.— Wy bom's "Notes
for Architects and Draughtsmen" gives the following
rules tor the proper proportions for a building in order
that speaking from platform or pulpit may be distinctly
heard all over the room. For concert rooms, etc.,
height 2, width 3, length 4 or 5. Example:— Free Trade
Hall, Manchester; height 52 ft., wldtli 78ft., length
135ft. For lecture rooms, etc., height 2, width 4, length 3.
jExample :— Theatre of Eoyal Institution; height 30ft.,
■width 60 ft., length 45 ft. The hearers should not be at a
greater distance from the speaker, for convenient
hearing, than 50 ft. in front, 30 ft. on each side, and 20 ft.
behind. No person should be farther than 70 ft. from
the speaker. The greatest number that can hear a
speaker conveniently is 2,000, arranged in two tiers. The
end opposite the orchestra or speaker should be serai,
circular, or have the angles rounded. The ceiling
should be elliptioal or coved, and there should be a
hollow space beneath the floor.
Concrete for Foundations.- In gauging up concrete,
bwnt ballast, with or without clean brick rubbish,
will make fair common lime concrete, but for good
concrete there should be no burnt ballast, and the brick
rubbish should be clean and hard. For cement concrete,
stone ballast and hard bricks, broken to pass a 2Jin.
ring, would be suitable. One of lime to Ave of the other
materials, or one of cement to seven of the other
materials, Is an economical proportion. Burnt ballast,
like a common place-brick, crumbles on exposure to
the weather, and In damp foundations will in course
of time go the same way; even in dry foundations it
will not bear a heavy load.
Fitting Windsor Chair as Barber's Chair.— The
following Is a sketch that shows how to convert a Windsor
chair into a barber's chair. Make two brackets, as in
Fig. 1, out of elm or other hard, tough wood, and bore a
hole through the centre of one, as indicated by the
dotted circle. Screw the solid one to the seat of the
chair at the back, and the one with the hole bored
In to the back of the top piece of the chair. The plain
sides of the brackets must be so fitted ithat when fixed
the two mortises are in a straight line with each
other. Now fit a piece of wood about 3 ft. long into the
Pittihg Windsor Chair as Barber's Chair.
mortises in the brackets, so that it will slide easily up
and down. Fix a cross-piece to the top of this, as shown
in Fig. 2, and also bore holes up the middle at intervals
of 1* in. To fix the sliding piece at the height required,
an iron pin Is used ; this should be connected with the
top bracket by a short length of chain. The cross-piece
should be covered and padded.
Jonval Turbine.— This works by pressure, and may
be drowned or connected to a suction tube. It is an
axial or parallel-fiow turbine, the water passing through
the motor in directions parallel with the central
shaft. The water enters a fixed wheel, and is guided
into the movable wheel keyed to the shaft, which
rotates on a pivot bearing. To regulate the power of the
turbine, a number of the guide passages are closed by
a special casting, carrying a segmental rack worked by a
worm. The efdoleucy of the Jonval turbine increases
with the load.
Working Celluloid.— To work thin sheet transparent
celluloid into different shapes, it is pressed with heat in
a hydraulic or other press or mould, and allowed to oool
gradually. A French recipe lor non-iufiammable cellu-
loid consists in dissolving ordinary celluloid in acetone
in about the proportion of 25 grammes of celluloid to 250
grammes of acetone, and dissolving pulverised magnesium
chloride in alcohol in the proportjion of 150 grammes of
alcohol to 50 grammes of magesium chloride. Then mix
the two solutions so as to obtain finally a pasty mass,
containing, say, 20 grammes of the magnesium chloride
for each 100 grammes of the celluloid. An uninflammable
material, similar to celluloid, was invented in 1896 by'
Cadoret, of Paris, which he claims to be a substitute
for Indiarubber, celluloid, leather, oilcloth, linoleum,
mother-of-pearl, tortoise-shell, amber, ivory, etc., and
which Is capable of being moulded, drawn, or made into
threads, and in the form of plates, tubes, and cylinders,
or soft and silky threads resembling silk In appearance,
and can be dyed in various colours. It has another
peculiarity— that while the dies or rolls are cold, there if
no polish on the surface of the rolled sheet Or moulded
article, but with heat and pressure the polish of the
mould Is given to the pressed article. This material, to
which the name of " textiloid " has been given, can be
made as transparent as glass.
Cyclopeedia of Mechanics.
99
Diminished Twisted Column In setting out and
working a diminished twisted column for masonry, first
set out the column to the extreme diamete? of out-
side of wreath or roll, with the diminish and entasis as
in an ordinary column. Having decided how many
times the wreath is to encircle the column, set out the
spiral to a developed line. If a piece of paper is cut the
shape of a right-angled triangle, the height of the per-
pendicular heing equal to the height of the cylinder,
the hypothenuse (or long side ot the triangle) will
generate a curve winding round tlie cylinder in the form
of a spiral. This curve is called the helix, and is the
developed line of centre of wreath or roll required. In
order to illustrate this more clearly, take two long
ribhons of jjaper cut parallel, one piece heing white and
the other piece black j wind first, say, the white round
the cylinder, leaving a parallel space just sufficient for
the black piece, which now wind round the vacant space,
touching perfectly each of the edges of the white band.
This being done, let the white band represent the roll
and the black band the hollow, or vice versa. This
example applies to a cylindrical shaft whose ends form
equal parallel circles. In the case ot the tapering
column the developing ot the spiral line will requii^e
great nicety in the setting out ; and although the band
will" not be quite parallel, the principle is the same. The
shaft is flrst worked as a plain column to the extreme
or outer diameter. The spiral line is then traced i-oimd
the shaft, and the hollow worked out. Lastly the roll
is rounded off, each process being guided by reverses
or templates.
Construction of Double-contact Electric Push.—
The essential parts are shown in the adjoining
illustration. A push A is connected to a spring B. Under-
Construction of Double-contact Push.
neath the push is a smaller spring contact C, and at the
side opposite B is another contact D. B, C, and D each
have terminals, not necessarily in the form sketched.
By these terminals the connections required may be
made. In the standing position B and D makfe contact,
but by pressing A the circuit is made byway of B and c.
Separating Lead from Zinc— The mixture can be
raised above a red heat, when the zinc will burn away ; or
it can be granulated, and then placed in acid to dissolve
the zinc. Or stir into the molten mixture a quantity
of ground sulphur, which wiU combine with the zinc and
rise to the surface, and form a crust or cake, which can
be taken off.
Taking Apart and Cleaning English Lever
Watch.— Before attempting to clean a watch, it is
advisable to become thoroughly acquainted with its
mechanism. First remove the hands and dial, then
unscrew the balance cook and take out the balance,
unpinning the hairspring if necessary, and notice
how far through the stud it comes, so that it inaj be
Droperly replaced when putting together again. Then
.et down the mainspring by lowering the click screw
under the pillar plate and putting a Hey on the square
of the barrel arbor. Take out the barrel and bar, also
the pillar pins, raise the plate gently, and with a pair of
tweezers remove the lever ; then take off the top plate
and remove all wheels, etc. Place all the parts, except
the barrel and fusee, in benzine. Take out and brush
clean with a soft watch brush and a trace of dry chalk.
Brush clean the fusee, take off the barrel cover, and oil
the mainspring. 'Witn a watch peg sharpened to a fine
point, clean out the pivot holes. 'To put together,
place all wheels in position on the pUlar plate, but-not
the lever ; put on the top plate, and then introduce the
lever between the plates and get it into position ; then
get the top plate down properly and insert the pillarpins.
f^
Put in the barrel and bar, put on the chain by dropping
it through the watch' in positiou, and hook the barrel
hook in the barrel. With a key on the barrel arbor,
wind it all upon the barrel and place the fusee hook in
the fusee. Then set up the mainspring half a turn, and
wind the chain up on tlie fusee, being very careful to
see that it goes straight. Oil the pivots in the top plate
and the balance pivot holes. Put in the balance and
repin the hairspring, being careful to get it in beat.
To test this, wedge the fourth wheel with tissue paper,
and when the balance is at rest the ruby pin should be
in the lever notch and the lever should stand midway
between the banking pins. See that the hairspi-iug lies
flat and beats evenly between the curb pins in the regu-
lator ; also see that it does not touch the balance arms or
the plate. See that the balance has a little " endshake "
in its pivot holes. Oil the bottom pivot holes, and put
a, little oil on the points of the 'scape-wheel teeth.
Do not oil the other wheel teeth or the ruby pin. Use
only the best watch oil.
Girard Turbine. — This is a parallel-flow impulse
motor, the power being due almost entirely to the
velocity of the water. The guide blades, in the ver-
tical form of motor, may be closed by special vertical
shutters worked by special gear, and the passages
through the wheel are widened towards the outlet of
the water. The efBciency ot the Girard turbine may be ,
highest on low powers. A suction tube cannot be used,
as the 'wheel must be close to the level ot the tall race.
Power Transmitted by Leather Belts.— In the
diagram given below, the curve A refers to single
belts, best oak tanned, curve B to similar light double
UUU 1 ' ' '
/ 1 1 ' /
I \ • . X\ ■ - ■
1 1 /. \l>' ■ ^\ ; 1 ' 1 ! 1
1000-—^^ — / 1 Xi^'^— --^ i 1 i - : ' : 1 1 H ^-r-j — --
+T^v:f 'Mil ' ■ ■ M 1 i h
-/^'iiiiiii''-"'''-^— i.ii'iiii
HORSE POWSR
Power Transmitted by Leather Belts.
belts, and the, remaining curve C to heavy double
belts. Each curve shows the horse-power that may be
transmitted by a belt for each inch in width. Thus a
single belt 1 in. wide wiU transmit about 3 hoi,'se-power
when running at a speed of 2,000 ft. per minute.
Similarly, at that speed, a ' light double belt will
transmit rather more than 4'2 horse-power per inch of
width, while a heavy double belt would transmit about
5"i horse-power. It will be noticed that the lines curve
upward at the higher speeds, the decreased power
thus shown being accounted tor by the centrifugal
force set up. To keep the belt central with the face of
the pulley, the latter should be slightly rounded, say
|ln. or i in. per foot.
Making Sheraton Easy Chair. — The frames of
these chairs are made of deal, and the ,legs of hard
wood such as birch. The inside only of the chair
is upholstered, the outside being covered with the
same • material as secured to the frame. The following
dimensions are suitable :— Total height ot back, i ft. ;
width of seat from front to back, 2 ft. j width of seat, 2 tt. ; "
height of legs from floor to bottom ot seat frame, 10 in.
without castors; height of arms from seat frame, 1ft.
The back legs should be liin. square; these can be
bought ready sawn, with the required sweep of 2 in. at
the bottom. The front legs are made from 2in. square
stuff. The seat frame should be 2 in. by IJin., raised
with a stuffing-rail 2 in. high. The back will have three
cross-rails 2 in. by fin., stump-tenoned into the back
legs. 'Web the insides of the back and arms, and cover
with hessian as a foundation for stuffing. Stuff all the
inside with hessian before putting on the outside cover-
ing, which is usually a cotton imitation tapestry.
The edges can be corded or finished vrith brass or copper
nails.
100
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
Sizes of Whltworth Nuts and Bolt-heads. —
The following table gives the thickness of the bolt-
heads and the widths of hexagon nuts in the Whitworth
standard. The third, fifth, and seventh columns are to
the nearest sixty-fourth of an Inch :—
Diameter of
Bolt and
TMcliness of Head
Width of Nut
across Flats
Width of Nut
across Corners
Thicknessof
in In.
Nut in In.
i
•4375
t'»
•9191
Sjl'
1-06
lA
t
•4921
Si
1-011
IsV
1-16
Wi
•5468
ir!
1-101
Wi
1-27
ir
f
•6015
ii
1-20U
lil
1-38
•6562
1-3012
IH
1-5
1
i
•7109
lA
1-39
IS
1-6
1'
•7656
n
1-4788
1}
1-7
H
1
•8203
f
1-5745
m
1-82
1^"
•876
1-6701
i»
1-95
le
1
•9843
K
1-8605
1 J
2-15
2^
1
1^0937
iK
2-0483
2,\
2-36
25*
1
1^2031
in
2-2146
Ml
2-55
2
2rf
1
1-3125
lA
2-4134
2-78
1
1-421
IS
2-5763
2-97
2
1
1^5312
2-7578
3-18
3A
1
1-6406
3-0183
3A
3-48
3"-
34
2
1-75
1^
3-1492
a^n
3-63
The odd iV-ln- sizes given above are seldom used.
Inexpensive Filter for Oil.— To make a cheap filter
for light machine oil, obtain a large ribbed glass
funnel about 6 in. diameter ; take a clean sheet of thick
FlQ. 1
Inexpensive Oil Filter.
wnite blotting paper, and cut from it a circle 10 in. dia-
meter, then fold the paper twice to the shape shown in
Pig. 1, and openitout like Fig. 2, so that itfltsthe funnel.
Now place the paper in the funnel and the latter
into a clean can, and pour the oil into the paper,
taking care that it does not flow over. The oil will filter
through slowly, and will he perfectly clear and bright.
"When the paper becomes.clogged, it must be replaced by
a new piece.
Brazing Bandsaws.— Ordinary handsaws may be
brazed as follows :— Taper the ends of the saw by filing so
as to form two wedge-shaped ends for about the length of
three teeth. Lap the ends, and place a small quantity
of the fiux on them j cut off a narrow piece of the brazing
metal (about lin. by tin. will do for an inch saw),
place it hetween the ends of the saw, and cover the joint
with flux. The saw, being clamped and held in position
in a suitable holder, is now ready for brazing. Heat to a
bright red heat a pair of heavy ton^s, free from scale
between the jaws, and hold them tightly on the saw
until the brazing metal melts ; then slip off the heavy
tongs, and grip the braze with a lighter pair that has
been made black hot. When the joint Is well set, remove
the tongs and file the braze to uniform thickness. The
saw is ready for use when the teeth where the joint is
made have been sharpened and set. For brazing heavy
bandsaws, a small machine may be used, by which the
saws are kept in position over the flre by means of a
hinged clamp having set-screws on each side of the joint.
The brazing is done with two pairs of tongs. Brass spelter
and borax as a flux makes very strong joints in band-
saws of ordinary widths. Equal parts of copper and
coin-silver, melted well together, rolled out thin and cut
in strips, is said to make good brazing metal. One ounce
ie sufficient to make over thirty joints, in bandsaws lin.
wide. Two ounces of flux will be sufllcieut for loz. of
brazing metal.
Strength of Springs for -Vehicles.— The following list
has been furnished by a leading axle maker :—
Mail and Collinge axles suitable for a vehicle bearing
the load shown :—
Size 1 li li li li n U If 2 in. diameter.
Weight 5 7 10 12 15 18 22 26 30 cwt.
Drabble and cart arms suitable for a vehicle bearing
the load shown :—
Size li It 2 2i 2J 2} 3 in. diameter.
Weight 10 15 20 25 30 45 55 cwt.
Springs.— A comprehensive list cannot be given, as
there are so many variations In size ; the quality of
steel also has a great influence. The following are a
few customary sizes of trap and cart springs, with the
weights they are supposed to he suitable for :—
Size of Spring.
44 in. X IJ in. x 5 in.
46 in. X l| in. x 5 in.
6 cwt.
8 cwt.
48 in. X 2 In. X 5 in.
10 cwt.
48 in. X 2 in. X 6 in.
12 cwt.
48 in. X 21n. x 7 in.
14 cwt.
48 in. X 2iin. X 7 in.
17 cwt. ,
48 in. X 2iin. x 8 in.
20 cwt.
Ordinary merchant quality springs are made of steel
of unguaranteed temper, hence the temper is variable,
often resulting in weak, unsatisfactory springs. Buyers
of springs should require a guarantee that they are
made of guaranteed material with a temper, for heavy
cart and waggon work, of not less than 0-40 per cent, of
carbon ; for light trap and carriage work not less than
0-45 per cent.
Wire Rests In -Wet-plate Photography.-In wet-
plate photography, the silver wires on which the plate
Wire Rests in Wet-plate Photography.
rests are fixed in the carrier, as shown in the accom-
panying Illustration. This special device is used
because the drippings from the wet plate exercise a
destructive influence on the woodwork of the slide, but
an ordinary slide may be used if blotting paper is placed
along the bottom to absorb the drippings ; or the slide
may DC coated with shellac, asphaltum, or paraffin wax.
Lead of Slide Valve of Steam Engine.— The lead of
a slide valve Is the amount by which the steam port is
open when the piston is just going to commence its
stroke. The supply of steam to the cylinder then
commences before the stroke, and the moving piston
is brought to rest against a cushion of steam. The
amount of lead varies from All- to Ain.. according to
the type of engine.
Damp-proof Stiffening Solutions.— For stiffening
materials that wUl be exposed to damp, a solution
similar to that used for stiffening hats is suitable.
This is composed of 5 parts sheUac and 1 part borax,
with suiflcient water. A useful water-proofing material
may be made by dissolving shellac In ammonia.
A good stiffening waterproofing material is boiled
linseed oil, which stiffens by exposure to. air and is
very pliable. Another waterproofing substance may
be applied by passing the materials through a soap batli
and afterwards through alum solution ; this produces
an alumina soap in the fibres and stiffens the fabrics.
Polishing Ebony Walklng-stlote. — To polish an
ebony walking-stick a jet black, mix Frankfort black
or black aniline spirit dye with the polish ; the latter
may be made by dissolving 6 oz. of garnet shellac in
Ipt. of methylated spirit. Apply with a camel-hair
brush. Best results are gained if polishing pads made
of wadding enclosed in fine rag are used.
Ink for Rubber Stamps.— To make a good rubber
stamp ink, pulverise 180 gr. of aniline violet and dissolve
in 2 oz. of boiling distilled water ; add one teaspoonful or
glycerine and half a teaspoonful of iireacle.
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
101
Fern Case Construction.— Fig. 1 shows a section
through a part of a case for rearing ferns. The
bottom is of deal, with a polished mahogany edging pr
rim which forms a base, the bottom being tongued to it
on each side and fixed. The bottom stands i in. below
the rim. to receive the tray A. The latter is 2iin.
deep, with a hole In the centre to convey superfluous
moisture to the zinc safe B underneath, and is covered
with a thin layer of broken brick, or other similar
material, and with 2 in. of mould, in which the ferns are
planted. The safe slides between the feet C, on which the
case rests. The zinc tray should be ftrst fitted into the
bottom and secured with screws, the heads soldered over,
the channel edging D bent to fit the domical glass at each
end, and also mitred at the angles to fit the rails on the
base, composed of the same section material. Well solder
the angles together, then put screws along the iualde of
the channel into the base, as shown, and run a little fine
solder along the edge to fix it to the tray. Then put the
glass into position by slightly extending the framework
at the ends, and bring the frame tight to it. Take a
FnS
Constructing a Fern Case.
piece of bell tube the same length as the out to out of
frame and solder at each end, keeping the joint in the
tube at the top. A piece of ornamental cresting, slipped
into this joint and soldered to the tube, will give a good
finish to the case. Make the doors at each end out of
angle pieces to fit the frame as shown, and hinge on the
Side. The glass in these doors must be left short from
J the top for the admission of aii:, otherwise the plants
will be stifled.
Steam Consumption in Engines.— The most eco-
nomical steam consumptions in simple, compound,
and triple engines per indicated horse-power hour have
been found on trials. A simple Corliss engine has used
ITJlb., and a simple Schmidt engine, with superheated
steam, 17i lb. Of compound engines, several American,
French, and' German engines have used more than 121b.
and less than 141b., while a triple-expansion WlUans
engine may uss 12} lb., and a similar Sulzer engine less
than 121b,
Removable Vestiliule Screen.— The sketch shows how
a frame may be fixed, without injury to the premises,
as a tenant's fixture, removable at the expiration of
the lease. No plugs are allowed to be put into walls, and
where fixing is required it must be done by means of
screws— nails are not permissible. Take the exact width
between walls, and allow 11 in. narrower in the outside
width of the frame. The skirting projects, say, iin. on
each side ; the frame must be scribed over this equally
on each side, as shown. Get four brass angle-plates 0,
chamfered on face for preference ; let one side into the
edge of the frame in each case, the other screw on to
the face of the skirting. This will securely fix the lower
part; an additional fixing is obtained by screw D into
floor. The upper part must be secured by means of
folding wedges B, i in. wide, between the frame and
plaster. These should be driven tightly home, and
should be placed as nearly as possible over the jamb at
the top and at the level of the transom at the side.
When the frame is firm, drive some fine brads through
the edge of the frame into the wedges, to keep them from
Vestibule Screen as Tenant's Fixture.
moving if the frame ia jarred by the banging of the door
at any time. The fillets A shown on the edge may now
be fixed ; they must be scribed over the skirting and to
the plaster, and fixed to the frame with panel pins.
These fillets completely hide all fixing with the exception
of the end of the brass bracket on the skirting, and this
is not unsightly. The job, it carried out properly, will
be a good one, and the screen, while equal in stability
and appearance to a permanent fixture, can be quickly
and easily removed.
Resin used in Spirit Varnish.— Shellac dissolved in
spirit forms the basis of most spirit varnishes ; the
addition of resin is often advised on the score of cheap-
ness. It also assists the varnish to fiow level, gives it
more body, and imparts a brightness not obtainable by
the use of sheUac alone. As excess of resin yields a var-
nish easily scratched, benzoin is added to make it
harder, in addition to increasing its brilliancy. BheUao
and spirit alone will suit for some purposes as a varnish,
but win generally need more shellac in than when for
use as French polish to be applied by means of pads.
102
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
Renovating Patent Leather Sboes.— To renovate the
enamel of patent leather shoes, tree them up tight, and
with a sharp knife skive off all the ragged parts of the
enamel. Now rub over the whole with vei-y fine sand-
paper. This will make the shoes look dull, but they can
be revived with leather varnish, patent varniiih, ordinary
blaok cream, Nubian, ebonite, or even a thin coat of
black polish as used by French polishers.
Putting Spring Seat to Cushion-seat Couch.— To
convert a cushion-seat couch into a spring-seat couch,
take off the couch back ; this will be nailed to the
body along the bottom and into the head. If the
bottom is boarded, remove the boards, and put a stuffing
rail on the front 2 in. high ; this will loave a rebate for
tacking, banding, etc. If a very soft seat is desired,
cross-web the bottom with best spring webbing. If
spring rails are regulred, let five in at equal distances
apart iii the front and back rails. Ten 8-in. spiral
springs will be wanted;. secure two to each spring rail
with wire staples, or, if a webbed bottom, tie fast with
strong twine through the web. Cover the bottom over
the springs with coarse canvas, tack on the front side
securely, and pull down the other till the springs are
compressed about a quai-ter their length ; then tack the
other side. Put your arm under the ends, and place the
springs in an upright position, then stitch fast to the
cover with needle and twine. Put on a layer of flocks
about 2 in. thick, cover the top with another piece of
canvas, and tack fast all round j stitch up the front edge
to a fine point with four rows of stitches. The couch
wiU now be ready for outside covering.
Turning a Crank -shaft.— The adjoining sketches
show one method of turning the crank-pin of a small
crank-shaft of an engine. Pig, 1 being a front eleva-
the surface is rubbed with a very hard brush of couch-
grass, and then with the lightest and linest-qiiality
charcoal, the flat portions with stick or cake charcoal,
the carved or incised portions with powder, using
linseed and turpentine to keep the surface cool and
moist. This process yields best results when employed
on woods of a hard, close grain.
How to Make Collodion.— Take 1 oz. of pyroxylin or
collodion cotton, 36 oz. of ether, and 12 oz. of alcohol of
90 per cent, strength ; place in a dr.v, stoppered bottle,
and shake from time to time till dissolved. The best
liquid for diluting the collodion is a mixture of ether
and alcohol In the above proportions.
Drying a Mop.— As a means of twisting a mop for
the purposes of drying, other than by the ordinary
method of using one hand and a wrist, a hole is some-
times bored through the handle about 15 in. from
the upper end, and through this is rove a short
line, say 30 in., a knot tied close to the hole on either
side keeping the line in place. By starting the mop
twisting in a vertical position and pulling both ends
of the line and releasing them together, the mop is
rotated quickly in alternate directions.
Red Filling for Letters on Engraved Door-plate.
— When fllllng an engraved door-plate with wax,
the utmost cleanliness must be observed, as any
foreign matter rises to the surface, and the wax should
be rubbed down tUl a clean and brilliant colour is
established. The best vermilion wax should be ob-
tained, and It should then be powdered. - To do this,
break the wax into convenient pieces, and place between
two clean pieces of brass or iron plate ; wi-ap the whole
in several thicknesses of brown paper, tie with twine.
Turning a Crank-shaft for Eng^ine.
tlon and Pig. 2 a side view. Iron slabs, lettered A,
are fastened, one at each turned end of the shaft
B, by set-screws C. The slab is centred at E, so
that D in Figs. 1 and 2 represents the throw of the
crank. Sometimes the hole in the slab is larger than
the turned end of the shaft ; the hole is then packed so
that the distance D between the centres can be adjusted.
To stiffen the system, long bolts at F are Inti'Oduced,
being jambed tight by nuts at the ends. The slabs are
often to the shapes shown by the dotted. lines in Pig. 2.
The centres of the slabs and of the crank-pin must be in
line, the positions being set by the aid of vee-blocks,
plumb-bob, and scribing block.
Proportions of Square Nuts and Bolts.— The fol-
lowing are the usual proportions of square nuts and
bolt-heads :— The width across the flats of black nuts may
be one and a half times the diameter of the bolt, plus
from '18 in. to "44 in. ; or of bright nuts, one and a half
times the diameter.'.plus from ■06 in. to 'ISin. Across the
angles, rough nuts may measure 2'12 times the diameter,
plus from ■& in. to '6 in. ; and bright nuts, 2'12 times the
diameter, plus from ■08 m. to '25 in. The height of the
bolt-head may be from two-thirds of the diameter of the
bolt to equal to this diameter.
Dull Black Finish for Furniture.— To make a black
stain that will give a dull finish, as seen on Chippendale
furniture, it is usual first to stain the wood with
extract of logVood and copperas, followed by solutions
of acetate or siilphate of iron. This, in turn, is French-
polished, an intense black being obtained by adding blaok
aniline spirit dye to the polish. ■ When perfectly hard,
this is dulled by well brushing with finest-grade emery
or pumice powder. Staining alone is rarely sufficient for
any but the very cheapest class of work. The following
is the French method of obtaining a dull finish on high-
class goods : The articles are first coated with camphor
water, and almost immediatel.y afterwards with a coat
of sulphate of iron and nutgalls. When quite dry.
and hammer the package well. This will make the wax
quite small enough. Another plan of filling the lines is
to heat the plate, and rub in the wax from the slab or
stick i another is to grind up the powdered wax with gold
size, set in with a palette knife, and put aside to harden.
Clean off with alcohol. Or dissolve wax in pure alcohol
to a creamy mixture, so that It will pour freely and fill
the letters ; leave to set hard, then clean up with spirit.
Hardness of Water. — The hardness of water de-
pends to a very large extent upon fhe nature of
the rock through which it percolates, and the extent
to which it penetrates. Deep well water obtained
from a shaft sunk to a great depth into water-
bearing strata is usu.ally more or less hard. Water
issuing from springs may be either soft or hard;
from granite and the older rocks the water is soft,
because it penetrates but little; but in the newer
formations, especially magneslan limestone, oolite, lias,
chalk, etc., the spring waters are very hard. Water
from the surface flowing over pure clay or gravel will
be, as a rule, soft, because there Is little soluble matter
contained therein ; but from a shell gravel the water
will be hard. Water collected in shallow wells is often
very hard, the water percolating readily through the
soil and subsoil, and dissolving out the salts contained
therein. The salts not precipitated by boiling are,
removed every time the kettle is emptied j the scale will
contain principally the carbonates. In a boiler the
case is different, as the concentration of the water by
evaporation causes the precipitation of both carbonates
and sulphates ; but an analysis of the water is bette^
because there may be present chlorides of calcium and
magnesium, which also render the water hard, and
may cause trouble in other ways. These salts are ex-
tremely soluble In water, and would not precipitate how-
ever long the water was boiled. The deposit inside a
kettle would be white if only lime and magnesia were
present ; but if Iron were also present, the deposit would
ue yellowish or cream-coloured.
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
103
Soldering a Silver Watch Case. - Ordinary
easy running sUrer solder, which melts at a lower
heat than silver, will do. Btit to make sure, shred
the solder into very thin strips, and apply plenty of
borax to them as well as to the joint to be united. Use
the blowpipe gently at first so as to bake the borax, then
heat the case all over almost to the melting point of
solder, and direct the flame to the part to be soldered
until the solder runs and glistens. Cease blowing
instantly, and plunge the case into a solution of
sulphuric acid 1 part and water 10 parts, to whiten it ;
then wash In hot water and dry in sawdust. Be careful
to remove all steel springs before soldering a case.
Size of CorUss Valves for Steam Engines.— The
diameter of Corliss valves u?ed for the admission of
steam to engine cylinders when the diameters of the
cylinders are known may equal one-eighth the diameter
of the steam cylinder plus 2 in., while the diameter of
similar exhaust valves may equal one-sixth the diameter
of the cylinder plus 2 in. Thus, for a cylinder 24 in.
diameter, the steam valve should be
2i
+ 2 = Sin.
diametei-, and the exhaust valve -g- + 2 =6.in. diameter.
Dressing Up Spokes of Carriage Wheels. — An
easily made apparatus that will hold the spokes of
wheels whUst drefjsing them up Is illustrated by Kg. 1,
which is a side view snowing a spoke in position. The
bottom raU A is li in. deep by li in. thick, shouldered
in at B to 1 in. thick. On this part the block
works along by the mortise shown in Pig. 2, being
kept in position by the wedge at the back D (Mg. 1).
To this block is fixed an iron plate (see Pig. 3),
Having melted a sufUcient quantity of tin in the bath,
pass the copper sheet through it, and as it is withdrawn,
quickly wipe the superfluous tin from each side with a
pad of tow. The surface of the cooper should be first
prepared as described above.
Green Stain for Wood.— A clear dark green stain
may be made by mixing aniline dyes as sold at most
druggists' with plenty of hot vinegar. Green and blue
yield a useful tone. Or apply hot 2oz. of verdigi-is,
4oz. of China blue, and Ipt. of vinegar; several
coats will be required. These water stains have a
tendency to raise the grain. The subsequent rubbing
down with glasspaper will give the white flecks often
seen on frames. If this is objected to, colour must be
used m the polish or varnish. Another simple plan
IS to use emerald and bronze green mixed in hot beer.
Making Photographic Prints by Gas and Dull
Light.— Any gelatino-chloride paper may be slightly
printed and afterwards developed. The great drawback
to the process is the liability of obtaining degraded high
lights with a consequent flattening and.-foggihg of the
image ; because if the faint image from a brief exposure
under a negative can be developed into a dark print, any
chance exposure of the paper to daylight will show by fog
and degradation. If the paper has been properly protected
from extraneous light and is otherwise suitable, develop-
ment has a tendency to intensify the contrasts, therefore
a little fog is sometimes an advantage unless allowance
has been made in the negative. Eastmans', Paget, and
Otto gelatino-chloride paper can be recommended for
this process. Print a faint Image in diffused light-
that, is, expose for about five minutes to daylight or one
hour at 6 in. from an incandescent gaslight. Make up
Apparatus for Holding Spokes of Wheels.
the lower part being IHn. wide by }in. thick, the pro-
jecting centre-point being Jin. round, welded into it.
A pillar li in. square is mortised on the front end, being
firmly fixed by a corner plate, as Pig. i: This is made
with a boss at the top to the full width of plate, H in.,
through which the i-in. screw E is fitted. This has a
handle fitted at the end, and when in use the frame is
held in the vice, or may be cramped to the bench, and
the block is slid along to about the length of the spoke.
The latter is placed between the two centre-points, a
turn or two of the screw holding the spoke firm, whilst it
can also he turned round In any position for working.
Cleaning and Relacquering Brass.— To clean and
relacquer brass fittings, take all the parts to pieces
and place them in a boiling solution of carbonate of
soda or potash, lib. to a gallon of water. To remove
the old lacquer, swill in clean water. Then dip in
commercial aquafortis quickly several times till of a
golden colour, swill each time in clean water, and add
a pinch of cream of tartar to the last swilling. Dry
out in hot sawdust. Burnish the bright parts with a
steel burnisher, using a little oxgall to lubricate. Dry
out in sawdust as before. Heat on a hot plate, and
lacquer with a camel-hair brush.
Tinning Sheet Copper.— If to be tinned on one side
only, first smear with salt and water the opposite side ;
then, with a pad of tow, wash the other side with
klUed spirits (chloride of zinc) , and also sprinkle a little
powdered sal-ammoniac over the surface. Place the
sheet over the fire, and when hot enough, rub the
end of a strip of tin on it until a small portion
of the tin melts ; then, with a pad of tow or wadding, on
which some powdered sal-ammoniac has been sprinkled,
rub the molten tin over the hot surface, and continue
this operation until the whole surface is covered. If the
copper is to be tinnedon both sides, an iron bath of semi-
circular section, built up over a firegrate, should be used.
the following solutions :— Wo. 1. Hydroquinone 25 ^.,
metol 10 gr., sulphite of soda 25 gr., potassium bromide
50 gr., ammonium bromide 100 gr. , water 8 oz. No. 2.
Sodium hydrate 15 gr., water 2 oz. No. 3. Tannic acid
8 gr., water 1 oz. Take thirty-two parts of No. 1, eight
parts of No. 2, and one part of No. 3. Immerse the print
without washing. It rapidly bleaches to a light yellow,
then slowly increases in density. When nearly dark
enough, remove the print and place it in a 1 in 60 solution
of acetic acid, and thoroughly wash for ten minutes.
Q-reat care must be taken to wash out all the acid, or
uneven tones will result. The ni'int may then be toned
in the ordiiiar.y sulpho-cyanide bath and fixed as usual.
Avoid handling the paper or stains will result. Another
method by which prints of a fairly s.atisfactory colour
may be obtained without toning consists of pouring over
the dry print a solution of pyro 1 gr., bichromate of
potash solution (1 gr. in 2 oz.) 10 minims, water 1 oz. j a
print of a sepia tone results. But it is difficult to avoid
degraded high lights ; it is, in fact, practically impossible
if a larger proportion of bichromate solution than that
given above is used. An acid fixing bath has been
recommended.
Cleaning Buff Leather Gaiters.- To clean gaiters
made of sun tanned sheepskin, with the flesh side
outside, wash them thoroughly and scrub out all the
dirt, when quite dry, scrape them all over very
lightly, paying special attention to the parts that were
dirtiest, with a dull knife, a buff knife, or the edge of
a blunt shoemaker's knife; if the knife is too sharp
the leather will be ycorn away. When the gaiters are
rough all over, apply some Pi-opert's brown ball, or a
mixture of brown ochre and chalk mixed to the shade
required, and rub in well with fine sandpaper, then with
a piece of old cloth. If the gaiters are then brushed out
lightly with a soft brush, they will have the appearance
of new goods.
104
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
Secret or Invisible Inks. — The ueual invisible or
sympathetic inks are made from cobalt nitrate or
chloride, -which in the hydrated condition (that is,
containing water) are a pale pink, but become deep
green by loss oJ water on heating. Writing upon
paper with these inks is invisible at the ordinary
temperature, but by warming the paper the marks
appear very distinct, but fade away again after a short
time. In hot climates the writing would not be invisible.
Invisible writing may be done with a solution of tannic
acid, and developed at any time by soaking in a dilute
solution of ferric chloride. A true ink is then formed.
Another method is to write with a solution of boiled
starch, and develop the writing by damping the paper
and holding it for a tew minutes over a bottle containing
iodine ; the blue iodide of starch is then formed, and
the writing becomes quite distinct for a time. It fades
away again as the paper dries, but may be developed in
the same manner several times. Another process is
to write with a solution of lead acetate, and develop
by moistening the paper and holding it over a bottle
containing sulphuretted hydrogen ; the writing then be-
comes permanently black, sulphide of lead being formed.
How to Put a Bristle on a Waxed Thread.— To put a
bi'istle on a waxed thread, as used in shoemaking. D shows
the bristle split, and the end of the taper of the thread in
the cratch of it at E. Hold this point between the thumb
and finger of the left hand, so that it does not pull out
at the bottom P while the two are being twisted together
with the thumb«and finger of the right hand. When
twisted, still hold them flrmly at E, and put the bottom
How to Put a Bristle on a Waxed Thread.
P between the little finger and the next finger. With
the right hand twist the other portion of the bristle-
that is, the top F. Then put the two P's together, hold
them with the right hand and let go with the left, and
D and E will twist of their own accord. Then fasten the
ends at F so that they cannot untwist, as in the adjoining
sketch. Take G as the thread or waxed end, and through
this make a hole between F F and E, but very near to F F ;
then take D and pass it through this hole. By pulling D,
E will also pass through the hole— in fact, all the bristle
except the two ends F F ; that portion of the thread will
also pass through that has been twisted in with the
bristle.
Sticking Artists' Canvas to Millboard. — Having
rubbed the back of the canvas with coarse glass-
paper, coat the material with some strong glue, rub
down thoroughly, and press until dry. Failure often
occurs through not properly removing the air from
between the picture ana the mUlboard. The correct
method is to place a square of thick paper ovfer the face
of the painting and then expel the air by rubbing, with
closed fist, over the whole surface, commencing from the
middle and rubbing towards the outside edges. If air
gathers under the middle, and it cannot be forced out
round the edges on account of the glue having set, prick
the blister with a fine needle, and, having let the air
escape, rub down well and put a weight on the spot for
an hour or two.
Photographic Lens for Portraits and Enlarging.
—Any lens may be used for enlarging quarter-plate
pictures to about 12 in. by 10 in. Theoretically, the best
lens to use for the purpose is the one that has been
employed t.o take the picture. Practically, the best
lens is a portrait or rectilinear lens having a flat
field and a large aperture. The focus should not be
long, or the camera will require great extension. If a
S-ln. locus ijortrait lens is used, the camera must be
extended 21 in. and the lens be placed Sin. from the
small negative. It is only necessary that the lens
should sharply cover the small negative. Only quarterr
plate portraits could be taken with a 6-in. lens. In
some oases it may be best to fit the enlarging
samera with a 6-in. rectilinear lens by a good maker
(such as Boss, Dallmeyer, or Taylor), working at /"/O.
This could be used as it stood for ordinary work and
snlarging ; whilst an occasional half-plate portrait could
ilso be taken by using the front combination only,
provided the extension of the camera is sufficient. It not,
a conical front could be made to accommodate It. Every
lens is supplied with a fiange, which only needs screwing
to the opening in the camera front. As daylight en-
largements are best, It Is unnecessary to have a camera
for enlarging. Place the ftnall negative in a carrier in
the dark slide with both shutters drawn out, insert the
slide in the camera, and place it close against the
window frame, with the lens, covered with a cap of ruby
glass, pointing into the room. The who^e of the window,
except a small opening to admit light to the slide, must
be blocked out and the room rendered thoroughly dark.
Outside the window must be a white reflector, at least
four times the size of the negative, flxed at an angle of
45° with the negative, and receiving light from the sky.
On placing a sheet of white paper on an upright easel
and moving gradually from the lens, a position will be
found (viz. 24 in.) where a sharp enlarged image of the
small negative is shown on the paper. It is merely
necessary then to pin a sheet of bromide paper on the
easel and expose. Daylight exposures are constantly
varying, and call for some experience, but better grada-
tion is obtained.
Fitting Swing Curtain Rails to Iron Bedstead.—
To fasten rails on the two posts of a half tester iron
bedstead to carry curtains so that they will swing,
Fig. 1 shows the arrangement as fl^ed on the pillar
of bedstead. An iron bracket of wrought flat iron fin.
by i in. should be made as shown in Pig. 1, the upper
FIG. 4
file, f Fia 2
Fitting Swing Curtain Rails to Iron Bedstead.
part swelled out and drilled so as to fit over the top of
pillar on the screw. The brass knob screwed down on it,
with a washer between, will keep it in place. Pig. 2
shows the bottom fixing. This is a solid forging drilled
through the centre to take the pin of the bracket, and
with a clip for the pole fastened to it with a tightening
screw. The bracket (Fig. 1) is turned up at the end,
swelled out and drilled lor a brass tuning to pass
through ; a small eye similarly made is flxed at the
back end of the bracket (see Pig. 3). The brass rod
should have eyes flxed into it about 4 in. apart, as shown
in Fig. 4. To these eyes the curtains hang from brass
hooks. The brass knob at the under side of the solid
bracket rest will keep the bracket tight In its position.
Distance of Stop from Lens in Camera.— There
is no arbitrary rule for finding the distance of the
stop from the lens. It is best discovered by experi-
ment; the point chosen is where the maximum of
sharpness is given with a minimum of distortion. If
distortion is of little consequence, the stop may be
brought forward until Its circle of illumination just
covers the plate and no more. The experiment may be
made in the following manner : — Moi^nt the lens square
in a tube and then choose another tube, 2in. long, sliding
into the first easily. (The second or inner tube may he
made by rolling and pasting paper round a rod built up
to the right size with paper.) At the end of the inner
tube, which must be cut straight and true, fix a black
card having cut In it an opening about one-third the
diameter of the lens or about one-sixteenth the focus.
This, hole represents the stop, and by sliding one tube
withm the other the distance between the stop and the
lens may be adjusted. Place the camera parallel with a
number ot straight, clear lines drawn on paper about
6 in. apart and focus them without the Inner tube till
they are about 1 in. apart. None ot the lines will be
really sharp. Insert the inner tube and push the stop
close against the lens and the definition in the centre
will at once be improved, but the definition at the
margins will be as bad as ever. Now slowly withdraw
the stop and the definition will be seen to'fepread towards
the margins of the screen. As this is done, however,
another evil Is Introduced ; the lines at the margins of
the paper are bent inwards at the ends and outwards in
the centre. This bending of the lines is known a»
distortion, and is the result of using a stop.
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
105
staining Wood in Imitation of Mahogany. — If
tho article is unpolislied, it may be stained with
one pelinywortli of burnt sienna ground in water.
Mix with stale beer, and brush well over, wiping oft the
surplus with rag; two coats may be given. When quite
dry, rub smooth and coat with several applications
of spirit varnish. The colour may be enriched by the
addition of a pennyworth of Bismarck brown to 1 pt.
of varnish applied with a camel-hair brush.
How to Make a Cheap Writing Tablfe.— The accom-
panying illustrations show how to make a small wi-iting
table. The timber used may be common deal, in boards
44 in. wide and I in. thick : 66 It. will be sufadent. Saw
seven lengths for the back, 3 ft. 6 in. long, and twelve
lengths, six for etich side, 2 ft. long. The sides and
back may now be either nailed or dovetailed together.
Dovetailing is best, but it Is the more difficult to do.
If nailing is resorted to, four uprights should be ob-
tained, IJin. by IJin. by 2ft. liln., and one placed ia
each corner, so that the boards may be nailed to them.
"When this has been done, fix the board in front (D, Fig. 1) .
and then naU ledges, level with the bottom of this board.
The following has been given as best for soft stones :—
Take, say, Jib. of putty powder, put it in a jar, cover it
with nitric acid, and place It in the open air, as the
fumes are noxious; let it stand for a day, then pour
off acid and water repeatedly until the water ceases
to be acid. Polish with the residue.
Curing Rabbit Skins.— To cure rabbit skins, mix
bran and three or four times (by measure) as much
boiling water, and add lib. of alum and ilb. of salt
to every gallon of water. Stir to dissolve the salts, and
then cover with a cloth until about new milk warm.
Place the skins in this, and leave for about twenty-four
hours; then dry them in the shade, stretching and
rubbing them well. Stir lip the mixture, and replace the
skins for twenty-four hours; then dry again, repeating
the stretching and rubbing. For large skins, the
rubbing Is supplemented by scraping the flesh side with
a knife to loosen the fibres. Many now make a mixture
of oatmeal and hot water, and before this is c[uite cold
Immerse the skins in it for twenty-four hours, and then
dry and hand rub as before. If the rubbing has been
thorough, the skins should be as soft as chamois leather.
Fig. 2^
How to Maie a Cheap Writing Table.
each side and along the back to support the bottom of
the desk. The bottom may then be put on, but the wood
for this need be only fin. thick (an old egg case will do).
Then the sloping pieces (Pig. 2)should be cut; these
should be cut out of one piece. When these have been
fixed on to the back and sides, the lid ^should be got
ready; it should measure 2ft. 7Jin. by 1ft. 7iin., so
that it wUl leave Jin. projection each side and ^in. in
front. Put the catch of the look on the lid, and fasten
the lid with hinges to the 5-in. board, then secure it to
the sides and back. The supports for the shelf C (Pig. 1)
should be cut as shown. When the shelf has been cut to
the reauired length, 2 ft. 6iin., it should be let into the
shaped sides iin., and nailed. This may now be fixed on
to the top of the desk as shown in Pig. 1, and as there is
i-in. projection at each end, the nails or screws should
be driven upward. The top part of the shelf can be used
for books, etc., and underneath pigeon-holes can be
made, If desirable. Now fit in the lock, cut out the key-
hole, fill up all joints, etc., with putty, and rub all over
the table with glasspaper, and it is ready for staining.
Self-polishing Blacking.— To make blacking that
requires no polishing, take i oz. of treacle, i oz. of lamp-
black, a tablespoonf 111 of yeast, two eggs, ateaspoonful
of olive oil, and a teaspoonful of oil of turpentine ; mix
well, and apply with a sponge.
Polishing Stalactites.— The principal thing in poUsh.
iug stalactites and small stones after they are cut is to
grade the hardness of the polishing material with the
stone to be polished. For cutting a surface level, use
various grades of emery on lead laps, with a separate lap
for each gi'ade of emery. See that all scratches are re-
moved. Por the polishing, on hard wood that wiU not
warp glue a piece of buff leather. On this place a little
putty powder, which, like the emery, must be used wet.
Rule for Velocity of Steam.— It has been found
that the discharge of steam through an opening into
a pressure less than three-fifths the initial is about
900 ft. per second. The following rule has been given
to determine the velocity in feet per second when
steam flows into a vacuum:— To the Fahrenheit tem-
perature of the steam add 460, and multiply the square
root of the sum by 60. The area of pipes for steam
engines should be arranged so that the velocity of the
steam does not exceed 130 ft. per second ; a lower
velocity is better.
Stereoscopic Photography. — Por most subjects,
except Instantaneous stereoscopic work, an ordinary
quarter-plate camera, with one lens only, may he used
ft provision is made for shifting the camera or the
lens from side to side for a distance of from 2iin. to
2}in. ; or if the object itself can be moved the same
relative distance the camera may remain stationary ; or
achromatic lenses, paired lor stereoscopic work, could be
fitted to a half -plate camera. As to plates, in a half -plate
camera double quarter-plates (6i in. by Ijin.) are often
preferred. There should be a partition between the
lenses, and this may easily be made in a square-bellows
camera by pleating some flexible black material over two
slips of elastic and fastening it to hooks in the camera
front and in the back frame.
• Distinguishing Worsted from Cotton Cloth.- The
best way to distinguish a cotton cloth from a worsted
cloth is to unravel the edge, and if of cotton it wUl
have a wiry appearance ; worsted is soft and woolly.
But if there is any doubt, hold the threads over a
lighted lamp beyond the flame ; if of worsted, they will
shrivel up and burn into a black cinder ; if of cotton,
they wUl remain- stiff till they get red hot, when they
will burn into a white ash.
106
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
Dead Black for Interior of Camera.— To make a
duU black stain for the interioi' of a camera , mix powdered
lampblack aud French polish, using of the latter
only just enough to malie the black adhere. Too
much will produce a polished appearance. Another
recipe is : Aniline black, lllO gr. ; gum shellac, 200 gr. ;
methylated spirit, .5c)Z. Dissolve thoroughly, and apply
■with a soft brush quickly. Negative varnish and
powdered lampblack may also be used.
Difference between Linen, Cotton, Wool, and Silk.—
To distinguish the ditfereuce between linen, cotton, wool,
and silk, examine tlie fibres under the microscope with
a moderately low power. It will be found that the linen
or flax ilbres consist of transparent tubes, sometimes
marked with lines and having very small central canals
(see A In the illustration). The cotton fibres consist of
straight or twisted flattened tubes with very lai'ge cen-
tral canals and quite transparent (see B). The wool
fibres are very variable, but consist of a number of plates
or scales built up to form a tube, and the inner tube is
usually more or less coloured in the natural wool (see C) .
The silk fibre is usually very small and perfectly smooth
(see D). The action of chemical agents upon the fibres
depends upon their composition. Flax and cotton are
nearly pure cellulose. By the action of moderately
strong acids, the fibre is somewhat attacked, and the
C D
Magnified Fibres of Linen, Cotton, Wool, and Silk.
result is a parchment-like product: by long-continued
action of strong sulphuric acid, cellulose is converted
into dextrine, and by dilution with water and boiling it
finally becomes glucose (a kind of sugar). Strong nitric
acid converts cotton into nitro-cellulose or gun-cotton.
"Weak alkalies do not aft'ect cotton or ilax ; strong alkalies
toughen the fibre and shrinkit,formingmercerised cotton.
Wool flbi-e has a composition similar to skin, horns, and
feathers, and is composed of nitrogenous material Called
keratin, but contains sulphur also. Dilute acids do not
affect wool ; strong nitric acid and other acids destroy
it, the former first rendering it yellow. Alkalies render
wool very tender ; strong alkalies used hot dissolve wool
completely. Silkeontainsfibroin, gelatine, wax, albumin,
etc. Concentrated acids destroy silk, but dilute acids do
not affect it much ; simply boiling with water removes
the gelatine or sericin, which amounts to about 20 per
cent. Weak alkalies impair the silk, and strong alkalies
easily dissolve the silk entirely.
Drilling Holes in Glass.- To cut a 1-in. hole In a
glass plate a copper tube may be used for drilling. Use
a tube about J in. diameter with the end spread to 1 in.
diameter. Emery powder should be fed inside the tube
to form the cutting material and turpentine used to
dissipate the heat. The tube must, of course, be pressed
on the glass and rotated.
Flattening Buckled Copper. — To flatten copper
that is buckled, hammer the surface with a light
planishing hammer on a bright tinman's anvil, com-
mencing at the end and going backwards and
forwards across the metal with a series of regular blows,
until the entire surface has been covered. Any hollow
places along the centre of the strip must be drawn dowm
flat by hammering from the edge of the hollow out to the
edge of the strip. Should the strip be wavy or loose
along the edge, hammer along just inside the edge and
work back towards the centre of the strip until the edge
is drawn flat.
Private Altar.— For a small private altar which can
be closed when not in use the accompanying figure is
suggested. The dimensions are as follows : Length, 21in.i
projection from wall, 20 in . ! height of altar, 21 in. ; and
height of reredos above altar, 18 in. The ends A A are of
inch board shaped as shown, the back length in each
running up to the top of the reredos, as at B. The front
is chiefly formed of a stout piece of 9-in. board C, pierced
with a medallion of tracery, which is let into the edges
of the end pieces. The spandrels below (D D) are separate
pieces fixed to this board. A similar board, but plain, is
at the back. The front of the super-altar E Is ornamented
with sunken medallions. This rises about i in. above the
altar top F, and might have a projection of .5in. or6in.
The altar top is made to overhang at fi-ont and ends, and
a bold moulding G, mitred at the corners, runs beneath
it. The reredos has a piece H running along its top of
the same width as its ends. Half-inch boarding will do.
Private Altax
for its back, and in order to show up the cross, etc., the
back might be lined with velvet, the Gothic arcade I
being sawn out of thin board, worked up, and fixed upon
the lining. A piece of thin board K, covered with
similar velvet, should be fixed along the top of the
super-altar above its true top, and will serve for the
doors to fold against. The doors L L are hlflged to the
stout end pieces. On their inner sides the panel of eachi
might be gilded In diaper and painted with the gold as a
background -, or it might be lined with velvet, on which
a sacred' monogram or emblem in brass could be fixed.
The outer side of one of the doors is shown with
its panel filled with tracery sawn from thin board,
worked up with chisel and gouge, and fixed upon the
wood.
Iiiquid used for Gold Paint.— In the manufaoturfr
of gold paint pale copal varnish, thinned with turpentine,
is often used. Some gold paints are made with a white
spirit varnish i others are mixed with a medium prepared
by dissolving collodion cotton in amyl acetate and
diluting with petroleum ether. When the bronze powder
has to be mixed with the medium, pale copal varnish,
thinned with turpentine, is very often employed.
Cements for Oil Lubricators. — There are two
suitable cements that will withstand oil and heat. The
first is made by separating the white from the yolk of an
eg^, and mixing the former to a stiff paste with powdered
quicklime. The second cement is made by boiling
together 6 parts of water, 1 part of caustic soda, and
3 parts of resin. When the resin is dissolved, the liquid
is mixed with half its weight of plaster-of-Paris, and at
once used, as both cements set hard in a very short tune.
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
]07
Making Cart Grease.— The materials employed are
resin oils, resin, heavy petroleum, animal greases, soda,
lime, etc. The following may he taken as examples :—
(a) Petroleum residue 40 gal., resin 60 lb., animal grease
501b., caustic soda lye 2igal., salt 5 lb., dissolved in a
little water. The oils are heated together, and the soda
lye and salt gradually stirred In, when partial saponifloa-
tion takes place. (!>) Eesin oil 100 lb., and slaked lime
90 lb. ; heat together, and stir thoroughly until a homo-
geneous mass is formed, (c) Heat together 1 lb. of palm
oil, lib. ot palm oil soap, 551b. of resin oil, ahd then
gradually add, while stirring, 10 lb. or 20 lb. of strong soda
lye, until a uniform paste is formed. These greases
are sometimes mixed with blacklead, or rendered
thicker and more viscous by additions of inert
weighting materials, such as barytes, china clay,
gypsum, etc.
Oven for Case-hardening Cycle Parts.— The con-
struction of an oven for case-hardening cycle parts is
shown in sketch. Pig. 1 is a longitudinal elevation show-
ing the air holes at the sides. These are simply spaces for
half bricks. Fig. 2 is a longitudinal section showing the
brushed over with a varnish made of equal parts of
Canada balsam and spirit of turpentine, and, when dry,
mounted in the usual way. "With care during the process
these slides will almost equal photographic ones both in
transparency and sharpness. The half-tone prints taken
from photogi'aphs make ' excellent slides. Another
aitnple method when hymns or diagrams for educational
purposes are to be thrown on the sheet, is as follows :
Jfirst get some ground glass out to the required
size. Braw the diagram, or write the hymn in a
circle 3 in. in diameter ou paper. Lay the glass on
the drawing, or writing, ground side upwards, trace
over the lines with a sharp-pointed F pencil, or with
Indian ink, using a small mapping pen. Float with
the Canada balsam varnish by holding the glass at one
corner, pour the varnish on the centre, spread it by
rocking the glass backwards and forwards until the
whole of the glass is covered, and drain off the surplus
back Into the bottle at one corner. "When dry the slide is
ready for mounting.
White Acid for Glass Embossing.— Hydrofluoric acid,
diluted with water, is principally used in glass etching,
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Fig. 2
Oven for Case-hardening Cycle Parts.
brickwork construction, the outside being best red
ordinary bricks with an inside lining of best quality
firebricks. The hardening box is shown in position m
the centre of the fire. Pig. 3 is a cross-section, not, how-
ever, taken through the air-holes. The size of the oven
must be regulated by the size of the articles to be
hardened. A good size for ordinary work would be 6 it.
or 3 ft. 6 in. long by 2 ft. wide.
Easily-made Lantern Slides.— To make these, some
glass cut to the size of the lantern slide, and some
prints about the size of the slide, must be selected.
A series illustrating travels or manufacture wiU be
found a very suitable subject. The pri;it is well
covered with starch p^ste on the picture side, and
• laid on one of the pieces of glass, the surplus paste
being worked from the centre to the edge with a piece
of cloth wrapped over a <?ork. Great care must be taken
that the paper adheres to the glass, no air bubbles
being allowed to remain between the glass and the paper.
When dry, with a rubber made of a piece of cork covered
with the finest glasspaper, work the back of the picture
off until there is only a thin film of paper left, care being
taken that the paper is not rubbed through to the glass.
To get an even thickness, hold the slide up to the light,
when the thickest parts will show dark ; these spots
must be worked carefully off until the whole surface is
of an even transparency. If desired, the picture may
now be tinted with transparent colours. The shdeis now
but there are several fluorides used lor the purpose-
Fluoride of ammonia is formed by adding ammonia to
hydrofluoric acid until it is nearly saturated ; if a slight
excess of ammonia is added so that the mixture smells of
it, and then a little more acid be mixed with this, the
fluoride will be suitable lor glass etching. The fluoride
of ammonia is placed on. the glass and allowed to dry,
when the etching effect then becomes apparent. Another
etching fluid is made by dissolving 25 parts of fluoride of
potassium, 25 parts of hydro.chloric acid, and li parts of
sulphate of potash in 100 parts of water. .Another solution
is made by dissolving 10 parts of carbonate of soda and
10 parts of carbonate of potash in 40 parts of warm water,
and then adding 20 parts of concentrated hydrofluoric
acid and 10 parts of sulphate of potash previously
dissolved In 10 parts of water.
Weight of Cast-iron Balls, — To calculate the
weights, first determine the contents of the balls in
cubic inches, and then multiply by "26. To find the
contents of a sphere or ball in cubic inches, cube the
diameter in inches (that is, multiply It by itself, and
then the product by itself), and multiply by -526. Thus,
the contents of a 7-in. ball equals 7 x 7 x 7 x -526 =
179'6 cub. in., and the weight of the ball is 179-6 x,-26 =
46-8 lb. The weight of east iron per cubic inch varies
from ■251b. to ■271b. A simpler method of determining
the weight in pounds is to cube the diameter in iiiohea-
and then multiply by '136.
lOS
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
Solutions for Silvering Glass.— (a) Dissolve 60 grains
of silver nitrate in loz. or water, and pour tliis solution
quioldy into a boiling solution, of 48 grains of Roohelle
salt in about 1 oz. of water. On cooling, Alter the liquid,
and make t n to 12 fi. oz. with distilled water. (6) Dissolve 60
grains of silver nitrate in 1 oz. of water, then add ammonia
until the precipitate Is nearly re-dissolved, and make up
to 12 fl. oz., as before. For silvering, equal volumes of
these liquids are mixed just previous to using. Another
formula is : (a) Dissolve 48 grains of silver nitrate in
1 oz. of distilled water, and add ammonia till precipitate
is nearly dissolved, filter the solution, and make up to
12 fl. drachms with water, (b) Dissolve 12 grains of
Eochelle salt in 1 oz. of distilled water, boil, and add while
boiling 2 grains of nitrate of silver previously dissolved
in 1 drachm of water, cool, filter, and make up to 12 fi.
drachms. Mix equal proportions as stated above.
Covering Circular Frames with Plush.— Take a
circular piece of plush, 2 in. to liln. larger in diameter
than the frame, out all round the edges to the depth of
plush that will overlap the frame ; lay the plush right side
down on the table without creasing it, apply round the
front of the frame a touch of glue, which must be strong
and not watery. Then lay the frame on the plush, and
strain it tight by pulling it With the hands ; then by
different stages apply the glrie at the back and overlap
the overhanging plush, tailing Sin. or 4 in. at a
time (see A, Pie. 1). Press the plush into contact with
the wood with a bone paper-knife or piece of wood. When '
completed and nicely set, with tailor's chalk draw a circle
In tlie centre of the plush, then cut it out with scissors ;
leave a margin of lin. or I in., so as to overlap on the
rebate of frame. To get the circle easily, a dinner plate
may be employed as a guide. After cutting out the circle
FiQ. 1 FiQ. 2
Covering Circular Frames with Plush.
■with scissors, cut the inner edge all round to the
required depth. It requires great care not to cut too
far, but just so that ■ it will overlap and fit snug (see B,
Pig. 2). Press it well into the rebate, a little at a time.
, SelectlnjS Portland Stone. — The chief points in
Hhe selection of Portland stone for building pur-
poses depend npon the purpose for which the stone
is required. There are four distinct kinds, of which
three are usually sent into the market. The best is
True Koach, 2 ft. or 3 ft. thick, consisting of a mass
■of fossils united by a cement composed of carbonate
of lime, r'i-tinguished from Bastard Eoach by its con-
taining tue Portland screw fossil ; it is much used in
engineering works. The Whitbed is the most useful
Portland stone, consisting of fine oolitic grains, well
cemented together, with a small amount of shelly matter
at intervals. It is a good weathering stone, will take a
fine surface and a sharp arris, and is used for the finest
ashlar work. Basebed is very similar in appearance to
Whitbed, but of a less roe-like texture when examined
through a magnifying glass, and more free from shelly
matter. Being more uniform in texture and softer to
work; it is preferred by masons, but does not weather so
well. It is useful for internal work and carving, and is
generally known as "best-bed." All stone should be
lid on its natural bed, but in Portland stone it is not so
easy to detect this as in more laminated stones.
Making Marking Inks.— The only really reliable
■marking inks that will not wash out of linen, apart from
stamping inks, are those that contain compounds of
eilver, gold, or platinum. Silver inks are indelible as
long as the fabric lasts, but they become paler as the
fabric wears away. Ohloride of lime or eau-de-javelle
bleaches silver marking ink, the action being to convert
the black metallic silver into white silver chloride. The
following recipes are for silverinks -.—{a) Mtrate of silver
17 parts, ammonia 42 parts, carbona'tfe of soda 22 parts,
tm 20 parts, sulphate of copper 33 parts, distilled water
parts. Dissolve the carbonate of soda in 25 parts of
water, the gum in 50 parts of water, and the nl-trate of
silver in 10 narts of water. To the solution of nitrate
of silver add the ammonia and shake thoroughly ; mix
the solutions of gum and carbonate of soda and add -to
the silver solution ; finally add the sulphate of copper and
shake till dissolved, (b) Dissolve 2 dr. of nitrate of silver
In lioz. of water and add strong ammonia gradually
until the precipitate which first forms isjust re-dissolved,
make up to 2 oz. with water, and colour with a little
indigo e.rtraot, sap green, or any suitable aniline colour.
It is usual to press a hot iron upon the marking so that
the ink may decompose and the silver be reduced.
Making Gold Cardboard Mounts.— The openings or
slnldngs of cardboard mounts are cut from close-grained
board made for the purpose. The surface of the out-out
mount is coated with gilders' thin matt size, which is
made by mixing fairly strong size with the raw material.
Generally two or three coatings will be necessary, each
coat being allowed to dry thoroughly. The surface Is
next papered down with old emery-papei', washed,
polished, and finally covered with English gold leaf.
Much experience is required In this particular branch of
gilding. The primary cause of failure is in getting the
matt size and subsequemt weak sizes too strong.
Apparatus for Distilling Water. — The stm may
be made from a large Iron Ijettle and the condenser
from a coil of tin pipe placed in a pail of cold
water. In the kettle lid bore a 1-in. hole and solder
into it a bent piece of pure tin pipe. Box-e a 1-in. hole in
the side of a wooden lard bucket and make a coil from
three or four turns of the tin pipe ; pass one end through
Apparatus for Distilling Water.
the hole in the bucket and cement it in with white lead.
Stand the bucket on a stool so that the tin coil can be
connected to the tube in the kettle by means of a small
piece of rubber tube. The water to be condensed may
be conveyed to the Ijuoket by means of a small rubber
tube or a length of compo pipe, and may be syphoned
away from the top of the bucket by a bent piece of
compo pipe. The Kettle should be about three-fourths
flUed vntli tap water through the spout, which is then
corked, and the kettle is heated on the fire or gas stove ;
the first small quantity of water which distils into the
bottle should be thrown away and the distillation stopped
before the residue is dry. Por drinking purposes, the
distilled water should be passed through a charcoal
filter to aerate it. The sketch shows the distilling and
condensing arrfvugement.
Making Purse Nets for Catching Babbits.-
Purse rabbit nets are square worked on a 2-in. mesh,
using ten or twelve rows of the same number of stitches.
Flax sewing twine, bought in skeins, is suitable. The
draw line can be rove thi'ough all meshes round the net,
and attached to a brass ring for pegging over the rabbit s
hole, or a ring may be hitched to each corner and the
line rove through the rings only, in which case the Uue
is pegged over the hole and not a ring.
Removing Enamel from Mahogany.-To remove
enamel from mahogany panels, take a bucketful of
freshly made limewash and add 2 lb. of common
washing soda. Ai^ply to the panels with an old brush.
Several applications may be necessary. As the enamel
softens, isci-ape olE with a wedge-shaped piece of wood.
Swill off with plenty of clean water. Should this treat-
ment turn the panels darker in tone than ..desired, the
colour may be restored again by wiping over with oxalic
acid, Joz. to Ipt. of water. Swill off again with clean
water, then wipe over with common vinegar to remove
any trace of acid.
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
109
Transfer and Re-transfer Papers for Lithograpby.
—To make yellow transfer paper, mix together equal
quantities of best flake white and isinglass or gelatine,
adding sufficient gamboge to give the required tint. Put
the ingredients in water, and heat them over a slow fire
until dissolved. Then strain the mixture through a
piece of muslin to get rid of the coarser particles, and,
while it Is still quite warm, spread it, by means of a large
flat camel-hair brush, on one side of smooth, thin paper
cut to convenient sizes. The paper, when dry, should be
passed through the press over a heated lithographic
stone. To make re-transfer paper, mix in tepid water
one part of best ground plaster-of-Paris with three parts
of shoemakers' paste free from alum, adding a small
quantity of dissolved patent glue. Strain through
double muslin into a ,iar, and spread cool, with a flat
camel-hair brush, on rather thick paper.
Replacing a Broken or Cracked Window Pane.—
Knock out the old glass and putty. This can be done
with an old knife worn down to about 2 In. or Sin.
from' the handle. When the knife has made its way
into the putty, keep it flat against the window frame
and hit it with a hammer. Work all round the frame in
this manner until all the old putty is removed, care
being taken not to chip the window frame by driving in
the knife too far. The putty being removed, get a little
paint, and apply it all round the rebate of the frame, and
after it has dried a little take some fresh putty in the
right hand and press a thin layer round the frame with
the thumb. Put in the pane of glass, press it evenly all
round to bed It in the putty, and fix it on each side with
two small tacks driven into the window frame with a
light hammer, allowing the heads of the tacks to protrude
about J in. Putty the outside of the pane all round and
bevel it with a sharp knife, resting against the edge of the
Replacing Broken Window.
window frame and on the glass in the manner illustrated,
pressing the thumb against the side A. The figure also
shows the cut putty at B, the uncut putty at 0, a portion
of the framing at D, and the window pane at E. The glaz-
ing is completed when the surplus putty on the inside has
been removed. When ordering glass to be cut to size, first
take the exact measurements of the window frame, and
dedjUCt iVin. from each edge, or Jin. from two sides;
thus : if the window frame is iSin. by 9 in., the glass will
be llfin. by Sfin., so that if the glass or frame is not quite
square the glass will- still fit in, besidse allowing the
putty to bed against the edges. Putty can be softened
with linseed oil, and is best kept In a can and covered
over with the oil.
Vignetting Apparatus for Photographs. — The
covers and bottoms of old plate boxes in which
-a hole with scalloped edges has been cut answer very
well. They will stand some J in. away from the negative
—an essential in securing, a soft vignette. The opening
should be smaller than the size of the desired vignette,
because the light spreads under the box. For head and
shoulders, a pear shape is about the best; where thin
portions of the negative occur under the vignette, cover
with a piece of cotton-wool, pulling the edge loose. If
the negative is thin or the light very bright, the whole
should be covered with tissue paper.
Polishing the Paneis of a Brougham.— After the
carriage has the full amount of varnish on, it must stand
by for at least four months for the varnish to get
thoroughly hard ; it may then be very lightly faced down
with pumice-stone and Tvater, and polished up with
rotten-stone and linseed oil, using a rubber of some
soft material. Should it have a dull look when finished,
owing perhaps to too much oil being used, rub over
briskly with a mixture of equal parts' of vinegar and oil
applied with a pad of cotton wadding.
Speeds for Turning and Boring Metals.— For turning
cast iron the speed of the job past the tool may be 150 in.
to 190 in. per minute; for wrought iron. 260 in. to 280 in.
per minute ; for yellow brass, 300 in. per minute ; and for
chilled rolls, 3 ft. per minute. In boring, the following
speeds are recommended :— For cast iron, 80 in. per
minute, and for wrought iron, IV) in. per minute. For
screw-cutting in steel a suitable speed Is 7itt. per
minute ; it, however, should depend on the nature of the
material, Bessemer steel, for instance, being turned or
screw-cut at a higher speed than cast steel. To deter-
mine approximately the peripheral! speed of the .iob in
inches per minute, multiply its diameter in inches
by 3f, or by 3'14I6, and by the revolutions per minute.
Gilding Lines on a Boat.— To apply transfer gold leaf
to gilt lines, rub the varnish down smooth and paint the
lines to be gilded with equal parts of good oak varnish and
.iapanners' gold size, into which has been worked a little'
powdered chrome or ochre- In albout half an hour, when
" tacky," apply the leaf ; press in contact, and dust off the
surplus with a camel-hair brush when the whole is finished.
Converting Oak Branches to Charcoal.— When
oak branches are so small that useful wood cannot
be got out of them, perhaps the best way to utilise
them would be to convert them to charcoal. Small
branches are, however, not the best for making char-
coal ; large branches that can be sawn into 3-ft. or
I-ft. lengthsi are most suitable ; they lie close, andthere
is not an exce8si'\'e waste during burning. With small
branches the labour of cutting up will be found to be very
heavy ; but if they were not out up the branches would
occupy very much space and the loss during burning
would be heavy. The branches may be cut up and then
stacked in a circular mound, as shown in the figui-e.
First of all, three or four wood piles should be driven
into the . ground close together, so as to form a rough
chimney. A ring should be marked around these piles,
and four to eight shallow furrows should be ploughed in
the ground from the edge of the ring to the central piles.
CortVerting Oak Branches to Charcoal.
The wood may now be stacked around the piles and
heaped closely till it forms a mound nearly as high as
the piles and nearly as large as the ring. As a protective
covering, the whole mound will now have to be
covered with earth, turf, or wet clay. When this is
finished, the central piles may be removed, and lighted
brands placed in the mouths of the furrows, when the
draught produced by the central chimney will soon
cause the heap to ignite. The burning should be carried
on slowly ; when the heat becomes excessive, it may
be moderated by placing a piece of turf over the furrow
and damping the earth. When smoke ceases to issue
from the chimney, turf or earth should be placed over
the furrows, and the whole of the covering well damped.
The pile should be allowed to , cool somewhat before
it is pulled down.
Cooling Air.— A simple method of cooling air which is
drawn by a fan from the outer atmosphere is to make a
frame and cover it with coarse canvas or cloth having
large interstices, and across the top of the frame carry a
pipe vrith small holes bored in it ?o that water can be
made to trickle slowly over the whole of the cSinvas. The
water could be c6oled with a little ice if necessary.
There must be a trough or channel to receive the water
at the bottom of the canvas, and -the frame must be
erected to fit an opening so that the whole of the
incoming air will pass through the canvas. Have the
frame of good size so that the air will not be forced
through it too swiftly.
Brush Polish for American Organs.— For a dull
finish almost any kind of soft gum varnish is gener-
ally considered good enough; for a bright finish the
following formula is recommended: Shellac loz., sand-
arach 3oz., Venice turpentine loz., oil of turpentine
Joz., camphor 10 gr., methylated spirit Ipt. Carefully
strain before use ; apply with a camel-hair brush. The
best results are obtained when the work is clone in
a hot room. When many coats are applied, sufficient
time should he allowed for the undercoat to harden
properly, otherwise " checking" or shrinking, causing a
cobweb appearance, will be the result. This fault is not
so apparent on dull as on bright finished goods.
110
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
Applying Gold Bronze to Picture Frames Mix
the bronze with japanners' gold size and turpentine,
and use it with a good body. The paint will never look
equal to gold leaf; its durability wiU be increased,
however, by coating with varnish.
Door Curtain to Contain Autographs.— A suggestion
is here given for carrying out a design of an aiitograph
door curtain, to be worked with coloured silk on a cloth
f round. , The curtain is 8ft. long by lit. in width,
'he border is arranged to have a scroll of leaves on a
stem, the leaves being worked all over so tis to give
Design for Door Curtain.
a mass of dark colour. If the leaves are shaded
green and the stems a rich brown a good effect will
be produced. Winding round this wreath is a ribbon
on which the autogi-aph might be sewn ; this, will give at
pretty appearan ce without detracting from the general
artistic effect. The scroll across the Upper section ol the
dado of the curtain is also arranged to take autograplis.
This dado should be filled in with dark masses of colour.
The central portion of the curtain might contain the
outlines and stems of the leaves worked in shaded silk,
the branches being in shaded browns, and a little more
fully worked than the leaves. The fruit might be in
silk of a brighter colour so as to add brilliance to the
composition. The leaves and fruit may be used for the
autographs it required, that Is to say if the spaces in the
border and the top of the dado are not sufflolent ; but It,
is suggested that the autographs should be placed on the
^rult first and then on the leaves, as the artistic effect
will be better. The colouring must be left to the taste
of the worker, and will depend much on the colour
of the cloth adopted for the curtain.
Projection of Spiral Curves.— Assuming a parallel
spiral, the method to be adopted is the same as that
for the projection of a helix or single spiral line on
a geometrical cylinder. The points A, B, o, D, in the
accompanying illustration, when projected, give the
Projection of Spiral Curves.
lines in the elevation, while points E and T give the
diameter of the cylinder. The left-hand figure shows
the geometrical outlines, and the right-hand figure the
shaded result. '
Gold-lining Picture Mounts.— To gold-line mounts lor
pictures, prepare a solution of strong gum arable, and add
a small quantity of moist sugar ; strain through muslin.
Placing a ruler where the line is raguired, with a quill
make a full line of gum. In a fewTninutes the gum will
become "tacky," and gold leaf, cut ill very narrow strijis,
may be applied with a tip, dabbed down and skewed In in
the usual way. This process will give a clean, durable
line. Gold lines made by applying gold paint turn blaek
in a very short time.
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
Ill
Keeping Water in Gas-holder from Freezing.—
Mii the water with commercial glycerine, or use a
solution of calcic chloride instead of water in the tank.
The most practical way of getting over the difficulty,
howcTer, is to insert a steam pipe into the tank of the
holder, and during frosty weather to pass steam through
the pipe, taking care not to allow the temperature of the
water to get too high.
Finishing Piano Gases.— Most Tarnished surfaces
•can ho got to a dead level and brilliant gloss by iirst
rubbing level with hair cloth or felt and finest-grade
pumice powder, and bringing upithe gloss with tripoll,
crocus, rouge, or putty powder. All inecLualities being
removed, rub carefully with tripoli and oil, working
with a circular motion till the surface is perfectly
smooth and inclines to brightness. Wipe off all
greasiness and well rub with dry putty and silk, and
finally finish with flour, still using silk or the palm of
the hand, which should be perfectly clean. It will re-
(luire practice to find the most suitable varnish and the
knack of imparting a brilliant gloss over the large
■surface of a piano.
Forming Concrete Window Sills and Heads.—
Make wooden moulds, wrought inside, of the dimen-
sions and shapes of the heads and sills, arranging one
side to be removable, as shown in the sketch. Wedges
driven through iron straps tighten up the mould when it
is to be used. For the concrete, take one part by measure
of Portland cement, one part of clean sharp sand, and
three or four parts of broken stone, gravel, or broken
pump is shut off and the gaiige carefully watched. It
all the fittings are sound, the level of the water in the
pressure gauge will remain constant. If , on the contrary,
there is the slightest leak, the lictuid in the pressure
gauge will gradually sink until it attains the same level
in both limbs of the gauge.
Waterproofing Grey Millboards.- Dissolve lib. of
yeUow so<^p in a gallon of warm water ; also dissolve 1 lb.
of alum in a gallon of warm watef. Bip the millboard
for a few seconds in the soap solution, and directly
afterwards into the alum bath, and then allow to dry.
Another method of applying the waterproof solution
Is to add the alum solution to the soap solution, collect
the precipitate on a piece of muslin and dry it, then
place it in a bottle and add a little benzoline; the
alumina soap will gradually dissolve in this, and may
be thinned with more benzoline so that it can be applied
to the millboard with a brush.
Removing Oil - painted Letters from Glass. —
Brush over the letters a strong solution of caustic
soda, or a mixture of 2 parts of ^earlash, 1 part of quick-
lime, and suf&cient water to make it into a cream. Allow
the llqviids to remain on the glass fora fewminutes, and
then wash off with water. A second application may be
made if the first does not remove the whole of the paint.
Making Soap Box and Tumhler Rack,— Any odd
pieces of souijd wood f in. or J in. thick may be used to
make the article illustrated, and the several pieces
when cut out are put together with round brass-headed
Forming Concrete Window Sills and Heads.
brick of, say, 1-in. gauge. Turn these over on a boarded
platform while they are dry, then, while water is being
Bprinlded on from a watering-can, turn the whole over
twice or thrice, taking care not to use more water than
is necessai-y to bring the cement and sand to the con-
sistency of good mortar. The mould in the meantime
should be coated inside with linseed oil or soft soap to
Srevent the concrete sticking. It is laid on a boarded
oor, and the concrete is filled in and punned with a
rammer to well fill the corners of the mould and to ensure
solidity. Leave the concrete about I in. below the top of
the mould, and float up this portion with a i^ixture of
equal parts cement and sand, so as to form a skin of finer
stuff for the surface that will be exposed to view. The
mould must now be left undisturbed for two or three
days, when the wedges may be knocked out and the
vrindow-head removed. Before being used, the latter
should be stacked away for ten or twelve weeks— the
longer the better— to bring out the strength of the
cement. SiUa can be made in the same way, but the
moulds are a little more elaborate.
YeUow Finish on School Furniture.— To obtain the
yellow or amber tone seen on chairs and stools used in
schools and clubs, dark-coloured shellac is generally
used if the articles are finished by French polish or
spirit varnish. A more prominent colour may be gained
by rubbing over with linseed oil and yellow ochre. For
deal goods, size with patent size strongly tinted with
yellow ochre or lemon chrome. For best-class goods the
varnish may be tinted with gamboge or madder.
Testing Gaspipes and Fittings for Soundness.—
The most satisfactory method of testing the sound-
ness of gaspipes and fittings is to subject them to air
Sressure in excess of the pressure of the gas which will
ow through them. All cocks having been carefully shut
off, an ordinary pressure gauge is attached, by means of
a piece of Indiarubber tubing, to the nozzle of a gas
bracket or pendant, and the cock turned on. Air is then
forced into the main service pipe by means of an ordinary
force pump provided with a stop-cock, until a pressure of
about 4 in. or 5 in. of water is shown on the pressure
gauge, when the cock in communication with the lorce
Fig I FIG. 2
A Soiip Box and Tumblei' Rack,
screws. The back l)f>ard measures 144 in. long by Sin,
wide, and the side pieces 12in. long by 51 in. at the
widest 5!»rt. The tumbler rack is cut from a piece of
wood 5 in. by 4iin., and shaped as shown in Fig. 4, a
round hole being cut in the centre to receive the
tumbler. After all the ijieces are cut to their proper
shape, rub them well with sandpaper, and fix them
together. Two or three coats of oil or varnish will help
to preserve the wood from continual dampness.
Preparing End Grain Wood for French Folishing.
--Cabinet-makers finish the end grain of wood ready for
polishing with a finely set iron-faced plane, and where
this does not leave the wood sufficiently smooth the steel
scraper may be used. Some cabinet-makers use glass-
paper held tightly over a pad isf cork, wiping over with
glue water or polish to raise or swell the grain during
the operation. As this dries out it binds the fibres
together, thus producing a hard, di-yi smooth surface.
Making Stercotyper's Flong.— Plong may be made
with two sheets of soft but tough matrix paper and
four sheets of strong tissue, put together with
stercotyper's paste. The paste recommended by an
American authority upon stereotyping consists of
6Ub. of Oswego starch, 2Ub. of wheat flour, mixed in
6 gal. of water until all lumps are dissolved. Add 12 oz.
of common glue dissolved in 2qt. of water, and 2oz.
of powdered alum. Boil^ stirring constantly, until
the mixture becomes sufficiently thick. Let it get cold -,
then take what is required for a day's lise, and add
one-half the bulk of powdered whiting. Incorporate
thoroughly, and pass the mixture through a sieve having
about twenty meshes to the inch. Lay one sheet of the
matrix paper (previously soaked in water) on a smooth fiat
surface ; cover with athin layer of tbepaste, well rubbed
in. Next lay on a sheet of tissue, and smooth it down
with the utmost care, using either the hand alone or an
iron roller. Then add paste and paper alternately until
four sheets of tissue have been added to the two sheets
of matrix paper. Backing paper may be added after the
flong has been beaten into form. If placed under a wet
blanket, the fiong will keep good for several days.
112
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
Facing and Staining Picture Frame Mouldings.
—Patent or glue size and best wMting mixed and
spread on like paint is generally used ; several coats may-
be given. Or plaster-ot-Paris and whiting in equal parts
could be used. When quite dry, smooth down with
glasspaper or, better still, pieces of pumiee-stone of
various shapes to fit the hollows, rounds, etc., usi-ng a
coat of thinned-out whiting and size as a lubricant,
wiping off the surplus with rag and clean water. To
stain black, mix a quantity of vegetable black or lamp-
black in 1 part French polish and 3 parts spirit. Then
polish with ordinary polish stained an intense black by
adding a small qviantity of aniline black spirit dye.
Polishing Razors.— To remove from a hollow razor
the marks caused by grinding, a glazer is required.
This may be of wood only, or wood covei-ed with leather
on the edge, which must be dressed with emery of the
various grades. The razor must be laid lengthways on
the glazer. ThS polishing should be effected with
crdcus powder. The emery powder and oCocus must be
mixed with mutton suet to a thick paste.
Re-colourlng Bronzes.— Imitation bronzes, made of
spelter metal, may be restored by careful washing,
polishing with soft chamois leather, and lacquering warm
with best silver lacquer. Ee-bronzing must be done by
electro deposit. Eeal bronzes may be restored by com-
pletely covering them in the sand of a brass and copper
foundry, taking them out from time to time at intervals
of two or three days, and rubbing them with soft
chamois leather. When the desired colour is obtained
they may be lacquered with colourless lacquer; or if not
lacquered, they will, if rubbed from time to time, improve
in colour.
Making Saucepan Covers. — Saucepan covers of
copper and tin are made In two shapes, as shown in
section by Figs, 1 and 2. To make a cover like Fig. 1,
with the buiTlng machine, throw off a flange along the
top edge of the rim. Now with the same machine take
up on the covers an edge of such a size that the flange
of the rim will fit into it. Pene down the edge of the
cover upon the flange of the rim. Cut out a handle a»
shown in Fig. i, wire It along both edges, bend it to the
shape shown by Pig. 5, and rivet on.
Background for Photographic Portraiture.— For a
background for full and three-quarter length por-
traits, a light bluish grey is the best colour. It should
not be a flat tint, but graduated with soft clouds o"
various shades. To make such backgrounds requires
considerable skill. As a makeshift for occasional
work, the sheet may be stained with coffee to a light
brown. If it is to receive a flood of light.it may be darker,
and if in the shade, lighter. The exact tint is best found
by experience. Or Maypole soap may be used, in which
case an orange yellow should be chosen. In any case,
the background should be stretched tight on a frame or
suspended from a roller with a rod at the bottom.
Creases are very objectionable.
Making a Plaster Relief from a Fhotogriiphic
Negative.— To make a bas-relief in plaster-of-Paris
from a photographic negative, the process briefly is;a8
follows :— Soak a sheet of No. i gelatine in a solution of
bichromate of potash, made by dissolving I dr. of bichro-
mate in 6 oz. of water j allow this to dry slowly (generally
taking twenty-four hours) in contact with waxeii or
French-chalked glass. The glazed surface thus obtained
is placed in contact with a suitable negative, that is, one
containing considerable contrast combined with good
gradation, and exposed to the light. In half an hour, or
In Ave or six hours, according to the strength of the
light, a faint image will have been printed on the gela-
tine. When printed, the gelatine is firmly cemented to
a sheet of glass with Isinglass or other powerful adhesive,
and allowed to soak in oold water for about six hours.
bend a thin strip of metal to the shape of the section ;
this strip of metal when straightened out flat will
five the diameter of the circle for the cover in the flat,
f a number of covers of one diameter are required, they
are usually hollowed in " tacks " of four or six, according
to the strength of the material. A wood block containing
a slight hollow and a bullet-faced hammer are required.
Hold the edge of the covers over the hollow in the clock,
and, using the roundest face of the hammer, drive the
metal down to the hollow, working round the edge with
regular blows, and continue working round in a series
of concentric circles towards the centre until the cover
is hollowed to the desired height. Again commencing
at the edge, with light, regular blows, go once more over
the hollowed surface until It is smooth. Now separate
the covers, and, with a burring machine, throw off a
flange proportionate to the size required (usually about
I in. to 4 in.). The cover shown In Fig. 2 is begun in the
same way as Fig. 1, but when hollowing it Is pitched up
in a deeper hollow with the heel of the hammer, or with
a hammer specially made for the purpose, until the ridge
shown in the illustration is formed and the outer edge is
left all puckered. Assuming that the cover is to be
finished without the use of a swage, the edge on the top
of the cover should be worked up sharp with a mallet
upon a bright round head ; then form the side of the
ridge, worked round carefully, with a square-faced
hammer (the front edge of which has been rounded off)
upon a bevel stake. The outer flange may then be
thrown off upon a briglit anvil, using a mallet to remove
the puckers, and a round-faced bright hammer to work it
down to the shape. The cover should then be planished
smooth and true, and the top also planished to finish it.
From this point the working of botn covers is the same.
Cut from an arc of a circle, equal in length to the
circumference of the body the coyer is to fit, a rim about
I in. deep, with allowances for flanging and edging, as
shown by Pig. 3; then work over an edge along the
dotted line on the inner curve, and flatten this edge
down so as to stiffen the rim. Turn the rim round, fit it
to the body, and solder it together at the ends. Then,
afterwards soaking for a further time iu a 1 in 4 solution
of citric acid, and finally in water. When the utmost
possible amount of relief has been obtained, the super-
fluous moisture is carefully removed with the edge of a
blotting board, and oil is poured over the gelatine
mould, and then drained off. The gelatine relief is
then placed in a dish, and the plaster poured over it
and allowed to set, after which the relief may be pulled
off. The relief thus obtained is generally rather false
owing to differences in colour— particularly it isoohro-
matic plates are not used— being grossly exaggerated.
Huch may be done by skilful retouching.
Gold Veins In Book Bdge Marbling.— The gold
veins in marbled paper, or on the marbled edges of
books, may be produced as follows ;— Let the rest of
the marbling be thoroughly dry. Then beat well
together 1 part white of egg, 1 part spirit of wine,
2 parts water. Let the mixture get clear, then wet a
small portion of gold powder (shell gold will do), mixing
well with the finger, and apply with a small camel-hair
pencil. Let it get thoroughly dry before burnishing,
which should be done with a polisher made only
moderately warm. The beginner should make several
experiments before proceeding with the actual work.
Waterproof Dressing for Overalls. — Unbleached
calico or drill sheeting is generally used for making over-
alls i all the seams should be double seam. For a dress-
ing, really good boiled oil is perhaps the most durable,
though some sailors prefer raw oil, but both take a long
time to dry and are apt to become sticky. The following
is safer for oilskins not In constimt use : boiled oil 8
parts, turps 2 parts, and melted beeswax 1 part. Warm the
oil, add the wax, stir in the turps, and apply warm. The
first coat must be well rubbed In. In an hour or so wipe
off any surplus that may have drained down to the lower
edge. When thoroughly dry, add equal parts of boiled oil
to the former mixture, and lampblack or ochre as
desired. With this paint give the material two more
coats, letting each dry thoroughly in a cool, shady place.
Cyclopsedia of Mechanics.
113
Remedy for Smoky Chimney.— The most prolific
cause of smoking with open ranges is the large open space
that exists over the range and forma the mouth o£ the
chimney. The draught in these ranges is not very keen
at the hest, and the large area allows quite cold air to
rest there and to pass freely into the chimney, with the
worst possible results on the up-draught ot smolte and
heated air. This is OTercome by the use of a blower,
which is a sheet of metal carried across the front of the
range opening at the top, from jamb to jamb of the
mantelpiece. This causes all air entering the chimney
to come closer down to the fire and recei¥e warmth, for
while cold air impedes the up-draught, hot air acceler-
ates it. A cranked metal pot will often prevent the
down-draught, whilst a blower .will stop the general
smoking. The blower can be made temporarily of card-
board or paper to find the depth req.uii'ed.
How to Make a Metalworkers' Mandrel Dolly.—
A mandrel dolly is made by first fixing the mandrel
securely to a strongly made bench, by means of iron
clamps passing over the square end of the mandrel, and
holding them in position by nuts and bolts, as shown.
On the end of the hammer shaft an iron hinge is fixed,
fill it, so as to allow of frothing. The lyes are made by
, adding caustic soda to water. Two lyes are often em-
ployed, and usually three, one at 10° Tw. (4 per cent.) , one
at 16" Tw. (6i per cent.), and the other at 24° Tw. (8i per
cent.). The fat is run into the pan, and the weaker
alkali is gradually added while boiling; the stronger
alkali is then added, and the mass boiled for several
hours until clear. The pan is then allowed to settle, salt
added, and, after thorough stirring, the waste lye may
be run from the bottom of the pah. The strongest lye
may now be added gradually, boiling and stlrrinK
thoroughly until the soap boils clear; then allow to
settle again, and run off the soap into frames, taking
care that any waste lye at the bottom does not go along
with it. The strength and amount ot the different lyes
vary, but on the average 151b. to 161b. ot caustic soda
are employed for 100 lb. of fat.
Stltclilng a Square Edge to the Cushion of a Couch.
—To stitch up the front edge of a couch seat so as to
procure and retain a fine point, the tools required are a
double-pointed 8-in. mattress needle, a reeulator, which is
something like a broad flat packing needle, and a ball ot
strong twine. Insert the regulator about 4 in. from the
How to IVIalie a MetalworkeiB' Mandrel Dolly.
and when this is done, the hammer should be held fiat
and true in position upon the mandrel, and the position
at which the vertical part of the hinge is to be fastened
to the upright carefully marked. Then secure the hinge
in the required position. Now fasten a stont lath of
ash, to act as a spring, at the top ot the, upright beam to
an iron bracket, as shown, and over the opposite end of
the lath fasten a leather strap ; then fasten the lower
end of the strap round the hammer shaft, so that the
hammer is heldT suspended about 8 in. above the work.
When using the hammer, grasp the shaft close to the
hammer head, and swing it down against the resistance
of the ash lath to produce a blow upon the mandrel.
Paste for Laying Linoleum and Oilcloth. — To
make cheap fiour paste suitable for laying linoleum and
oilcloth, mix rye nour with a little cold water, then add
boiling water, well stirring the paste while the water is
being poured. Melt some glue size and add to the paste
while both are hot. Stir well. The more size is added the
greater the strength ot the paste. As a rule, " Inlaid "
linoleums require very strong paste. A little alum
dissolved in the paste is a preservative. It the paste is
too thin, boil it, to evaporate some of the water.
Converting Bacon Cuttings Into Soap.' — The
fat is first rendered in a large cylinder vrith an
inlet for steam, exits for water and melted fat, man-
holes for charging and withdrawing fat, a false bottom
for the latter to rest on, and a safety valve weighted
to a pressure of two or three atmospheres, that is,
30 lb. to 45 lb. per square inch. The rendered fat is then
run into cold water and removed for soap making, which
la usually carried out in immense pans heated by fire
and steam, either alone or together. The amount of
materials put in the pan should not more than two-thirds
front edge of the seat, and work the flocks.or whatever
the stuffing material is composed of, well up to the edge,
pricking the regulator in about every 6 in. The first
stitch is known as the blind stitch, as it cannot be seen
on the top of the seat. Thread the needle with twine,
pass it through the front a little below the stuffing rail,
and out at the top ot the seat about 4 in. from the front
edge. Without pulling the needle right out, back it out
again on the front 1 in. beyond the point at which it was
first inserted. Repeat this operation along the whole ot
the front, pulling the stitches tight ; that will draw all
the fiocks within the stitch on to the front edge ot the
stuffing raU. Now insert the threaded needle again
about i in . higher than the last stitching ; pass it through
the top of the seat, and re-insert it about 1 in. farther on,
stitching through backwards and forwards, letting the
needle come out midway between the last stitches ; puU
the stitches up tight, and repeat the process as often as
necessary, every row of stitches coming nearer the edge,
until a fine point has been obtained. The edge, when
finished, is similar in appearance to two or three coils of
rope. Should the edge be very soft, or give in the middle,
the stitches will be found to be slack or the rolls not
stuffed firm enough. Take particular care to use the
regulator before every row ot stitches.
Cement to withstand Paraffin Oil.— Glue is one of
the best materials tor withstanding paraffin or any
other oil. Another cement is made by dissolving 1 part
of caustic soda in 5 parts of water, and boiling with
3 parts ot resin tUl dissolved. Afterwards stir Into it
about halt its weight ot plaster-ot-Paris or chalk, and
use at once, as it hardens rapidly. This cement
would take the place ot red lead or white lead. Common
yellow soap is also recommended tor withstanding
paraffin.
114
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
A Table Book-rest.— Procure a Ijoard 13 In. wide and
4in. thick, planed smooth and as free from knots as
possible. A piece 15 in. long, shaped as shown in Fig. 1,
forms the board A (Figs. 1 and 3). The star at the top of
the board may be cut with a fret-saw. Eub with glass-
paper and make all the edges quite smooth. Out two pieces
Bin. by 2Sin. for the feet, and shape as shown in Fig. 2.
When smoothed, screw them to the back of the board, in
the position indicated by the dotted lines, at B (Fig. 1) ;
see also B (Fig. 3). Procure a piece of wood 11 in. long
by Uin. square for the rest (Figs. 1 and 3), bevel the
edges as shown in Fig. 1, and secure It to the front of the
board by screws put in from the back. Procure two pieces
of sheet brass 2in. long by i in. wide, and about Ain. or
iln. thick. Drill a hole about ^in. from one end of each
strip, file the strips to the shape shown in Fig. 1, and
screw them to the rest with round brass-headed screws.
Cut one piece of wood 10 in. by 2 in., and screw it to the
back of the board Sin. from the top, as indicated by the
dotted lines at D (Figs. 1 and 2) . Out another piece of
wood measuring 124 in. by 3 in. (or the support E (Pig. 3),
and secure it to the centre of the oi-oss-piece D with a
U-in. back -fold hinge, as shown in the illustration.
Procure a piece of fancy cord, secure one end to the
board, insert the other end in a small hole bored through
the support, and make a knot to keep it in place, as
shown at P (Fig. 3). Make aU the edges and corners
quite smooth. The book-rest will look very well indeed
by drawing the slide, which brings the spirit lamp In
contact with the vapour from the oil cup ; when flashing
occurs the temperature is noted on the thermometer"
Immersed in the oil. Water is used in the bath for oils
which flash below 100" 0. (212° F.), butfor oils which flash
above that temperature mercury must be employed.
Heating Cylinder from Two Fires.— A breakfast
room grate and a kitchen range, it the two flres are back
to baoK, can be utilised to heat a cylinder. There must
be a boiler in each fire, the saddle boiler In the range
being connected to the cylinder in the usual way, and
the boiler put in the grate fire will be connected either
to the pipes from the range boiler or independently into
the cylinder. By this arrangement either boiler will do
all that it is capable of doing towards heating the con-
tents of the cylinder, and they will work separately or
together without trouble, and without the use of stop-
cocks or anything of this kind. Bfo alteration is needed
to the flues of either stove.
Use of tbe Optical Square.— This is an instrument
2 in. diameter by Jin. thick, to be held in the hand and
arranged as shown in the accompanying flgure, in which
A is the sight hole where the eye is placed, B and C are
openings in the rim through which rays of light can enter
from poles at D and E, only farther ofE ; P is a glass halt
silvered and half plain, the junction line being in the
plane of the instrument : Q is a whole mirror. In using
J
y//.m
How to MELke a Book-rest.
If made of walnut and finished by French polishing.
When in use, it is placed upon a table, and the support
adjusted by means of the cord.
Rcgllding Soldered Joints of Plated Goods.—
An electro-gUdlng solution made as follows is re-
quired: Dissolve loz'. of potassium cyanide in Ipt. of
aistllled water made hot in an enamelled iron saucepan ;
suspend in this two strips of pure gold attached to
copper wires and connect to a battery of two Bunsen or
Daniell cells for an hour or more. Eemove the strip
of gold attached to the zinc element of the battery, ana
substitute a strip of silver. If this takes a nice gold
colour, the solution will be fit for gilding. If not satis-
factory, pass the current through the hot solution
untU it will gild properly. The cost of cyanide and
water will be only a few pence.
Ascertaining Flash Point of Oils.— The flash point
of oils is determined in two ways— by the " open
test" and by the "close test." By the first
method a small porcelain or metal dish Is partly filled
with the oil and placed on a sand bath heated by a
burner; a thermometer suspended with the bulb in the
oil registers the temperature. As the temperature rises
a lighted taper is quickly passed over the surface of the
oil, and when a taint vaulshinfe flame Is noticed, the
temperature is read oft-: this is the flash point. For the
close test method the apparatus devised By Prof. Abel is
employed ; this Is fully described in the Petroleum Act
of 1879. The apparatus is really a jacketed copper water-
bath heated by a burner ; the oil Is contained in a small
cup fitting into the lid of the bath, and there are thermo-
meters in the bath and oil cup. The oil cup is covered
with a lid and a slide, and hinged to it Is a small spirit
lamp. When the slide is drawn out the spirit lamp Istilted
over the oil cup so that the flame is right over one of the
holes in the lid, and on replacing the slide the lamp
assumes Its vertical position again. The testing is done
An Optical Square.
the instrument for sighting poles as shown, it would be
held in the left hand j with the eye at A, the pole D would
be seen through the opening B and the plain part of the
glass P ; the observer being at the point where a right
angle would be measured between DH, EH. Rays of
light from pole E will reach mirror G and be reflected
from there to the silvered part of glass P and thence to
the eye at A, so that the glass P will appear like Fig. 2,
the piece of pole 1 seen by direct vision being exactly
over the piece of pole K s^en by reflection. It in using
the instrument the poles do not coincide, the station of
the observer must be shifted until they do, or as an
alternative one of the poles must be shifted. If the poles
appear to poincide at the junction of the glasses but
not to be in a straight line, it will be due to one of
the poles being at a higher level than the other.
Making Blowers for Register Stoves.- Commence
hollowing the semicircular blower by working round
the circular part with a series of regular blows from
a bullet-faced hammer, and holding the edge of the
metal over a shallow hole in the hollowing block.
This will curve the metal to a slight depth round the
edge. Then bend the metal about lin. from the edge
along the straight part, so that it makes a sharp angle ;
this win keep the bottom stiff while the remainder of
the hollowing is done. Now commence on the circular
part again, and work round from the edge in towards
the centre, in a series of concentric circles, working it
in a deeper hole if necessary than that used for com-
mencing in. When the blower is hollowed to the depth
necessary, go over the hollowed part again v?ith a series
of light regular blows until it is rendered smooth.
Knock out smooth the break along the bottom, and
then bend the ends round to the same curve as tbe
hollowed part. A tew blows from a flat-faced hammer,
delivered upon the centre or flat part of the blower, may
be necessary to set It so that it will be free from twist.
Cyclopsedia of Mechanics.
115
Value of Gold and Silver. — Gold has a, fixed
market value per ounce which never alters. Pure
gold (24 carat) is worth &i 5b. per ounce troy ; 22-oarat
gold (guinea gold or wedding-ring gold) is worth
£3 17s. lid. per ounce ti-oy j 18-carat gold is worth
£3 3s. 9d. per ounce ; 15-carat gold, £2 13s. IJd. ; 12-carat
gold (half gold, halt alloy), £2 2s. 6d. per ounce; 9-oarat
gold (the lowest quality that is hall-marked in England)
IS worth £1 lis. lOJd. per ounce. The value of silver
fluctuates according to the market ; it has been worth
5s. per ounce troy, and it has fallen to 2s. The London
market value of silver will be found in most daily papers
under the heading "Market Keports," amongst the
" London Metals."
Canse of Clicking Noise in Hot-water Pipes.— The
clicking noise that proceeds from hot- water pipes after
hot water has been drawn is caused by the expansion of
a pipe (or pipes) when suddenly heated. If the pipe is
cold, as is probably the case, before water is drawn off, it
becomes suddenly hot when a tap is opened, and begins
to expand lengthways. Wherever the pipe is so tightly
fixed that free expansion is impeded, the resistance is
overcome with a little jerk that causes the clicking noise.
Pipes laid under floors across joists, where notches are
never cut very deep, often give out the noise described.
The same thing sometimes happens with circulating
pipes as weU as branches, though, in this case, it may be
the sudden cooling and contraction of the pipes that
cause the noise.
Purple Stain for Wood.— To make a purple stain,
obtain lib. of logwood chips or ilb. of logwood
extract. Jib. of pearlash, 2oz. of powdefed indigo, and
3 qt. of water. Boil the logwood till the full strength is
obtained, then add pearlash and indigo. The stain may
be used hot or cold.
Fitting Worm Screws and Raised Frets to a
Banjo.— To fit worm screws and raised frets to a
banjo, get a pair of plates with machines fitted, and
adapt them to the head, of the banjo by squaring the
of each side may be cut away. Everything must be dono
systematically, working at opposite sides in turn. Waste
wood should then be piled round the base in sufficient
quantity to ensure that the wood studs will be burnt
through, and lighted at several points. A couple of
look-out men during the operations should be posted
sufficiently far off to command a view of the chimney
from two directions at right angles, and near enough to
warn the men if any signs of prematare falling were to
occur. Local circumstances and the construction and
condition of the chimney stalk may render some varia-
tion on the above method desirable. A cheaper method,
and one that would probably be satisfactory in the
hands of au expert in explosives, would be to explode a
small charge of dynamite in the bottom of the shaft,
or to' bore holes round the base and insert charges of
gunpowder, to be fired simultaneously.
Tuck Pointing Brickwork : Methods and Materials.
—The ordinary process of tuok-pointlng is as follows.
The joints of the woi'k to be pointed are raked
out to the depth of iin., then filled in with stopping.
If the stopping Is not coloured, all the work Is
rubbed over with a soft good-coloured brick, so
that the joints may look like the face of the bricks.
A small groove is formed along the centre of the
jpint, and, the mortar having been allowed to set a
little, this groove is filled up, for white tuck pointing,
with white lime putty, till a raised line of putty projects
beyond the face of the joint (see illustration). The
edges of the white line are cut perfectly parallel by the
pointing knife held against a straightedge, and drawn
along so as to remove the superfluous putty, leaving a line,
about i in. to i In. in width, standing out beyond the face
of the work as far as it is possible to make it. This gives
the work the appearance of being a good piece of brick-
work, executed with square-edged bricks and clean white
joints. The effect, however, does not often last long, the
first sharp winter usually playing havoc with the pro-
jecting joints. If the pointing Is to last, it is better to
use the ordinary wesLthered joint executed in cement.
?K«W
Fitting: Worm Screws to a Banjo.
" scalloped " sides and slotting the present hole's quite
through, similar to the sketch, liaised frets are fitted by
making a "saw cast," putting in a little powdered
shellac, heating the fret-wire, and pressing it into place.
Specially prepared fret-wire can be obtained for the
purpose.
Varnish for Cork Frames.— For a varnish suitable
for cork frames intended for indoors, there is
nothing to equal spirit varnish, which consists of
methyQited spirit Ipt., shellac 4oz., and resin 2oz. ; it
dries quickly and gives a glossy finish : a cheap quality
will do. Apply in a warm room, and well stipple it in all
crevices. Thin out with spirit for the first coating, but
use it thicker for the second or finishing coat.
Roughcasting Walls.— The walls are first plastered
with lime and hair mortar, having, for the best class of
work, some cement added to improve it. After this has
set, a second coat of mortar, mixed so as to be fat, is
spread as evenly as possible over the last coat, and while
this is quite soft the stones to be used are dashed forcibly
against the work, to which they adhere. Care should be
taken to see that the sand and stones or pebbles used are
free from dirt, and if any clay is found mixed with the
sand it will require washing. The stones should be
screened so that they will be of about the same size.
Sometimes a coat of lime-white and sometimes ochre is
used for colouring the roughcast.
Felling a Ugh Chimney Shaft. — To ensure that
the stalk shall fall in a narrow compass, it will be
desirable to fix three guy ropes from the top, equally
divided round the circle, and made fast at a distance
from the base of the shaft at least equal to half the
height. Openings should be cut in the brickwork of
the base on opposite sides, and 9-in. by 9-in. studs
inserted, about 4 ft. long, between 9-in. by 3-in. plates
running through the thickness. Before making the
openings, 9-in. by 3-in. raking shores both ways should
be fixed at each corner of the base. Two openings in
each side, with a brick pier left between, would, in the
writer's opinion, be required ; and when this is done, if
there is no sign of cracking or settlement, and the studs
are taking a good bearing, the Intervening pier in centre
Tuc^ Pointing.
White lime putty is made of pure lime slaked with witer
and strained off while hot (the consistency should be
about that of cream) ; it is then mixed with washed silver-
sand— but a better material is marble dust— in the propor-
tion of 2 or 3 of sand to 1 of lime. Blue pointing mortar
is made by using sifted cupola or forge coal instead of
sand, and black pointing has lampblack added to the
other materials, small sections at a time should be pre-
gared for pointing, for if the mortar is allowed to set
ard, a groove for the white line will be difdcult to make.
To colour the work tor yellow bricks, use 1 lb. of green
copperas to about 5 gal. of water ; for red bricks, lib. of
Venetian red and lib. of Spanish brown to ligal. of
water ; the quantity of colour must be varied according
to the tint required.
Watch Carried In the Pocket Losing Time.—
All watches (except extremely fine ones) lose to a
certain extent in the pocket and go faster when lying
horizontally, the difference varying from thirty seconds
to one minute per day. It is caused by the more free
vibration of the balance when poised on the end of one
pivot only than when resting on the sides of two pivots,
as it does when in the pocket. If the difference in a
watch exceeds one minute per day, most likely the
balance is not truly poised— that is, It is heavy at one
point of the rim— and acts more or less as a pendulum
when the watch is vertical. To remedy it, remove the
balance and take off the hairspring. Then place the
balance with its pivots resting on two finely polished
straightedges, on which it can roll freely and be tested
for poise, any fault being corrected by means of the
screws in the rim (if it has them) or by filing, if it is a
plain balance. Poising tools are sold for this especial
purpose.
How to Make Silver Bronze Powder. — The
best silver bronze is made by mixing silver leaf with
honey or gum water, and grinding to powder in a
mortar^f ter which the powder is washed with water and
dried. For a common silver bronze, melt together 1 lb. of
bismuth and 1 lb. of tin, and add i lb. of mercury. Pour
the amalgam on to a cold surface and grind to powder in
a mortar. Another form of silver bronze is simply pul-
verised white mica.
116
Cyclopsedia of Mechanics.
"Marine" Glue.— Marine glue U made from 1 part
of indiarubber (cut into shreds) and 12 parts o( coal-tar
naphtha i these are kept in a bottle in a warm place
and shaken from time to time till the rubber is dis-
solved ; then 20 parts of powdered shellac are added, and
shaking is continued until the mass becomes pasty. It
is then poured on to a cold surface, allowed to solidify,
^ and then broken up into small pieces, which should toe
melted and applied as thinly as possible while still warm.
Great cai'e must be taken in making this oeaient, as the
naphtha Is very iuJlammable.
Making a ChllA's Chair.— The strong useful chair
illustrated below is suitable for children in their
teens, and will stand wear and tear for a great
many years, provided it is made from a hard
wood. All the spindles can be made with spolceshave
and plane, and also the top for the back and seat if
desired; or they can be obtained cut to pattern for a
few pence extra from any timber merchant. For the
seat, a piece 16 in. by 12 in. by IJ in. is required, cut to the
shape shown at Pig. 3. The underneath part can be left
in the rough. Bore through it iif teen holes 1 in. diameter
in a slanting direction, at distances given on Pig. 3. Into
the holes at the sides nt eight spindles 10 in. long (9i in.
when trimmed flush), J in. diameter, tapered at the ends
so as to fit tight in the holes made for them ; these spindles
form sides for arm-rests. For the arm-rests two pieces are
required, 12iin. long, 14 in. wide, and iin. thicK, cut to
left on them. The scale can only be got rid of by
grinding on a large stone, or otherwise by the use of
pumice-atone and water, followed by ij^'essing off with
Tam-o'-Shanter stone. For cleaning up after firing, try
a solution of about 1 part of nitric acid in 6 parts of
water, slightly heating the brass before plunging it in,
leaving for a minute or two, then brushing with a stiff
worn-out brush, and finally washing in clean water and
drying in hot sawdust. The solution may be bottled
and used over again, adding a little fresh acid from time
to time.
Strength of Sheet Iron Water Tanks.— Bectangular
tanks are tested as follows: ifSri"-' lOlb.; iin., 51b. per
square inch. The corresponding values for cylindrical
tanks are 401b. and 2.51b. per square inch. The cylin-
drical shape is almost invariably used when the pressure
exceeds about 121b. per square inch. The resisting
powers of all tanks that are not spherical or cylindrical
are increased by the use of internal stay-rods.
Photographic Mountants.— The best of all photo-
graphic mountants is starch. Place a teaspoontul'
of crushed starch in a teacup and mix into a thin
cream with cold water, then, whilst stirring, add
boiling water till the starch thickens. Allow to cool,
remove the skin from the top, and the starch is ready
for use. When more than two days old it does not answer
well. The following have also been recommended, and
will keep a considerable time. No. 1.— Dissolve 1 oz.
of white dextrine In 3 oz. of water, add 1 oz. of powdered
starch, and strain ; then warm until the solution becomes
clear. Now add about 40 gr. of white sugar and about
i-.. Fig 2ri— ^^
How to Make a Child's Chair.
Fig 3
the shape shown at Pig. 4 ; through ttese are bored five
holes, four holes f In. diameter, and one hole J in.
diameter, at distances shown on Pig. 4, starting from the
front part of the arm Into which the spindles fit. The
top tor the back is cut from 14-in. wood to the shape and
measurements shown at Pig. 5, and has holes bored half-
way through to receive the back spindles, of which seven
are required, 20 in. long, i In. diameter, and tapered at
the ends to fit into i-ln. holes. For the legs four
pieces are required, 154 in. long, I in. diameter, and
tapered a little smaller at the top to fit In the holes
made for them In the seat, which should be J In. diameter.
Pitted In the sides of the legs are two spindles, 104 in.
long and }in. diameter in the centre, tapered at each
end to iin. diameter; into these is fitted across a
spindle 15 In. long and 4 in. diameter. Before fitting the
legs Into the seat, fix the spindle into the legs, and then
the legs into the seat; the legs are 14 in. long when
trimmed flush with the seat • also trim the back and arm
spindles flush. The arm-rests must be fltted on before
the top of the back, so as to allow two of the back
spindles to pass through the ends of the arm-rests.
Then flt on the top of the back, and the chair Is ready
for decoration by paint or enamel. The measurements
could be altered so as to make the chair suitable for an
adult.
Cleaning Sheet Brass after Annealing.— Large
sheets of brass should be annealed In a properly con-
structed muffle or furnace ; small pieces may be done In
an open fire of cinders or small coke, not too hot. Heat
the plates to a dull red heat in the dark, and leave to cool
off. They require careful watching, or they will burn.
Some brass plates, after being rolled, annealed, and
washed in sulphuric acid and water, have a red scale
halt a dram of a 10 per cent, solution of carbolic acid.
No. 2.— Soak 1 oz. of gelatine In 4 oz. of water for an hour
or so, then add i oz. of chloral hydrate, keeping the
solution hot during this addition. Or a good man is to
dissolve the chloral hydrdrte in a portion of the water,
and then add whilst hot. A few drops of a saturated
solution of carbonate of soda should be added to render
It faintly alkaline. This mountant is extremely adhesive
and does not penetrate the paper, so that it is specially
suitable for mounting glazed prints, which lose some
of their brilliancy when the mountant is very wet.
Chemical Fire Engine.— The chemical fire engine is
fltted with two tanks, one of which contains a solu^
tion of bicarbonate of soda and the other sulphuric acid.
By allowing the acid to flow into the bicarbonate,
carbonic acid is evolved, and the pressure induced
forces the liquid through the hose pipe. When the-
liquids are mixed there Is present a solution containing
sulphate of soda holding carbonic acid In solution, and
this has been found very effectual In putting out fires.
Preparing Moonlight Scenes for Diorama.— The
hi^h lights should be cut with a sharp knife, each cut
being horizontal, and from Iin. to 3ln. m length. Take
care the cuts do not run into each other. The path of
the moonlight across the water should be cut thickly
and close, especially at the horizon, getting broader as
the bottom of the picture is reached. A few outs to
represent ripples about the other part of the water wuj
give a nice effect. A good light must be placed behiha
the picture, the light in front being very dim. For
a small subject there Is no necessity to cover the cuts
with gauze ; the movement of the painting as it travels
along will give the shimmering effect.
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
117
Lens for AH - round Photographic Worii, etc.—
For all-round work with a whole-plate camera, procure
a rapid rectilinear of about 94-in. focus by a good
maker, such as Boss, Dallmeyer, Wray, o? Taylor.
The components of the lens should he of different foci,
*o that -varying sized plates may be used, or different
angles included. A lens of this kind may be made to do
duty for a variety of purposes. For example, quoting
from one maker's list, a lens of 9i-in. focus covering a
whole plate at full aperture (f/e-S) will, when stopped
down to//U'3, cover a 10-in. by 8-in., or to f/22-6 a 12-in. by
10-in. The lens is composed of two compound lenses of
14 in. and 19Un., covering plates, when used at flVi-&, of
10 in. by 8 in. and 13 in. by H in. respectively. The lens
is listed at £16 10s. Thus, tor architectural work, where
a doublet is most needed, the lens might be used in its
entirety, and on a 12-in. by 10-in. plate it in a confined
situation. "When portraits or landscapes where good
perspective is an important consideration are attempted,
|the single components or a smaller plate must be used.
lit must be borne in mind that the value of the stops
varies with the lens. For example, a stop about 1 in.
diameter, which, when used with the lens entire, was
valued at f/8, would become, approximately, ft22 and fl32
when used with the single lenses. Lancaster's combina-
tion reotigraph is on the same principle, and costs £2 10s.
Hollowing the Underside of Ridge Roll.— To
hollow the underside of a ledge for covering the joint
of a roof as shown in the accompanying sketch (Fig. 1),
(probahly about sixteen) on to a quarter-plate piece of
clean glass that is free from scratches and bubbles, and
squeeze well into contact by placing a sheet of blotting-
paper over the back and driving out air bubbles. The
prints must be placed face downwards on the glass. Put
the glass in a printing-frame and hang it flat against a
wall in a full light. Extend the camera to twice the
focus of the lens and place it at the same distance from
the printing-frame, measuring both ways from the stops.
HaTing focussed very accurately in the centre, stop
down until the outermost pictures are sharp. Use
slow plates and give two exposures, one double the
other. These negatives should be enlarged on to
bromide paper 24, in. by 18 in., which will give 6 in. to
each picture. Pictures as nearly the same as possible
in tone should be chosen for enlarging together.
Bach picture could, of course, be enlarged from a
separate negative, but the expenditure of time and
money would be considerable. "When developing a
sheet of this size the developer can be applied with a
large pad of cotton-wool or a flat soft brush, first wetting
the print with water to slow development.
Height of Domestic Hot-water Expansion Pipe.
—The expansion of water in these apparatus never
exceeds 1 in 30 ; that is, the top water line in tlie
apparatus never stands higher than the cold-water
line in the cistern which feeds it, more than 1ft. for
each 30 ft. vertical height to which the apparatus
extends. It is seldom that an apparatus of this kind
Fia. 3
How to Hollow the Underside of 'Ridge Roll.
the end of the piece of wood should be marked out
and a small plough groove made, as shown at Fig. 2. The
greater part of the superfluous material can then be cut
away with a mallet and chisel. The surfaces can he
finished with a broad rebate plane or, better still, by a
jack plane (or panel plane) with a side slip, which takes
off as shown at Figs. 3 and 4.
Obtaining Smooth Surface on Glass Balls.— To get a
perfectly smooth surface on glass balls direct from the
moulds, remove the outer hard skin of glass by revolving
the balls with a little fine emery powder and water;
after that they will grind themselves smooth. If a
polished sui'face is I'equired, the balls ivill have to be re-
volved with plenty of dry rouge, colcothar, putty powder,
or "other rather soft polishing powder quite free from grit.
Darkening Light Brown Leather Shoes.— To darken
a pair of light tan shoes, give them a couple of coats of
Propert's dark staiu, and afterwards polish with the
darkest brown cream that can be obtained. It the leather
has not been croained before, a couple of coats of the
darkest brown shnde of Dolly dye might be applied:
cream takes well afterwards.
Enlarging a Quantity of Small Photographs.—
To enlarge to cabirjct size, with as little expense as
possible, a consideiiible number of small photographs,
starap^ size, the priTits must be copied the same
size, and the negatives thus obtiiinod enlarged upon
bromide paper. It llie prints are uumounted, proceed
as follows :— Soak them in water, and, while they are
still in the water, get as many as can be accommodated
exceeds 60 ft. vertical height, and at this height it
is seldom tha,t the water is anywhere near boiling
point in every part of the apparatus (except the cold
supply pipe), as the 1 in 30 rule requires it to be.
The common practice, therefore, is to let the expansion
pipe extend at least 2 ft. above the cold-water line in
houses of moderate size, and 3 ft. or more in tall houses.
This is easily remembered, quite safe, and applies to aU
systems of apparatus. The quantity of water held in the
apparatus makes no theoretical difference. In practice,
it may mean that the large quantity does not get so hot.
Making Liquid Malt Extract.- To prepare a small
quantity of liquid malt extract, cover the malt with water
and heat to a temperature ot 180" F. for an hour, then press
out the extract from the grains. The addition of a small
quantity of spirit ot wine will prevent it becoming musty.
On a large scale, the malt is thoroughly exhausted with
sufficient water, and the liquid concentrated in a vacuum
pan at a temperature of about 180° F. A steam heat (i.e.
212° P.) spoils the malt extract to some extent.
Oiling Watches and Clocks.- In choosing the oil
to be used for watches and clocks, it should be remem-
bered that a watch will generally go from two to three
years before the oil dries up. A clock, as a rule, wiU go
from three to five years, according to the situation of the
clock and the fit ot its case. Dried-up oil must always be
removed before applying fresh; thus a watch requires
cleaning every two or three years. Watches require a very
thin light oil, clocks a heavier oil ; clock oil would soon
stop a watch, and watch oil would soon run away from
the pivots ot a clock.
118
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
Dimensions ol Uanoe to Carry One Person.—
A canvaa canoe of the following dimensions would
oai-ry one person of ordinary weight on about 4i-in.
draught, but by adding 2 ft. to her length she would be
considerably easier to propel :— Length over all, 10 ft. 6 in.j
length on load water-line, 10 ft. ; beam at gun wale, 25 in. ;
beam on load water-line, 27 in. ; di'aught amidships, 4i In. ;
draught at ends, 3iin. ; freeboard amidships, 4in.; free-
board at ends, 7 in. ; the greatest beam being on load
water-line, and at a distance of 6 ft. from the bow. Oak,
rock elm, pine, or larch will be suitable for the canoe.
Determining Contents of Cylindrical Tank. —
First determine the contents of the tank in cubic
feet. To do this, square the diameter in feet and
multiply by 7854 ; then multiply by the length in feet.
Thus the contents of a circular tank 7 ft. in diameter
by 18 ft. high will be 7 x 7 x -7854 x 18 = 38-5 x 18 =
693 cub. ft. (approx.). Then 6'23 gal. of water occupy
1 cub. ft., BO that the contents of the tank wlU be
about 693 x 6-23 = 4,317 gal. A quicker way is to reckon
that a tank Itt. in diameter and 1ft. high will hold
4'9 gal. Then, since the capacity will vary with the
sqxiare of the diameter and with the length of the
tank, it will be about 4-9 x 7 x 7 x 18 = 4,320 gal.
Shaping the Top Kali of Greenhouse.— To deter-
mine the bevel or slant of the top cross-bar so that the
centi-e, with gold incised borders and corners. To elld
these, it is usual to finish polishing the panels before
passing on to the gilder, who will brush into the
incisions several coats of parchment size and whiting
tintod with orange or lemon chrome ; this mixture must
be spread evenly, as It sets very quickly. Clean off the
surplus with a slightly wet rag stretched over a flat cork
rubber ; avoid rubbing any more in the channels. When
a solid basis has been thus formed, oil gold size is
applied bymeans of a very fine hog-hairbrush ; it is spread
evenly. W hen nearly dry, it is ready for the gold leaf,
which is out up into narrow strips on a special cushion ;
this is laid over the lines, and well skewed in by a tuft
of wadding and camel-hair brush. Clean off all surplus
as before, using a piece of cloth slightly damp with
turps.
Pattern for Square Aquarium Top. — To make
a perforated square zinc top for an aquarium, that
could be taken off and put on as required, com-
mence by drawing a plan and elevation (Figs. 1
and 2) to the required size. Divide the semicircle d d
(Fig. 2) into six equal parts, and draw lines at right
angles to C to pass through the division points b b ; also
join the division point c to and <J to C. Fro tn any point
along X T erect the perpendicular O o, and from mark
off lengths corresppnding to b B, c C, d (Fig. 2) ; join
these points to o, and the lengths found, B o, C o, D o, will
be the true slants of the lines 6 B, c 0, (J (Fig. 2). To
work the pattern, draw a straight line equal in length to
C (Fig. 2) ; mark upon this line a centre point A (Fig. 3),
Fig 3 I
Shaping the Top Kail of Greenhouse.
piece shown in Fig. 1 shall be fitted as in Fi^. 2, draw
(Fig. 3) to scale as shown. Along a horizontal line mark
off the span of the greenhouse to 1 in. to the foot say, as
indicated by A j then draw the vertical line shown at B,
and mark off the amount of fall (that is the difference
between the height of the front and back) to the same
scale. Then the line represents the correct fall. The
end view of the rail can now be marked out full size
as shown at DEI', and the triangular piece scored
shows the amount of material to be taken off. A gauge
may be set to the distance G H, and the wood marked by
it ; or a bevel can be set as indicated by the dotted lines,
and the wood planed to suit it in the ordinary manner.
Bow to Gild Piano Fronts.— Artistic designs similar to
work seen on piano panels are usually put on by transfer
process after the panels have been boaled up ; the sub-
sequent polishing and finishing out will give an appear-
ance of lulaid brass. In exceptional cases the panels
are lluished out first, the decorative design is carefully
cut in with oil gold size, the gold applied, and afterwards
outliucd and shaded with sienna. Occasionally engraved
patterns may be seen, but in the majority of cases only
the outlined portions are gilt, the lines being very fine.
Piano fronts are often finished with a marqueterie
Pattern for Aquarium Top.
and mark on either side of A divisipns corresponding to
A B (Fig. 2) . From A, B, B (Fig. 3) draw lines at right angles
to C C, and mark on these lines from the point A, a length
equal to D' A' (Fig. 1) , and from B, B lengths equal to o B
(Fig. 1). Next use as centre, and with radius o (Fig. 1)
draw an arc ; with b o (Fig. 2) as radius and 6 (Fig. 3) as
centre, cut the arc first drawn to obtain the point o ,- again
use c as centre on both sides lof the pattern, and with
radius o D (Fig. 1) draw an arc ; with the division length
c & (Fig. 2) out the arc so as to obtain the point d. Now
take the length o D (Fig. 2) as radius, and again using
(Fig. 3) as centre, draw an arc \ with D' d! (Fig. 1) as
radius and d on the pattern as centre, cut the arc first
drawn. Join the intersecting arcs dD by a straight line,
and also join D 0. Draw a curve through the intersecting
arcs d,a,i,a,b,c, d,to complete the half pattern with seams
placed in the centre of the sides at D d, D d. Then
making the top, bend the corners upon any sharp-
edged tools until the sides form a right angle with the
end ; the semicircle forming the half top can be brought
to shape by pressing the perforation to a circular shape
with the thumb. If the two halves are to be grooved
together, an equal allowance for the groove will be
necessary on each side of the pattern; if soldering
is adopted, then one lap, as shown, will do.
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
119
Grease for Under-carrlage of Victoria.— The best
lubricant to use on the perch bolt and felloe pieces when
putting together the under-carriage of a victoria is
made by melting some tallow, then mixing with it
sufficient axle oil so that it will be quite soft when cold,
and about two small packets of powdered blaoklead
to lib. ot tallow and oil. The under-carriage, it the
Tehicle is in constant use, should be taken out each time
the trap is oiled, which is about every three months.
Removing Brass Collars from Glass Ware.—
If it is wished to preserve the collars, allow them to
stand for some time in dilute hydrochloric acid, which
will dissolve out the plaster-of-Paris. If the collars are not
required, place them in strong nitric acid, which will
dissolve the brass. Another method is to make file marks
just above the collars, heat a piece ot glass rod or thick
iron wire in the blowpipe flame, and place it on the file
marks. Often a crack will go right round at once ; if
not, the crack can usually be obtained after two or three
heatings in this way.
Tightening up Floor Boards without Using a
"Dog." -Floor boards can be tightened up without the
aid of a floor dog by the method shown at Fig. 1.
The board next the wall should be well secured to
the joists, and then three or four boards can be laid
flown and tightened up by means of wedges, as shown.
The following is the method of procedure :— Place a piece
leather or felt and sprinkled with rouge of increasing
degrees of fineness. If revolving tables are used, the
glass plate must be fixed in a frame capable of being
adjusted at any required angle, and the frame must be
brought down until the edge ot the glass just touches
the table. As the grinding proceeds, the glass is brought
lower until the bevel is fully formed. After bevelling
, all the edges the glass must be transferred to the smooth-
iug table, and finally polished on the wood table. It
fixed tables are used, the frame containing the glass
plate wiU have to travel perfectly true backwards and
forwards over the tables.
Taking Apart a Geneva Lever Watch.— In taking a
Geneva lever watch apart, first remove it from its case ;
then lever off the hands, remove the dial, and take off
the motion wheels underneath it. Next remove the
central set-hand arbor by knocking it out with a light
tap. It is friction-tight only in both the cannon pinion
and the centre wheel. Then let down the mainspring by
a key on the winding square while holding the click
back. Take out the balance, pallets, 'scape wheel, train
wheels, centre wheel, and barrel in the order named.
Particulars of Sallnometers.— There are two kinds,
one giving the percentage of common salt in the solution,
the other used by marine engineers as a guide to the point
at which to blow off. Sallnometers are made either of
glass orbi-ass in the form shown in the adjoining figure.
On the 'first kind each mark represents 1 per cent, of
Fig. 2
Tightening-up Floor Boards.
of quartering about 2 in. by Sin. next to the floor board,
as at 0. Gut a wedge, and place it as at £ ; then nail
down a piece of batten to tne joists, as at A (both this
and the wedge can be cut out of odd pieces of fioor
board). The wedge B should be driven with a large
hammer or axe until the joints of the board are quite
close. Use prepared grooved and tongued boards, a
section of which is shown at Fig. 2, to prevent dust and
draught passing through the joints of the boards after
they have shrunk.
Transferring Drawings to Linen.— Transfer draw-
ings of flowers, etc., are made with some composition
on tissue or tracing paper from stencil plates out to
suit the particular patterns. The composition is a
material consisting ot resin and colouring matter
(common red sealing wax would do). This is powdered
and sprinkled over the stencU. while it is lying on the
Saper. On running a hot iron over the stencil plate the
esign is left on the paper. To transfer to linen, place
the paper on the linen and run a hot iron over the back
of the paper.
Blackening Brass Buttons.— To mf ke shiny brass
buttons black, immerse them in a strong solution ot
copper nitrate or sulphate. Then heat them on a hot
plate or carefully in the flame ofaBunsen burner till they
are black. Well swill them in hot water, and dry out in
sawdust ; polish with a blacklead brush and lacquer.
Bevelling Plate Glass.— To obtain a bevel edge on
plate glass, either circular revolving tables or fixed ones
may be used. The table for grinding is of thick cast iron,
and is fed with sand and water ; the smoothing table is
of glass with emery of different degrees of fineness and
water, and the polishing tables are of wood covered with
Salinometer.
common salt ; on the second kind there are only three
or four marks, one being marked " blow." To use the
instrument, fioat the salinometer in a little ot the water ;
the mark on the stem corresponding with the surface of
the water indicates the density of the liquid.
Mixing Lime Concrete.— For ordinai-y fouudationR,
with.no great or concentrated loads, the following pi'o-
portions may be adopted : Bricks, broken to pass through
a 2-in. ring, ii parts ; clean, sharp sand, 2J parts ; ground
lias lime, 1 part. If the bricks are broken to pass through
a li-in. ring, then 5 parts to 2 parts sand and 1 part lime
may be used. The materials should be accurately
measured in gauge boxes, turned over twice or thrice,
dry, so as to be intimately mixed before being wetted,
water applied by means of a watering can with a rose on
the spout, materials again turned over twice, deposited in
the required spot in layers about 12 in. thick, carefully
rammed, and left to set. It is important not to disturb
the mass after it has begun to set.
Cleaning Velvet -pile T4ble Cover.— To clean a
velvet-pile table cover, first remove all dust by hanging
up the table cover and carefully beating it ; then treat
it several times with benzine, pressing each time so as
to remove all the dirty liquid; then hang it in the
open air to dry. Of course, this dry cleaning should
be done in a room in which there is neither fire nor
artificial light. After thoroughly drying, if the table
cover is not sufficiently clean, lay it on a table and
carefully sponge it all over with a mixture of equal
quantities of methylated spirit and water. Do not wet
it more than is absolutely necessary, and immediately
dry it hy pressing dry , clean linen cloths upon it. Again
dry the cover, and brush it carefully with a moderately
stiff brush to raise the pile.
120
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
Heat-resisting Covering for Steam Boilers.—
Hair, cotton, fibres of organic origin, and feathers ai'e
the hest materials, though fine sawdust and corli powder
have been used. Clay with fibres, and fibres with cow-
dung have also been employed. The materials should
first be powdered, and afterwards applied In the form of
washes to the surface, which must be quite free from
grease. A covering of canvas, wire netting, hoop iron,
hoards, etc., should be placed outside.
Making a Pedestal for a Table.— The following
illustrations give a design for a pedestal for a walnut
table top ; the table is 2 ft. diameter and i in. thick.
Pig. 1 shows the elevation and Fig. 2 the greater
part of the plan, looking up. The column should be
turned out of stuff about 3in. square. The upper part of
the column can be finished with a screw, as shown at
Pig. i, for fastening on the block. The legs should be
with a damper, and holes in the roof for stoking purposes.
In starting the kiln all the compartments but one are
filled with limestone loosely piled and the doors made
up. Fires are made in the empty compartment, and the
dampers are all closed with the exception of that in the
farthest chamber, so that the fiames and hot air have
to travel all round the kiln before they escape to the
chimney. As the coal burns away slack is fed through
the holes in the I'oof, and when the limestone is fufly
burnt in the first compartment the damper in the empty
compartment is thrown open and the other closed, so
that the empty compartment becomes the last in the
series, and thfe first compartment begins to cool down.
The coal is now fed through the roof of the second com-
partment, and this procedure goes on right round the
kiln. The empty compartment is charged as soon as It
is cool enough to enter; the first compartmentls next
emptied and refilled, and so on, emptying and refilling
cut out of material with the grain running in the direc-
tion of A A (Fig. 1). A simple method of connecting the
legs to the column is by means of dovetail housing,
shown at Fig. 2. A conventional view of this joint is
shown at Fig. 3. It should be noticed that the shoulders
require to be undercut (see B, Fig. 3). The "drop"
shown at C (Pig. 1) is a separate piece of turning with a
dowel attached so that it can be fastened to the bottom
of the column. The top may be hinged to the block by
means of two flaps, as Indicated at Fig. 4.
Method of Burning Limestone.— No very great
improvements in the method of burning mountain
limestone have been made for several years, but
there are kilns, such as the Hofmann kiln, and
calciners which are great improvements on the old
forms of kiln. The Hofmann kilns are very large
and circular or oval surrounding a chimney stack)
they can be divided into twelve or more compartments,
each one of which has a door for charging purposes, an
opening connecting it with the chimney and covered
How to Make a Pedestal for a
Table.
going on all the time. The caloiner is made in the usual
form of circular kiln, but it has a cone-shaped structure
at the bottom, and there are openings all round the
circumference of the furnace above the floor level. The
limestone and slack are fed in at the top, and as the coal
burns away and the limestone contracts during its con-
version into lime, it gradually descends, but is prevented
settling at the hottom of the furnace by the cone-
shaped structure, which directs the material towards
the walls of the furnace, and it falls out through the
openings above mentioned.
How to Get Rid of Mites In Furniture.—
Use ordinary furniture polish on the wood of the
furniture, and place a saucer full of strong ammonia
below the sofa and chairs from time to time. As a rule,
a dry room is best for furniture, and therefore a fire
should be lighted often. It will prevent the- damp
settling upon the furniture and carpets, and will tend tui
keep out insects. Washing the floors with a carbolic
soap will also be found of great v.alue.
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
121
Varnishing a Van In the Natural Wood. —
Where the grain is to show out plain it is not custom-
ary to stain the wood; staining hlurs the natural
grain, on account of one part absoroing more stain than
another. The method usually adopted for vans, etc., is
as follows : After the hody is got up clean, and glass-
paper marks across the panels hays been removed,
apply a good coat of pale gold size, to which about a
tablespoouful of linseed oil to a pint of size has been
added ; let this stand a day or two, then lightly rub over
with flue sand or glasspaper to take oft the grain which
will rise ; then give another coat of gold size only. "When
hard, sandpaper off as before, and apply a coat of hard
drying carriage varHish. Let this stand for a couple of
days, and then flat down with ground pumice-stone and
water, being careful to wash every particle of dust from
the corners ; then give a coat (or two coats If necessary)
of best carriage varnish.
Enlarging with Fixed Focus Hand Camera.—
The accompanying sketch shows an arrangement for
making either enlarged negatives or prints. In the
bottom of a lidless box M cut an opening 41 in. by 3Jin. ;
fit grooves A A top and bottom, to carry the negative B
(the box is standing on end) . make a box B of the size
and shape shown (see also ground plan), having an
opening at P a little smaller than the hand camera H,
and with a close-fitting fillet run round it on the outer
Bide at 1, forming a recess, into which the back of the
frame. The above dimensions are worked out on the
assumption that the lens is of 5-in. focus.
Using Gold Bronze. — To apply gold bronze to
furniture in paint form, coat the furniture with
paint, japati, spirit varnish, or anything that will
prevent suction ; then coat where the bronze is wanted
with gold size or quick-drying varnish. When this is
nearly dry, dust on the powder with a camel-hair brush
or soft new chamois leather. As bi-onze is susceptible to
atmospheric influences, it should be coated with a thin,
even coat of varnish— clear spirit or oil varnish will do.
Work thus treated will have a common brassy appear-
ance, by no means egual to gilding. When gold leaf is
too expensive, use Dutch metal, which can be purchased
at from 2d. to 6d. per book.
Moulding and Vulcanising Indlarubber. — The
tooljS required would be a small rotary cutter, a sheet-
iron box with sliding fronb and chimney at top,
an iron tray, two large ring gas burners, knives or
spatulas, and iron moulds shaped like the blocks
rejiuired. The rubber may be out in the rotary machine,
mixed with powdered sulphur, placed on the iron tray in
the sheet-iron box, and heated by the burners. A
tiio^mometer hung in the box very close to the iron
tray will show the temperature, which must not rise
above 300" P. When the rubber is softened, the moulds
may be heated in the box, the rubber put in, and the
tops of the moulds forced down so as to compress the
Enlarging^ with Fixed Focus Hand Camera.
camera fits, and is supported on the bracket E. The
bracket is either detachable or hinged at O. At the
rear of the box is fastened another fillet P, at exactly
13 in. from the lens stops. Out a slot right down one
Bide rather greater in vridth than the thickness of a
whole-plate printing frame. The frame should now be
built up at the same side flush with the outside of the
box, and a further piece screwed on, projecting iin. each
way beyond the opening, and fitting close to exclude
light. Now insert the frame, facing the lens, and ^orew
another fillet behind it, so that it just runs easily
between them. The frame is assumed to measure lOi in.
bySJin. Next cut from a block of wood C a recess to
form a bed for the condenser N, the centre of which
must be exactly opposite the centre of the negative, the
lens, and the printing frame. A lid may be hinged to D.
The ca"mera and other loose parts may then be stored
inside. Now construct a board 36 in. by 8 in., hinged in
the centre. Put two screws in the extreme end ; these,
by engaging with holes in D, ensure its being always in
the same place. Now place the other parts roughly in
position. Fix, with drawing-pins at the corners, the sheet
of ground glass, rough side outwards, in the printing
frame, and insert it in D. Having put the negative B in
position, focus very accurately by moving the box.to and
fro. The condenser and light are next manipulated
until the corners of the negative are illuminated and an
evenly lighted screen is obtained. Then screw the
block in position in M, and fit the points for the other
parts as before. Instead of using a condenser, a piece
of magnesium wire may be burnt behind the negative,
the light being waved about, so that the negative may be
evenly illuminated. In this case a sheet of ground glass
should be placed a few inches behind the negative. To
use the apparatus it will merely be necessary to insert
the negative, then place in the printing frame a sheet of
clear glass, free from bubbles or scratches, and of the
same thickness as the ground glass mentioned above.
Place upon this, face downwards or outwards, a sheet of
bromide paper, and, having turned the light down very-
low, insert through K. If preferred, a sheet of card-
board, which can be slid out after placing the frame m
position, may be made to run in front of the printing
rubber; the moulds may then be allowed to become
cold, and t'le blocks withdrawn. Before pressing in
the rubber, rub powdered French chalk over the insides
of the moulds.
Obliterating an Engraved Crest on a Silver Jug.
—To remove an engraved crest from a small silver jug,
(1) file out the work with a fine flat file if the
surface of the jug is of a full or rounded nature, and
with a rifller or small bent file if hollow. Finish with
snakestone or Tamo'-Shanter hone, and polish with
rottenstone and oil. Send it to be electro-gilded and
scratch-brushed on the inside, with a light coating of
silver on the outside, and have the outside burnished
and " handed up." The jug will thus look equal to new.
Before sending to plate, look well over for possible
dents. (2) Fill up the cuts with silver solder— same
colour as near as possible to the silver— dress off, and
finish as No. 1. (3) Cut out a shield from sheet silver
(No. 6 to 9 gauge, §.M.G.) either round, oval, or of an
heraldic shape, hard solder neatly, and finish as No. 1.
Shaping Soap into Bars and Tablets:— The soap is
made by boiling fats and caustic soda in large pans, from
which it is run through channels over the " frames " ; the
latter are large rectangular moulds built up of iron plates
bolted together. When the soap is cold the plates are un-
bolted and removed, revealing the blocks of soap. A frame
with horizontal wires is run through the blocks, cutting
them into slabs. The slabs are pushed against other
wires, cutting them into bars. Tablet soaps are pressed
from the bars or from ribbons. Toilet soaps are made
by forcing bar soap against a cutter, which cuts it into
thin slices; the slices are placed in a roller machine,
from which it emerges in the form of extremely fine
shavings. The shavings are partly dried on wire netting
in a heated room and then placed in a press, from which
the soap emerges as a bar with a square, round, oval, or
other section. The bar is cut into pieces of equal thick-
ness forming plain tablets, which are then pressed in a
machine having dies with appropriate designs. In
scented soaps the ribbons are gently heated with the
scent, or the scent is added immediately after the soap
is made for common qualities.
122
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
Calculating Heating Surface of Radiators.— For
calculating the heating surfaces of radiators and pipes
for schools, greenhouses, etc., the following notes are use-
ful :— For brick buildings, for a temperature of 60° P., use
7 sq. ft. of heating sui-faoe for every 1,000 cub. ft. of
space ; for 55° F., use 9 sq. ftj for 60°F., use 12 sq. ft. j for
65°F.,use 15sq.ft.; tor70°P.,UBe lOsq. ft. For lean-to
glasshouses, for a temperature of 46° F., use 37ft. of 4-in.
pipe for every 1,000 cub. ft. of space; for eO*F.,nse40ft.
of 4-in. pipe; tor 65° P., use 45ft. of 4-ln. plpei for 60° P.,
use 60ft. of 4-in. pipe; for 65' P., use 65ft. of 4!-ln. pipe;
and for 70° P., use 60ft. of 4cin. pipe. For span houses,
add one-fifth.
How to Find tbe Mitre, etc., of Raking Cornice
Moulding.— A (Fig. 1) shows the true section of the
raking moulding. The five points have been taken In the
A cheap clock with a light pendulum should have an
escapement with a moderate recoil only, and a good
clock with a heavy pendulum should have a nearly
dead-beat escapement, or what is known as a "half
dead," i.e. a dead-beat with a very slight amount of
recoil on the resting surfaces, but hardly perceptible
The amount of recoil is deteriuined by the shape of
the pallets.
' Making Marlboro' Easy Clialr.— Figs. 1 and 2 show
front and side views respectively of the framing.
The total height is^^ft. ; width, lift.; height of Bent
without cushion, 1ft. lin.; height of arms from seat,
1 ft. ; and width of seat from front to back, 1 ft. 8 In.
The back legs, with the required sweep at the bottom,
can be bought ready sawn at any chairmaker's. The
seat frame is made from 2-ln. by U-in. stuff; the
rest of the frame from 1-in. stuff, with the exception
of the front legs, which can be made Chippendale
shape, square tapered, or turned in the lathe. Web
the seat, back, and arm space tor foundation for stuffing.
How to find the Mitre, etc., of Baking Cornice Moulding.
curve, and lines 6, 7, 8, 9, and 10 drawn through them.
Then from these points perpendiculars are drawn to the
bottom line— Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4, and 6 ; also C. From E draw
the vertical line a' E, and at right angles to it a' c'. Now
mark off the divisions a', V, 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, and c' as shown,
making them correspond to a, b, etc. Next raise
ordlnates, making them intersect their respective
raking line as shown. Through these points draw the
curve, and complete the section of the level moulding.
To obtain the mitre, project the plan as shown at Fig. 2 ;
then take the distance E F (Fig. 1) and mark it off on the
5 Ian as shown at E' I" ; pro.iect across to G, and join P' to G.
'hen the bevel for the mitre of the raking mould will be
that shown at L, and that at K for the bevel mould.
Clock Escapements and Motive Power.- When
a cheap clock, such as an American spring clock
without a fusee, is first wound up, the motive power
is very great, and when the same clock is nearly
run down, the power has diminished to perhaps less than
halt. The effect of this with a recoil escapement (one in
which the 'scape-wheel recoils at each beat) and a
light pendulum is to make the clock go gradually slower
as it runs down. With a heavy pendulum the error is
less. A dead-beat escapement (one in which the 'scape-
wheel remains perfectly still between each beat) has a
very small error in the opposite direction, and the same
clock fitted with it would gradually gain as it ran down.
Therefore, to keep correct time, the escapement must
not nave mueh recoil, nor must It be perfectly "dead."
Marlboro' Easy Chair.
Make a loose cushion seat. Upholster in coarse canvas
with hair or fiocks, nailing the material on the outside
edges ; then cover with Gobelin tapestry or cretonne ;
cover the sides and back with the same material, sewn
together at the edges and corded, or tack round a
narrow coloured gimp.
Colouring Drawings.— The colours used in architec-
tural and mechanical drawings vary according to circum-
stances. Some draughtsmen use a very pale sepia for York
stone in elevation, pale Payne's grey for Portland or
Bath stone, pale indigo with ink dots tor' granite, and
darker tints of the same colours for the sections. This,
it must be remembered, is chiefly in connection with
London stock bricks. Architects, who ought as a body
to have an eye for colour, are sometimes great offenders
by using harsh and unnecessary colours on their
drawings. An extreme case has been noted where a
wrought-iron girder resting upon a cast-iron column
standing on a stone base were all coloured bright
Prussian blue. Blue in some form or other is much used
by architects to represent stone, but it should be used
very sparingly, so as to resemble the natural tint of the
stone rather than the conventional representation. For
a red sandstone, a pale tint of light red, Indian red,
Venetian red, or burnt ochre might be used, dependmg
upon the general elevation colour. For cement in any
form in elevations, pale Indian ink or pale Payne's grey
is generally used, with or without dots and markings.
Windows may be coloured with black Indian ink, or
washed Prussian blue, Prussian green, or Payne's grey,
according to circumstances. A plain tint all over is the
simplest, but a good artistic effect may be obtained with
the exercise of a little skill.
CycTopaedia of Mechanics.
123
Oleomargarine — This is the softer portion of the
fureet and freshest beef suet from the ribs, rendered at
40* P. to 150" P., and the fat poured off clean and pressed
at 95* F. The product is of a buttery consistency at
ordinary temperature. The " oleo " oil, as it is called, is
the chief constituent in margarine, bat a vegetable oil
is also employed ; sometimes this is cottonseed oil, at
others earth-nut oil or sesame oil. The oleo oil is
melted and, along with the vegetable 'oil, is run into the
churns ; the milk is first soured by the addition of acid,
rennet, or sour mUk, run over cooling coils, and then
into the churn. The churns are kept slightly warm, and
are worked so that the fat, casein, etc., may amalgamate.
They are then emptied into tanks containing water cooled
with ice, the masses of fat are removed, piled up to drain
for some time, then worked and salted like butter.
Bamboo Newspaper Rack. — Four 1-in. and two
l-In. canes will be required ; from the former
four lengths should be bent or toed out tlnd cut off
20 in. long. Pour pieces, each 16 in. long, for the four
rails should now be cut off from the 1-ln. canes,
chisel-pointed, mortised (or hollowed) with the rasp, and
fitted in their places. Holes should then be bored in the
legs to receive the dowels, and the two sides framed up.
While these sides, or sections, are setting, the two
ornamental fillings should be made from f-in. cane.
Bamboo Newspaper Rack.
Pour pieces of 1-in. bamboo, each 9 in. long (IHn. is
allowed for fitting), should now be prepared to form the
cross rails which are to join the two sections together.
When the sections are set, holes should be bored to
receive the dowels of the cross rails, and the whole
joined together. The two uprights for the partition
are fitted to the bottom cross rail, and the top cross rail
and upright are half jointed where they cross. The rail
which carries the handle is mortised and dowelled at
each end and fastened into position with two round-
headed screws. The handle is made frgm f-in. cane bent
as shown, and fastened to the centre rail with round-
headed screws. The raUs which form the division of the
partition, as also the three cross rails forming the
bottom, are made from J-in. cane mortised at the ends
and fixed into position with beading pins. A diagonal
stay, not shown in the illustration, may be added to the
central framework.
Ftaotograpliing an Oil Painting. — Whether the
painting is under glass or not, it will probably he
advisable to let it face the window. All refieotions
must he got rid of; sometimes slightly tilting the
picture and swinging the back of the camera to
compensate for it will be effectual. If possible, the
centre of the lens should he opposite the centre of the
painting. If the illumination in the camera is weak,
f ocuB upon finely grained glass, made by thickly coating
a sheet of glass with negative varnish, and then rubbing
down the surface with a little finely powdered resin on
the ball of the finger ; or the • ordinary ground glass
screen may be oiled. A firmly fixed copying camera, in
which focussing is done by moving the back part, would
be preferable to an ordinary camera. The lens should
he one giving a flat field and the best possible definition.
The stand must be rigid, and, as the exposure is pro-
longed, every precaution must be taken against vibra-
tion. The plates used must be colour - sensitive ;
Edwards' instantaneous isoohromatic are very suitable.
If the picture contains any blues or greens, a yellow
screen must be used— a home-made substitute for which
can be made by staining to a lemon yellow a fixed
unexposed plate in a weak solution of picric acid. If the
stain is too deep, the blues and greens will be rendered
too dark. Pyro soda is a most satisfactory developer for
the above-named plates. Use equal parts of each of the
following solutions :— No. 1. Pyro, 25gr.i sodium sul-
phite, 4oz. ; water, 5oz. ITo. 2. Washing soda, 165gr. j
water, 5 oz. Add one drop per oz. of 10 per cent, potassium
bromide solution. The negative should be thin and full
of detail, with clear shadows.
Vienna Regulator Striking Clock.— In the accom-
panying figure the wheels between the plates are
represented by plain circles to show their positions.
The gut lines are wound up on barrels, fitted with
winding ratchets and clicks and click springs to prevent
running back. The main wheels are driven by the
barrels, and are mounted upon the barrel arbors.
Around the pin wheel are arranged the lifting pins,
which lift the gong hammer. The pallet wheel arbor
carries the gathering pallet, which gathers up the rack
teeth during striking. The snail, mounted upon the
star wheel, determines the number of blows to be struck
at each hour. This system of wheels is known as the
rack striking work, and is used in a great many Prench
clocks and in nearly all English grandfather and bracket
clocks. The letter references are as follows :— A is the
striking main wheel, B pin wheel, pallet wheel, D
warning wheel, E fly, P going main wheel, G minute
wheels, H centre wheel, I third wheel, J 'scape wheel, K
pallets, L minute wheel cock, M warning lever, N lifting
Vienna Regulator Striking Movement.
piece of warning lever, O rack hook, P gathering pallet,
Q rack, £ star wheel and snail, S flirt, and T the flirt
spring.
How to Make Crystoleum Photographs.- A portrait
should be chosen giving good gradation without very
deep blacks. A pair of concave glasses in different sizes
may be bought of any artists' colourman, and should
be chosen to fit the picture. Mix some starch— as for
ordinary mounting— to the consistency of thick treacle,
fre? from lumps, and, having carefully cleaned the
glasses and soaked the print and blotted off the surface
moisture whilst lying face up on a sheet of glass, brush
the starch well over the face of the print and over the
concave side of the glass. Bring the two surfaces into
contact and lay over the picture a thin sheet of blotting-
paper ; place the glass on a cushion and work the print
thoroughly into contact with the glass by stroking with
the convex side of a spoon in all directions from the
centre until all air bubbles are expelled. When the
print thus mounted is thoroughly dry, it is rendered as
transparent as possible by rubbing away the paper,
quite evenly, with fine glasspaper. When the film is
nearly reached, cuttlefish powder may be applied with
the finger or a tuft of wool. The print is next warmed
carefully and rubbed over evenly with castor oil till it
wUl take up no more, the surplus oil being wiped off and
the print allowed to cool. Transparent oil colours are
next laid on over the dress, hair, eyes, lips, etc. Plat
tints merely are used, as the transparency supplies the
modelling. The second glass is then attached, and on it
the flesh tints are painted. The outlines must in all
cases be carefully followed. The crystoleum may now
be bound up by placing a piece of white cardboard at
the back and binding the edges with black paper.
Stain and Varnls^ for Elm.— For Indoor work, use
a good quality spirit varnish i for outdoor work, use a
good oak, copal, or carriage varnish. A wipe over with
raw linseed oil will fetch out the figure, a reddish tinge
being imparted by colouring the oil by adding a small
quantity of alkanet root— 2oz. to Ipt. Elm is a good
wood for taking a walnut stain. Use a grain filler before
applying any varnish or polish.
124
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
Two Boilers to One Hot-water Cyltndor.— When a
cylinder system apparatus is to be heated by two boilers,
one boiler is generally connected to the cylinder in the
usual way, and the pipes from the second boiler con-
nected to the pipes of the first one, flow to flow and
return to return. No fault can be found with this
arrangement, which works well, whether either boiler is
used separately or both are used together, and no stop-
cocks are needed. However, a better arrangement is
to connect the pipes from each boiler into the cylinder
independently, instead of allowing the pipes to join out-
side the cylinder. In this ease there is the possibility
of more uniform results, and it seems a more correct
way to do the work, although no fault can be found with
the plan first explained.
Construction of Tenons for Entrance Gates.~The
construction of tenons for gates, such as entrance gates
to parks or lodges, is shown by portions of two typical
upon it like water. Now press the tip of one finger hara
upon it and wipe the finger again immediately. It 15-ct.,
the spot will turn a pale brown, as 9-ct. did before
pressing with the finger. If 18-ot. or over, the acid will
still stand upon it like water ; 22-ct. can be told by its
colour by an expert.
Dry-oleantng a Valencia Waistcoat. — Sprinkle
a mixture of fuller's earth and magnesia over the
waistcoat, then rub it in with a clean piece of flannel.
With another piece of flannel apply benzine to
the waistcoat, after which sprinkle some more of the
powder and leave it for several minutes. Then brush oft
the powder and hang the waistcoat in a current of fresh
air till the benzine has evaporated.
Staining White Wood Teak Colour.— Brush over
the article some raw sienna ground in water, mixed
in stale beer, and allow it to soak in. When nearly
dry, wipe ofE the surplus with clean rag ; this will give
Construction of Tenons for Entrance Gates.
examples of gates (Figs. 1 and 5). The forms of the
tenons, etc., are indicated by dotted lines. Figs. 2, 3,
and i show isometric views to a larger scale of the
tenons indicated at Pig. I. Fig. 6 is an oblique pro-
jection of the joints at A (Fig. 6). When the rails are
Siin. and under, they usually have tenons the whole
width; but when over 3iin. and up to 6 in. the tenons
are diminished generally to 3 in. or 3iin., having a
haunch on one or both sides. When the rails are more
than 6 in. wide, they frequently have two tenons in
breadth as illustrated. The tenons are wedged into the
mortises (see Figs, land 5), and as an additional Security
they are occasionally pinned as indicated at Fig. 5.
How to Test Gold.— Pile a clean spot upon the metal
to be tested, so that any gilding or outside colouring
may be removed. Apply a small drop of pure nitric
acid to this spot, and watch it closely. It the metal
is brass, it will boil up a bright green immediately. If an
imitation gold alloy, it may go black in a few second*
If 9-ct. gold, it will turn a pale brown tint. If 15-ct. or
over, it will remain unaltei'ed. and the acid wiU stand
a yellowish undercoat. Now take some Vandyke
brown ground in water, mix as before, and apply,
with a ragged piece of sponge, putting in the figure
and varying by a tremulous motion of the hand,
blending the colours and removing any harshness by
going over the still moist colours with a badger softener
or a clean soft sash tool. When quite dry, rub smooth
with coarse rag or fine glasspaper, wipe over with rawhii-
seed oil, then French polish or spirit varnish. A slight
tinge of red in the polish will be an improvement.
Producing Crystals upon Wlokorwork.— To pro-
duce crystals upon wickerwork, such as baskets, boil
about 2lb. of alum in 1 gal. of water, and, while still hot,
pour this into a jar large enough to hold the baskets.
When cool, some of the alum will crystallise out, leaving
a saturated solution. Hang the basket in this solution,-
tying a string to the bottom and attaching a weight, so
that the basket is suspended in the centre of the liquid.
If allowed to remain several day a, the basket will become
covered with crystals, which 'will continue to grow in
size If the jar be freely exposed to air.
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
125
Gilding Glass.— For gilding on glass, isinglass and
distilled water are used ; sometimes a little pure spirit
of wine is added, iDut not necessarily, as the best results
can be obtained -witli the distilled water and isinglass
alone ; these must be boiled for about five minutes and
then passed through a filter or white blotting paper.
Three grains of the best isinglass to 6 fluid oz. of distilled
water make a good gilding strength. The liquid Is then,
by means of a broad camel-hair brush, floated upon the
glass, which must be placed in a slanting position. WhUe
still wet the gold is laid on from a gilder s tip and cushion,
and after it has been allowed to dry It is gently rubbed
with a pieoe of fine wadding and the cracks or joints
touched up. A second application of the gold leaf gives
more solidity and makes a better job. It is now burn-
ished again with the wadding and bathed with lukewarm
water to bring up the burnish, drying with blotting
paper. When thoroughly di-y. burnish again, and then
with a size brush dipped in water, with the heat in-
creased each time, go over the gold again, thus giving
It a third bath. It is then again rubbed and finally
coated on the back with gilding size, which, when dry,
is rubbed with the cotton. It is then ready for cutting
into shape, which is done with a strip of wood out like
a chisel. When the letters have been cut they may be
backed with japan gold size or ordinary black japan, or
a mixture or the two. For small ornaments such as
corners, paint directly on the gold with the japan, and
when thoroughly dry, rub -oft the superfluous gold to
leave the gold figures on the glass.
How to Make a Portifere Rod.— The rod A (Pig. 1) is
cut from a broomstick ; at one end is fixed a fancy wood
knob, at the other end a piece of brass pipe to act as
a ferrule ; Into this end is screwed a round-headed brass
4
aM
Fig. 1
vanishes and the face of the marble is in some measure
destroyed. The polishing of marble adds greatly to its
beauty, inasmuch as its delicate figuring and gradations
of rich colouring are brought out and heightened as it
were by the process, which gives marble its value as a
decorative material. With regard to the appliances, for
mouldings the grits are cut into small strips and shaped
into hollows and rounds to fit the various members ; and
tor the polishing boss, an old worsted stocking, tightly
tied up in a wad, does admirably. For plain faoework
the grits are in flat pieces, and are used on edge,
traversed over the face. The polishing block is a piece
of wood from 16 in. to 18 in. long, and 4 in. wide, with a
piece of felt on the underside fastened at each end.
Filtration of Oils Tay Heat.— Tow, such as brewers use
for the filtration of malt liauor, answers well as a filtering
medium for viscous fiuids. The filtration is expedited by
heat, and may be accomplished in the following simple
manner. Two funnels are necessary. One tunnel is
placed inside the other, an indiarubber plug being on
the neck of the inner funnel, around which the outer
tunnel fits. In order that the filtering liquid may be
covered, the top of the inner funnel projects somewhat.
The tow or paper is placed in the inner funnel, and the
interspace contains water, which is kept hot by steam,
which passes into it from a fiask. The excess of water
may be drawn oft by means of a constant level syphon,
or a strip of web-tape hanging over the outer funnel.
The diagram is thus explained : — A is the outer
funnel, which contains water, and into which steam is
passed for heating purposes ; B, inner funnel for filter ;
0, flask containing water ; D, flask to collect filtrate ; E,
Fig. 2
How to make a Fortl^re Bod.
Filtration of Oils by Heat.
Bcrew bent to the shape shown (B, Figs. 1 and 2).
Before screwing this into the end of the rod, it is fitted
Into a brass socket (see A, Fig. 2) originally made for
door bolts to shoot in. The bracket C (Fig. 1) is made
from J-in. iron and bent round the rod as shown, with
one end fitted into a similar socket to that in which
the rod fits. Brass curtain rings are put on the rod
before it is fixed up. To fix it up, the sockets D and E
(Fig. 1) are screwed to the door jamb. The rod is fixed
Inside the room, and when hung with drapery it serves
to prevent a draught blowing on to anyone sitting at
the right-hand of door when the door is open. The rod
could be made of bamboo and with screw-eyes in place
of sockets.
Polishing marble.— Marble, such as is used for mantel-
piece jambs, is polished in a variety of ways, the choice
depending largely upon the nature and quality of the
material, which vary greatly. The following method
vrill answer satisfactorily for vein, statuary, Sicilian,
St. Anne's, Bardilla, and most of the ordinary coloured
mai'bles in general use. The wrought surface is rubbed
with fine sharp sand and water, until all the marks of
chisel or saw are removed and an even surface is pro-
duced. It is then " grounded "—that is, rubbed with grit
stones of varying degrees of fineness, commencing with
the coarse or first grit, usually Kobinhood stone j next
the second grit, which is a little finer ; finishing with
snake stone or Water of Ayr stone. Particular care must
be taken that in each process of gritting the marks or
scratches of the preceding one are removed, so that when
the surface is snaked no scratches whatever are visible.
The gloss or natural polish is obtained by rubbing with
a pad of felt sprinkled with putty powder (calcined tin)
moistened with water. The chief factor in this method is
persistent and attentive rubbing, and a good polish thus
obtained will retain its lustre for years. For speed and
cheapness chemicals are sometimes used' for polishing,
such as oxalic acid, hydrochloric acid (spirit of salts), and
others, but their use is to be deprecated, as the polish soon
glass tubing (steam from is passed along the tube to A) ;
F, burner to heat fiask ; G, tripod stand to support fiask.
Manufacturei of Porcelain and Sarthen ware Goods,
— The finer qualities of earthenwai-e or porcelain goods
are manufactured from mixtures of various clays, calcined
bones, etc., from which every organic constituent has
been burned out. All these ingredients are weighed, and
mixed together in a large quantity of water, and strained
through very fine sieves. When the clay has been
allowed to dry till of the consistency of dough, it is
placed by the potter on a horizontal revolving wheel,
and the lump of clay may become a bowl, vase, or any
other article. When the object is sufficiently dry, it is
ready for the " biscuit " kiln, or first firing, where it is
only partially baked. The design is then painted or
printed on— that is, underglaze, or before the metallic
glaze has been applied. The ware is now ready for
dipping into glaze, literally a form of ground glass
which the half-cooked ware, being very porous, readily
absorbs. It then undergoes its final firing at a much
lower temperature than that of the biscuit oven. All
articles are placed in saggars, or receptacles of coarse
clay, which are next packed in a kiln ; this is simply an
oven arranged with flues in such a way as to equally dis-
tribute the heat. The ilre is not allowed to touch either
saggars or ware, as in the manufacture of coarser goods
such as bricks or terra-cotta.
Blackening and Bronzing Brass.— To obtain a
black colour, dip the brass in a strong solution of
copper nitrate or copper sulphate, and then heat on a
hot plate or hold the article in a Bunsen flame. To
bronze the metal, dissolve IJ oz. of copper sulphate
in 1 pint of water, and pour in a solution of 1 part
carbonate of soda in 2 parts water until the ijrecipitate
ceases to form. Deoant, well wash the i)recipitate with
water, and dissolve it in ammonia until the latter is
saturated. This solution is warmed and the article
dipped in it as before.
126
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
Self-wlndlng Clocks.— Many hare been made. Some
of these are being continually wound up by; means of a
fan placed in a tall chimney shaft, up which there Is
a natural draught that always keeps the tan revolving.
The fan is connected to the winding shaft of the cloolc
by suitable gearing of a speed-reducing nature. Other
clocks are driven Toy electricity; an Impulse is given
direct to the pendulum at each vibration by the closing
of an electrical circuit in which is a weak battery made
by burying carbon and zlno plates in moist earth.
Perhaps the most noteworthy perpetual clock is in the
British Horologlcal Institute, 36, Northampton Square,
London, E.C. It was made more than acentury ago, and
is dependent for its motive power on the variations in the
density of the atmosphere. A sort of barometer con-
taining many pounds of mercury is suspended from a
rocking bar, and the constant shifting of the mercury
causes the suspending bar to rock and drive the winding
arbor by a rack and pinion. This clock has gone for
many years, and has only been stopped to be cleaned.
Machine for Withdrawing Axle Boxes from
Wheels.— Pig. 1 shows the machine in position on a stock
of a wheel ready to force the axle box back. The top
corners are made with knuckle joints, so as to allow of side
play to take various sizes of stocks, the top boss-piece
being made as Fii;. 2, having good stout rivets through the
turps is best, bound with iapan gold size; do not
use more than loz. of gold size to lib. of colour.
Put the colour on a piece of glass, and charge the lining
pencil with the colour. Let the second finger rest on
the edge of the glass as a guide ; hold the pencil between
finger and thumb, and draw your hand towards you. If
only a few lines are to be painted, perhaps it would be
better to use a sign-writer's brush, and, when the lines
are quite dry, to out them straight with a straight-edge
and sharp chisel. Lining pencils are made from sahle
hair, are from 2in. to 2iin. long, and are called lark,
crow, duck, goose, and swan, swan being the largest.
Apparatus for Washing Large Fhotographlo
Prints.-rLarge prints are not generally washed in the
mechanical manner adopted for small prints, because of
the difficulty of keeping the prints from clinging
together, and the impossibility or changing the water
with sufficient frequency. Unless some such arrange-
ment as described below is used, each print should be
washed by itself. The accompanying sketches show two
forms of washing machines for large prints. In Pig. 1
four trays are shown placed in a rack ; each tray is in
turn tilted to a slight angle to allow the water to run
into the tray beneath. The trays may be of enamelled
zinc or of wood coated with paraffin wax j they rest on
four rails {not shown) supported by vertical posts.
Fia 1 --V F'o 3
Machine for Withdrawing Axle Boxes from Wheeis.
Apparatus for Washing Large Photographic Prints.
joints. Por ordinary work the sides should be made of
Iron, lin. wide by Jin. thick, with a good broad duck
foot at the bottom. The top cross-piece is made with a
boss large enough to take a 1-in. screw ; this has a collar
and square on the top end to take the handle shown in
Fig. 3, the bottom end being turned down to A in. so
as to form a shoulder for the circular bolster to rest upon.
In use, the cramp is put on the wheel as shown in Pig. 1 ;
the bolster, which is a trifle smaller than the outside of
the box, is put on the end of the screw, and pressure
applied by turning the screw down until the box,
indicated by the dotted lines, is removed.
Keclpes for Cheap Bed and Black Paints.- Por a
cheap black paint for rough outside work, melt together
equal parts of pitch and coal-tar, and thin to a working
consistency with coal-tar naphtha. The naphtha may be
dispensed with it the melted material is applied hot. A
cheap red paint can be made by slaking lime with water
and adding sufficient red oxide or Venetian red to colour
it ; apply it as if applying whitewash. Allow it to dry,
and tlien brush over with silicate of soda solution (Ipart
of silicate to 4 or 6 parts of water). This paint will be
found very durable.
Painting Lines on a Glass Plate.- To paint narrow
lines on a plate of glass such as is used for show signs,
first clean the side of the glass to be lined with
a few drops of ammonia in warm water : then polish
with a piece of soft paper, and lay the glass flat.
Uix the colour in turps. Dry colour ground in
Fig. 2 shows an arrangement for washing unusually
large prints. In this case the developing tank,
being deep and long, may be used as a washing trough.
The washing machine consists of two circular discs
of wood {the ends of tubs), bored in the centre to
receive an axle {a broomstick), at each end of whicli
a disc is fixed, thus forming the framework of a
skeleton cylinder, the ribs of which are laths stretch-
ing from one disc to the other, and nailed at each end.
Around this cylinder the print is fastened with
wooden clips. At one end or the cylinder sufficient
space is left for a small water-wheel, which may be
driven by water from the tap above it. The outflow is
regulated by a plug, thus keeping the water in the
trough always at the same height. '
Making Clinical Thermometers.— Thess, like ordin-
ary chemical thermometers, are made from special
tubing with a capillary bore. The bulb is blown by a
mechanical blower. The arrangement tor preventing
the mercury running back into the bulb is very simple.
A very small bulb is blown so that the capillary tube
becomes somewhat widened a little above the bulb.
While the tube is still hot It Is nipped or pressed so
that the enlargement becomes much fiattenedj the
flattening of this bulb breaks the thread of the mercury,
so that on cooling the mercury in the tube above the
constriction remains, while that below runs back into
the bulb. On heating, the mercury easily rises througU
the constriction.
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
127
Boop-iron Bond for Brickwork.— Hoop-iron liond
l8 either a plain band of iron, such as is used to
fasten bales of goods, about 1 in. wide by No. 20
gauge thiok, or it is stouter, and specially made with
triangular stabs in it to cause projections, as in
Tyerman's patent. In either case it is usually tarred
and sanded, and then laid in the ' courses of brickwork
parallel with the face, one to each half-brick thickness
of wall, and at such intervals in height as may be directed
by the architect. The object is to strengthen the wall,
' especially where settlements are liable to take place.
Sometimes it is laid in footings only, at other times at
the angles of a building ; andagaln, it may be usual as
a virtual stringcourse round a building between the
successive floors. The only disadvantage that could be
caused by its use would be due to rusting if insufttciently
protected and laid in a damp wall.
Usual Simple Forms of Hot-Water Apparatus.—
The sketches below represent the tiro commonest
schemes of hot-water apparatus in their simplest form.
They would be erected thus for small property, and also
for large property if some of the many special require-
ments or conditions to be found in large houses did not
exist. Fig. 1 shows the cylinder system of apparatus, to
which ,this name is given because in it a cylinder is
nearly always used instead of the square tank. A square
tank may be used when the apparatus only extends,
say, 12 ft. above it, but when more than this a cylinder
is used, because a square reservoir will not bear
the pressure. The connections must be made as
a
Forms of Hot-water Apparatus.
shown. Draw-offs can be from any point on the
expansion pipe np to the level of the water in the
cold cistern. The reason the hot water does not run out
of the top of the expansion pipe is that this pipe is
carried up at least 2 ft. higher than the cold-water
cistern which feeds the apparatus. Fig. 2 shows the tank
system of apparatus, so called because a square tank is
used and not a cylinder, although the latter can be used it
desired (the square tank costs less) . In this apparatus
the tank is fixed above the highest draw-off, and usually
only a few feet below the cold-water cistern. The cold
service is taken into the bottom of the tank, and an
expansion pipe is taken from the top and carried.to a
height at least 2 ft. above the cold cistern. Draw-offs
can only be taken from the flow pipe, not the return, as
the latter seldom has hot water in it.
Tuck Pointing and Re-oolourlng Brickwork.—
The method generally adopted for colouring ordinary
brickwork is to apply with a brush a solution of
green, copperas (lib. to 5 gal. of water). This should
be tried on a few bricks, and allowed to dry before apply-
ing it to.the whole front ; sometimes two applications are
needed. Use, when the bricks are of a superior quality,
a wash formed of I lb. each of Venetian red and Spanish
brown to 14 gal. of water, in which has been dissolved,
while the water is hot, ^ lb. of white copperas, or alum.
This should also be tried on a few bricks, and allowed
to dry before applying it to the wholo front. The joints
should be well raked out, and the front washed and
brushed with a stiff brush. 'When the work is dry,
apply the colour ; and after this has dried, prepare the
stopping. The mortar f oi' this is coloured with Venetian
red and finely sifted smith's ashes orfoundry sand, unless
red sand can be procured. This must also be tried on a
few joints and allowed to (Sry'to see that it is of a suit-
able colour. No more stopping should be done m one
day than can he jointed, foi- If the -work is allowed to dry
the white putty will not adhere. The putty is formed of
finely sifted white lime mixed with linseed oil, and
silver sand, or marble dust, the latter being preferable if
it can be obtained. The putty is applied with a steel
jointer of the width of the joint, on a rule about 7 ft.
long. The rule should have three blocks of wood, i in.
thick, on the back, to allow the cuttings from the joints
to drop clear. The joints are cut with a knife called a
" Frenchman," the end of which is turned up at right
angles. The vertical joints are laid on from a board
formed like a set square, with a wooden handle on the
front, like the handle on a plasterer's hand fioa.t. It
should reach three coursesjn height. When the joints are
all laid on and cut, go over the work with a soft brush
to remove all dust. A sufficient quantity of oolourinij
and stopping should be mixed at one time to cover the
whole. The tuck pointing should be iln. thick.
Enlarging Photographs] by Daylight.— For making
enlargements by utilising the window of a dark room,
construct a bracket A (see illustration) and an up-
right easel B, running in guiding rails X. Outside the
window hinge a reflector D, consisting of a white board
about 24 in. by 20 in., held at an angle of 45° with the
window sash by a cord S passing through the joint of the
window frame. The camera 0, preferably one with a
movement of front for focussing or a lens with rack and
pinion, is placed on the bracket as shown. The ground
glass of its focussing screen may he removed and the
Enlarging Photographs by Daylight
negative inserted in its stead, or a carrier may be made
to fit the slide grooves. Another plan is to place the
negative in the dark slide, removing the partition and
withdrawing both shutters. The size of the enlargement
will depend on the distance of the easel from the
negative and the amount of extension of the camera.
The flner focussing having been done on a sheet of white
paper, make a cap of ruby glass to fit over the lens, pin
up the bromide paper on the easel, and, if the position is
correct, remove the cap and expose. Light must reach
the easel only through the negative.
Staining Fine to Imitate Chippendale.— To stain
yellow pine in imitation of Chippendale mahogany,
procure some burnt sienna, ground in water, mix
with Btdle beer, and add a small quantity of Vandyke
brown and rose pink; mix well together. Apply rather
liberally with a brush, then wipe off with clean rag, flnish-
ingin the direction of the grain. This willf orm the f ounda-
tion. The exact tone required is built up as the polishing
proceeds by adding a small quantity of Bismarck brown
to the polish to impart redness, black for a darker tone,
and rose pink for the peculiar purple tone that character-
ises some Chippendale goods. The colours should be
evenly distributed. Should any difficulty occur in apply-
ing them with polishing pads, use a camel-hair brush.
Dissolving Gum Copal.— Copal varies In ciuality, as
hard, half hard, and soft, and gives best results when
dissolved in properly heated vessels. Soft gums contain
a small percentage of water, and if cold turpentine is
added to the gum when dissolved in spike oil, precipi-
tation is the result. Copals do not readily dissolve by
cold solvents unless the gums are powdered ; they may
then be dissolved in spike oil, if thoroughly mixed.
To prevent precipitation when thinning out, use one
part of spike oil and nine parts of turpentine free from
adulteration.
128
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
Demagnetising a Watch. — Place the watch over
an alternatiDg current tranBformer so that It Is lu
the magnetic field, and then decrease the current
gradually to nothing. Another way is to spin a bar
magnet ,iust over the watch and gradually to withdraw
it ; or the watch may be revolved over the fields of a
continuous-current dynamo, and gradually withdrawn
from the Influence.
Determining Speed of Photographic Shutter.—
Choose an object, say the wheel of a hicyele, which
may he got to make exactly one revolution per second.
Fasten to one of the spokes near the tyre a disc of
bright tinfoil, and focus the wheel as large as the
plate will allow. When the wheel is making one revolu-
tion per second release the shutter. Now, without
altering the camera, make an exposure with the wheel
at rest to serve as a measuring chart. On development
it will be found that the first exposure shows an arc or
smudge of light. The proportion which this arc bears to
the complete circle is the proportion which the shutter
exposure bears to one second, so that all that remains is
to measure the arc with a pair of compasses and divide
the circumference by it. Porabrief exposure of less, say,
than one-fiftieth of a second, it is necessary to have a
special arrangement hy which a wheel can be rotated at
a much higher speed and with greater certainty.
Fastening Legs to a Bamboo Table Top.— Fig. 1
shows a simple method! of fastening the legs. Strips
of deal or other suitable wood are hored to receive
Fig. 2
Fastening the Legs to a Bamboo Table Top.
the top ends of the legs, which are glued and fastened
with a sprig as indicated. The strips should be halved
and glued together where necessary (the halving of one
piece is shown at Fig. 2) , and secured to the underside
of the top with a few screws.
Timber-framed Buildings.— There are many ways of
constructing these, but three methods adopted where
cost is a consideration are as follows :— (1) Planting 7 in.
by 2 in. deals on the face of a wall ; (2) framing
timhers together the half thickness of the wall and then
.filling in the panels with rough deal studs to receive the
laths and plaster; and (3) using metal lathing instead
of the ordinary deal laths. These methods have only
cheapness to recommend them. To properly construct
Buch a building, the timhers of all the angles should
be the full thickness of a 9-in. wall, in fact, 9 in. hy 9 in.;
Bills, 9in. hy 61n.; heads, 9in. hy 6in.; other timbers,
such as curved pieces, studs, and rails, 6 in. by 4 in. The
timbers are grooved on the sides. Jointed together by
the mortise and tenon joint, and secured by 1-in. oak
pegs, to project iin. from the face of the wood. The sOls
should project 14 in. from the face of the brickwork, and
be moulded and throated on the edge. Between the
timhers— that is, in the panels— this is iilled with 4i-in.
brickwork, 1 in. back from the face of the wood, to allow
of sufficient room for the stucco. Behind the whole of
the timber framing another 4i-in. wall is built, to make
it the full thickness of the wall below ; consequently the
timbers that are the full thickness of the wall will be
seen from the inside, which should he covered with flat-
headed nails to form a key for the plaster. After this,
the outside of the panels is covered with Birmingham
adamant cement work to J in. in thickness, the groove
in the timbers acting as a key. The timbers are coated
twice with Oarbolineum Avenarius, once before fixing
and once after, 60 that the blackness of the timber may
contrast pleasantly with the whiteness of the plaster.
Memel, deal, pitch pine, and oak are each used in the
construction of half -timber framing. Good red deal,
if it were possible to obtain it in the sizes required,
would be preferable to pitch pine, which is liable to
crack and open under the influence of the weatlier, but
the use of deal is, from the cause already mentioned,
greatly restricted, pitch pine being chosen instead. In
the majority of cases, oak is out of the question on
account of its cost; but, if a good job is required, and
when expense is not a prominent consideration, oak is
the wood to be used.
Method of Panelling with Veneers.— Wood panel-
ling, although a very suitable and much-used enrich-
ment, is genei-ally very costly. The following is a strong
and effective method of fitting it at a greatly reduced
cost. First cut some oak veneer into sheets about 2in.
longer each way than the required panels. Mark the
lines of the framing on the wall, and glue these
sheets to the plaster, overlapping the marks 1 in. all
round. The wall having been previously plugged,
fasten to it pieces of oak, each about 4 in. by 5 in., to
form the framing, which thus holds the veneer. The
joints between the rails and stiles are merely butted.
FiG. 3
Fie. I
FIG. 2
Method of Wood Panelling with Veneers.
Sham pins, either cut oft flush or left projecting for i in.,
may be added if desired. Fig. 1 shows an elevation of
panelling with an old-fashioned treatment of the mould-
ings, consisting of a double fillet and chamfer run on
the upright members only, and butting on the horizontal
ones, which are left square. Fig. 2 is a section illustrat-
ing the new method of fixing the framing. The panel-
ling is solid, leaves no space to harbour vermin,
and can be polished, stained, or otherwise flnisbed
lu the same manner as ordinary panelling, while its
cost is considerably less than one-third that of the
latter. A further advantage is that, as it is much
thinner than ordinary work, the skirting, 1( already
fixed, need not be taken up and brought forward j for with
suitable mouldings on the bottom edge of the bottom rail
of the panelling a neat junction may be effected. Fig. 3
shows a method of treating mouldings for this purpose,
while Fig. i IS an enlarged detail section on the line A B
in Fig. 1. In Figs. 3 and 4, A represents the framing, B the
plaster, the ground, and D the veneer. If a bolection
moulding is preferred, it should be remembered when
designing it that the general character of a moulding
arises from the contrast of curves with sharp edges ; and,
at the same time, the chief divisions of the mouldings
should not be equal in size, as this tends to produce a
coarse effect. Two or three small delicate mouldings,
followed perhaps by a bold ovolo or sootia, and then by
smaller mouldings again, should, if properly managed,
give that idea of richness which mouldings are intendBd
to convey. It may be noted that oak-wood panelling is,
as a rule, better left rough from the scraper, and, except
when it is to be polished, not touched with the glass
paper, as this clogs up the grain.
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
129
Painting Clock Dials.— To repaint clock dials, all
tne old -paint must first be removed, and the plate
cleaned thoroughly from grease. The -white ground
can be painted with white enamel, obtainable in 3d. and
6d. tins. These enamels dry hard and glossy. The
figures may be painted with black enamel, with a fine
camel-hair brush. If only a single dial is to be painted,
the figures may be spaced out on a piece of paper a little
smaller than the dial plate ; when this paper Is laid
upon the dial to be painted, the marks can be easily
transferred to the minute circle.
Covering a Small Roof with Zinc— A smaU roof of
the shape indicated in Fig. 1 may be covered as shown in
Fig. 2, which is a section across one roll at A— B (Pig. 1) ;
Fig. 3 is a section on C— D of the endroU showing apron to
weather the joint to brick at the gable end ; and Fig. i
a section on E— F showing the eaves dripping into a zino
given, as much as 9 parts water may be used and 10 drops
per ounce of 10-per-cent. solution of potassium bromide.
So. 2 : SulpMte of soda, 75 gr. i carbonate of potash,
100 gr.; glycine, 20 gr.; water, loz. Add glycine last.
Use 1 part with S parts water. No. 3 : Sulphite of soda,
50 gr.; water, loz.; amidol, 5gr. The soda should be
kept as a lO-per-oent. solution, and the amidol added
only when reauired. No. i: Metol, 3gr. ; sulphite of
soda, 40gr. ; hydroguinone, 4gr. ; carbonate of potash,
20 gr; Dissolve the metol first. Use, 1 part with Ipart
water, and, if necessary, 2 drops per ounce 10-per-eent.
solution of potassium bromide. The following formula
for a single fluid developer which will not stain the
fingers may be used for either plates or paper:—
Dissolve 24 gr. of metol in 10 oz. of distilled water, add
loz. of sodium sulphite, 40 gr. of hydroquinone, and
i oz. of carbonate of potash or soda. For use, take one
part of developer and one part of water and add
Covering a Small Eoof with Zinc.
gutter. In section Fig. 2, 6 is a tack or clip about 2i in.
to Sin. wide, H the stand-up of the bay, J the roll cap,
and K a fork or pointed strip with one end soldered to
the under side of roll cap. On sliding the latter into
its position, the loose end of the ^ fork passes under
the clip G and thus forms an invisible fixing. The
top ends of the bays are turned up against a ridge roll
which has a capping similar to A— B. If the ridge
roll stands up about li in. to 2 in. above the others, ■
the saddle pieces shown at L (Fig. 1) are unnecessaiT.
For fixing the eaves gutter, bridging pieces of zinc tube
are soldered in, and through these long screws are
passed for fixing to the ends of the boards, or to a fascia
board if one is used.
One-solution Developers for Photograpliic Nega-
tives.- These developers are usually employed for the
development of snapshot exposures, and are therefore
compounded for under-exposed plates. The following
are given ip grains per ounce, from which any quantity
may be made up by first finding the capacity of a suitable
bottle and multiplying each item by the number of
ounces. Use just sufficient hot water to dissolve, then
fill up the bottle, shaking occasionally. No. 1 : Sulphite
of soda, 100 gr. ; yellow prussiate of potash, 41) gr. ; hydro-
quinone, 25 gr. ; caustic potash, 40 gr.; water, loz. Dis-
solve the potassium hydrate separately. Use 1 part
with 3 parts water. Where more exposure has been
9
1 drop per C)unoe of 10 per cent, solution of bromide of
potassium. li is preferable to increase this to 4 drops
per ounce for bromide paper.
Renovating Plaster Bronzes.— Brush them carefully
with a soft brush and paint the sm-faoe with gold size,
and, when this is sticky after standing a short time,
apply the bronze powder with a pad of chamois leather.
Dry in an oven till the coating is hard, then apply copal
varnish and finally stove the bronzes.
Cementing Leather to Iron.— For uniting leather to
iron, use marine glue, which is made by dissolving 1 part
of pure indiarubber in 12 parts of coal-tar naphtha.
After solution is complete, add 20 parts of powdered
shellac ; warm the mixture gently, and stir from time to
time until properly amalgamated. As the naphtha ia
very inflammable, the heating should be done in a
steam bath in a closed pan. , When made, the cement
should be poured on a cold stone and allowed to set.
Before applying the cement to the iron, the latter
should be roughened with a file apd heated. The
leather also should be roughened on the back with
glasspaper, drawn tightly over the iron while the cement
is still pasty, and pressed into position until it becomes
cold. Rubber tyre cement is practically a marine glue,
and it may be obtained from most cycle-repairing
depdts.
130
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics,
Making Gelatine Moulds.— When making gelatine
moulds for casting plaster ornaments, etc., tne glue or
gelatine must he of good quality; it is soaked
in water till soft, and melted OTer the fire in the usual
way. The gelatine must he of juat suflioient consist-
ency to pour from the can and enter into the fluest
markings of the model. The mould should first he
dusted-over with French chalk, which la afterwards care-
fully brushed off. Before pouring in the plaster, oil the
mould with paraffin oil in which a piece of composite
candle has been melted. This will put a clean, smqoth
skin on the mould, and prevent the plaster from
sticking. The oast should he removed from the mould
as soon as possible, and before the plaster begins to
heat. The mould will peel or scale on the casting through
using poor gelatine, through not oiling the inside of
the mould properly, through allowing the plaster to set
and become warm before being removed, and through
using the gelatine too thin.
Self-feeding Poultry Food Bin.— Fig. 1 shows aisec-
tion and Pig. 2 a front view of the bin, which may be
made of |-in. pine. The sides are made with the grain
of the wood running from top to bottom, a ledge being
nailed across the, lower and top edges to prevent warp-
ing. A A (Fig. 2) show the lower ledges, those at the
top being inside. The front (A, Fig. 1) extends from
the top to a little less than half the depth, and from
this a piece of tin forms tlie front of the hopper and
reaches to the feed-hole B (Fig. 1), which should be
of Buch a height from the ground that the poultry can
object is 720 in., the focus of lens 71n., the rapidity of
motion 20 miles an hour or 352 in. per second : then x =
^ = sJtj of a second, which is the speed at which the
(UU X oOu '
shutter must be worked to obtain a sharp image, assuming
that the greatest amount of blur or confusion admissible
in any point of light must not exceed tAu part of an inch.
It then only remains to find what lens aperture and
plate will allow of so brief an exposure being given on
such a subject and in such a light. For example, if f/8 at
13 noon in June requires ife of a second to secure desired
density of negative, etc., then f/5'6 will be the nearest
stop to give the correct result at the same time.
Black Faint for Lettering on Glass To make a
black liquid suitable for writing letters ou opal glass,
take i lb. of lampblack, dry, and place it ou an iron
plate, well saturate it with turpentine, then set fire to it
and let it bui-n itself out. This will remove the grease—
the non-drying oil— from the colour. Now grind it in
hard drying maatiovamiah, and thin with turps. It would
be better to give the letters two coats of thin colour
rather than one thick coat.
Dyeing Fancy Grasses Various Colours. — Allow
the grasses to soak for some time in a very hot and
strong solution of aniline dye in water. Those dyes
which are not soluble in water may be dissolved in
spirit, and the solution added to water. Some aniline
dyes will colour direct in this way, but others require a
mordanting or fixing agent. For fixing basic dyes, such
FIG. 2
Self-feeding Poultry Food Bin.
reach the grain. The feed-board is hinged to the back of
the hopper at 0, the joint being protected inside by a
strip of canvas. A batten D is nailed across the grain of
the feed-board to keep it from warping, and is extended
through to the back, where a bolt with a thumbscrew is
provided which may be turned to regulate the size of the
feed-hole B to suit the size of the grains of corn that are
being used. The sides are cut away in the centre at E to
give a firmer bearing on the ground. A sloping roof is
provided, fitted with hinges at the front and a hook and
eye at the back.
Meaning of Tension, Compression, and Strain.—
A body is in tension when a force, acting on it
parallel to its axis, tends to separate its particles by
drawing them apart. A compression force is one that
acts parallel to the axis of the body and tenda to force
the particles into one another. In short, a body in ten-
sion baa a pulling f orqe upon it, while, if in compression,
a push would be exerted on it. A strain was at one time
considered as a force acting on a body, but the more
modern idea is to consider it as the change of form in a,
body due to the application of a force.
Speed of Photographic Shutter.— There is no fixed
speed at which a photographic shutter should be worked,
because so much depends upon the strength of the
light, the aperture of the lens, the speed of the plate,
and the rapidity with which the objects it is desired
to photograph are moving. The exposure will gener-
ally be as long as the moving objects will alio w. When
the distance from the camera to the moving object
and the speed at which it travels are known, an
excellent rule is as follows :— Divide the distance
between the camera and object (in inches) by the focua
of the lens multiplied by 100, and divide the result by
the rapidity of motion (in inches) to obtain the anawer
in the fraction of a second. Thus, if the distance ot
as magenta, methyl violet, etc., the grasses should first
be soaked in a hot solution of oak Dark or of sumach,
Many pretty shades may be obtained by first soaking in
a hot solution of picric acid, and then in magenta,
methyl violet, methylene blue, etc. For green, picric
acid and indigo extract m8,y be used. In all cases the
dye solution should be strong and hot, or the dye will
not penetrate. The grasses should be quickly dried
after soaking in the colours.
Tempering Cold Setts for Cutting Steel Rails.—
The methods of tempering ordinai-y engineers' cutting
tools are suitable for setts. Warm water is preferred by
many, but cold water gives a harder temper. Water
which has been long in use is better than fresh water.
Chemicals are not necessary, though a little rook salt
added is said to be advantageous.
Colouring Malleable Castings.— A good green colour
is obtained on malleable castings by blackleading
the castings, and then lacquering them, when heated,
with a green lacquer. Or they may be painted over
with bronze powder, which maybe obtained ot various
colours and tints, rubbed up in best varnish, and heated
in a hot japanning stove. But the best way is to have
them bronzed by electro-deposit of copper, brass, or
other metal ; or they may be tinned in the ordinary
way, and then lacquered with yellow or gold lacquer
when heated in a stove or on a hot plate.
Fixative for Pencil Drawings. — Pencil drawings
made on ordinary di-awing paper may be protected from
smudging or becoming blurred by a thin coating pi
methylated spirit into which some resin has been dis-
solved. The varnish may be applied with a brush, out
a better way is to blow it on with a spray, which may be
obtained at any chemist's. A wash ot milk over the
drawing will also serve to fix it.
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
131
Varnish for Kitchen Chairs.— Such chairs are gener-
ally made of hirch; the cbmmouest kinds are brushed oyer
with glue size stained with Venetian red, then Tarnished
with common varnish heavily stained. The better liinds
are stained with burnt sienna and size or stale beer, then
bodied up with red polish and varnished. One penny-
worth of Bismarck brown, added to Ipt. of varnish,
imparts a powerful red tone. Shellac ioz., resin 2oz.,
benzoin 2oz., and methylated spirit Ipt., make a useful
varnish. Carefully strain. If the varnish is not thick
enough, add more shellac : if it is too thick, add more
spirit. Apply vrith a camel-hair brush.
Design for Small Pulpit. -Fig. 1 shows a sketch plan.
Fig. 2 shows front elevation, with a portion removed on
the left in order to show the stairs. Fig. 3 shows the
side elevation. Enlarged detaUs are given as follows :—
Pig. 4, section through AA; Pig. 5, section through BB;
black. In pleasure carts it Is customary to have the
bodies black, without any lines at all, excepting the
front seats and brackets, but the kind of vehicle deter-
mines in a great measure the manner in which it is to
be Unished. It may perhaps be as well to add that the
broad lines on a trap, usually on the centre of the spokes,
shafts, and springs, represent "picking out," whilst fine
lines are the smaller ones sometimes used by themselves,
when they are called counter-lines, and at other times
edged on the picking out, or run up the centre of the
same, when they are termed split lines.
Boring Holes in Bricks.— For boring holes about
iin. or |in. diameter at anyplace in an ordinary brick
wall, an old twist-bit used as a boring tool may be made
to serve the purpose: a piece of steel tube, such as
cycles are made with, will, if jagged at the end, answer
very well. These tools are only suitable where the
Fulpit for Small Chapel.
Fig. 6, section through CO; Fig. 7, section through DD ;
and Fig. 8, section of handrail. The construction is
fairly simple, but the pulpit would look efEective if
made of good deal and stained and varnished, or of
pitch-pine varnished.
Fainting a Cart.— To be used for trade purposes, it
would look very well with the body painted chocolate
lined out with vermilion; the under parts, such as
shafts, wheels, etc., being painted a light yellow, picked
out with a broad line of black, edged with vermilion.
Another colour for hard wear and to look well is a good
dark green, the body fine-lined with a lighter green, and
the under parts picked out with the same colour as the
lines on the body, and edged up, or gauged off with a
flue line of a straw colour. Blue cannot be recommended
for the purpose, as it has a tendency to fade and turn
white ; but if used for the body it should be flne-lined
veUow and the under parts painted red picked out in
bricks are fairly soft ; with hard bricks it is quicker
and easier to make holes with a chisel and hammer
in the usual manner. Holes may be very guickly
drilled in brick or stone walls by making the cutting
end of the drill in the form of a cross with four cutting
edges. The drill is held in one hand and rotated while
being struck with a hammer. When the holes are re-
quired to be deep, a projection may be made < n the
outer end, by which it can be knocked out of the hole
quickly. The cutting end should be larger than the
shank, so as to allow for clearance, and the shank should
be Bunioiently long to allow a hammer to be used for
knocking it out of a deep hole.
White Cement Floor.— For making a hard white
cement floor for a room, lay an ordinary cement concrete
foundation, about Sin. thick {4 to l),and on this lay a
coat, 1 in. thick, of Portland cement and clean white sand
(1 to 1). Such a floor has a white appearance when dry.
132
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
Efficiencies of Water Motors.— For small power pur-
poses, for pressures ot 60 lb. per square inch and upwards,
II eCBolenoy is defined as the ratio ot the work re-
ceived from the motor cdmpared to that put into it, the
following list may x-epresent tlie effloienoles ot various
water motors when used in clreumstancea that suit the
special types considered :— Undershot wheel, 25 to 4S per
cent, i low breast, 40 to 65 per cent. ; Poncelet, 60 to 70
per cent. ; high hreast and overshot, 60 to ,80 per cent. ;
and turbines from 60 per cent, upwards. TJndershot
wheels and Poncelet wheels are suitable tor heads of 6 ft.
and under! breast wheels for heads over 6 ft. ; overshot
wheels, from 10 ft. to 60 ft. or 70 ft, ; and turbines for any
head according to the design of the wheel. A pres-
sure ot 50 lb. per sijuare inch corresponds to a head of
fiO X 2-31 = 115-5 ft. The Jonval (parallel or axial flow),
Fourneyrou (outward flow), Thomson (inward flow), and
Schiele (mixed flow) turbines are suitable for pressures.
Hot-air Oven.— The modern hot-air oven suitable for
enamelling and japanning here shown is about lOft.-by
8ft. by 7 tt. high, with iron swine doors in front. An
ordinary furnace Are, flre-briok lined, is built at the
further end ot the oven opposite to the smoke flue (see
Fig. 1, which is a longitudinal section), access to this
cover. Fold in the corners neatly, and make a small
roll by running a seam i in. from the outside edges all
round the top and bottom. For best work these rolls
are piped with cord. Fill the mattress with curled hair,
and tuft in rows 6 in. apart with strong twine and red
woollen tufts. To make the mattress square and flrm at
the edges the sides are stitched up with two or three
rows ot blind stitches. For this purpose an upholsterer's
9-ln. double-pointed mattress needle, threaded with
twine, must he used, the needle being passed through
the side about 1 in. from the bottom edge, and brought
out, but not drawn through, 6 in. from the edge on the
top; the needle is then, being double-pointed, backed
out on the side about 3 in. from the place at which it was
first inserted. When the needle is pulled up tight all
the hair contained in the stitch is drawn up to the edge
of the mattress. Stitch all round in this way as many
times as necessary.
Design for Bamboo Cabinet.— In the accompanying
sketch the uprights of top are 2 ft. 6 in. long, the cross
rails 3ft. 31n., and the mirror 20in. by 15in. Use ij-in.
or IHn. canes for the work. Make up the front and back
of the cabinet in the first place, and, while these are
setting, get ovA the back of the top. The two bottom
sections should nowbe joined together. The rails should
Fig 2
Hot-air Oven.
furnace fire being obtained by a flight of brick or stone
. steps. Ordinary furnace bars form the grating, with a
cast furnace door in front. From the right-hand side at
the back of the flre-boxthe bviok flue is carried in the
brick floor, as shown on plan (Fig. 2) , crossing the floor
three times, and then up the side wall into the smoke
flue. These flues are covered with fire-brick slabs in the
usual manner, forming the floor of the oven. On the
left side ot the back of the fire-box a similar flue is built
into the back wall in a direction slanting upward; this
is carried along the side wall, and thence into the smoke
flue. Doors should be fixed in suitable positions for the
cleaning ot the flues. If more convenient to have the
smoke flue in another position, it is only necessary to
alter slightly the direction of the flues. The size of the
furnace must depend on the size of theloven adopted.
STaklng a Hair Mattress. — The top of a hair
mattress is made of sateen Leeds ticking, bordered
with fancy striped Belgian. The underside can be
covered with fine hessian, but if made ot the same
material as the top the mattress can be reversed.
Seam the material to the required width of the mattress,
then machine on a border ot Delglan all round, 5 in.
wide; this will give the mattress a thickness of 4, in.
Let the stripe of the border run the opposite way to the
Design for Bamboo Cabinet.
be about lOin. between if the cabinet is to be 13 in. wide
over all. Make the door frames from perfectly straight
1-ln. canes. These canes should be mitred at the corner,
and a right-angle dowel should be used tor flUing. The
rebate for the glass should be formed with split black
cane. The doors work on pins, which act as pivots.
Renovating BrasBwork of Bedstead. — Take the
loose brasswork to pieces and boil ofE the old lacquer
in a hot solution ot carbonate ot soda and water— 1 lb.
ot carbonate to 1 gal. ot water ; then swill the parts
in clean water, Repolish with strips of flannel "list,'
to which Is applied a mixture ot lime and oil. Then clean
oft with dry lime, and relacquer with a camel-hair
brush. The work should be held in some way, preferably
in a vice.
Darkening a Mahogany Picture Frame.— To darken
a Spanish mahogany picture frame, dissolve loz. of
bichromate ot potash in 1 pt. of warm water. Apply the
solution with a sponge or crush, getting it well into all
quirks or hollows; wipe off any surplus with rag.
Several coats may be given till the desired tone is
gained. When dry, wipe over with raw linseed oil'j
smooth down by well rubbing with coarse rag or finest- ,
grade glasspaper. The work may be finished with Frenon
or wax polish.
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
133
How to Make a Pencil Marking Gauge.— This tool
Is not generally found among woodworkers' ;tools, but
It it were more adopted it would be found an advan-
tage over the common rough way of using the Angers
and pencil as a gauge. It will be seen from the figures
that there are several ways of making the tool. Any
bard wood will do for making this gauge, but beech
is preferable. A piece of wood about 1ft. long and
lin. thick (see Pig. 1) should be chucked In the lathe for
the stem of the gauge. This is carefully turned to
Jin. In diameter, except the end nearest the back poppet
centre, which is left a trifle thicker than f in., so that the
head of the gauge inay be turned on It. For the head a
piece of wood 3 in. square and 14 in. thick will he required j
two lines drawn from the corners will determine the
exact centre of the block. At the centre on one side of
the head a hole should be bored fin. in diameter with
a sharp centre-bit half through j the block is then turned
over, and the other half bored; this ensures the hole
being true. The corners should be cut off the block, so
that it may be more easily turned ; it la then fixed
tightly on ■?'here the stem was left thicker ; it should
be a tight fit. The head should now be turned, so
that when finished it is just 2Jin. In diameter. To
improve its appearance, the sides of the head may be
polished while it revolves in the lathe ; but before this
is done the top and bottom of the head should be turned
FiG 4 FIG ^
How to Make a Pencil Marking Gauge.
perfectly square to the stem, and as smooth as possible,
so that when finished the head should measure li in.
thick. The stem should then be turned, so that the
head slides along its length without being too loose;
the stem is then cut off about 10 in. long, the ends being
out square. Fittingthe wedge isnext to be done; it may be
shaped with a chisel or fret-saw. The round on the thin
end is to prevent the wedge when loosened from slipping
out and being lost. The wedge should be Sin. long and
about iln. thick. The groove in the head is out to
take the wedge ; this may be done with a key-hole or
fret-saw, finishing with a chisel; the wedge should fit
easily without any shake. A hole the size of an ordinai-y
pencil should be bored in the stem about iin. from the
end ! apiece of pencil is fitted in, and the gauge is com-
plete. The gauge illustrated in Fig. 2 is octagon in shape.
A piece of wood 10 in. long Is planed up i in. square each
way for the stem. The head being octagonal, it is best
to make it square first ; it should measure 24 in. When
perfectly true, the comers are cut off; it should be
marked as shown in Fig. 3. This is done with a pair of
■compasses. Using the corner of the block as centre,
and the middle of the block as radius, an arc is described
to the side of the block ; a line from the ends of these
arcs marked across the corners, should make a true
octagon. A square hole to take the stem should be cut
with a J-in. chisel ; a f-in. hole should be bored through
first to facilitate the cutting. Care should be taken
to get the sides of the head square with the stem
when it is fitted in. The head should also slide up
and down the stem easily without side play. The
wedge is cut to shape, and fitted as described for the
round gauge ; and the pencil Is also fitted as described
betoi'e. A good way to sharpen the pencil for these
gauges is with a sharp chisel. It will be found that the
gauge will be handy in using up odd ends of pencils.
A different way of making it, which answers well, and is
less trouble to alter, is shown at Pig. i, which gives the end
view of the head, showing the shape of the hole. The stem
Is cut the same shape as the hole in the head, but slightly
shorter in the flange of the snail. To make the stem,
take a piece of wood 10 in. long, place the head on one
end, and mark the shape of the hole oh it. Do the same
at the other end, and then plane the wood to an oval, as
shown in Pig. 5. Cut a slot in it with a fine-backed saw,
as shown by the dotted lines, and round off the inner
corner. This gauge does not require a wedge to tighten
it, but is fixed at any desired part of the stem by turning
round, the shape of the stem acting as an eccentric. To
loosen it, turn the stem in the opposite direction.
Frame for Working Embroidery.— The accompany-
ing sketches of a corner and back view will give an idea of
how to make a suitable frame on which to work embroid-
ery. The tenon A (Fig. 1) is
cut, not in the middle, but
towards one side of the piece
of wood, to allow space for
a groove to admit the
wedge shown at Fig. 2. The
Fig. 3
Fig. 2
Frame for Working Embroidery.
dotted part shows how this groove is to be out. The
mortise is &rst cut to fit the tenon, and a piece chiselled
out afterwards as shown by dotted lines. This space is
for the second wedge. Fit the frame together, and tack
the cloth on which the embroidery is to be done as
shown at Fig. 2, and, if the hard wood wedges are then
inserted, it will be seen that by tapping them with a
hammer they will expand the framework in every
direction, and thus strain the cloth quite equally.
Fig. 1 represents a corner of the frame ; Pig. 2 a corner
with wedges Inserted and cloth tacked on ; Pig. 3 is a
back view.
Making tMn Glass Covers for Microscope Slides.
—The semi-fiuid glass is first blown out into a very
large thin bulb and the blowpipe swung from side
to side until the bulb elongates into a cylinder.
The rounded ends of the cylinder are cracked off by
applying a red-hot iron wire, and, with a sti-aight wire,
a longitudinal crack is made from one end of the
cylinder to the other. The cylinder is placed on a flat
stove in an annealing kiln for a few moments, when' it
softens and opensat the crack, gradually flattening out
into a thin sheet. The circles are made by touching the
thin sheet with a hot iron wire bent in the form of a
circle, and the squares are cut out by applying hot,
straight wires.
134
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
Deadening Sound coming through Party Walls.
—The fault of Bound coming through a party wall
generally does not lie bo much in the wall itself as In the
jolBts. It will probably be found that the joistBrest in
the party wall, possibly touching each other, and that
the sound is conveyed by the timbers, not by the briolt-
work. The skirting boai-ds, too, may be acting as
sounding boards. If this is the case, "jack up' the
end of each joist, take out the brick below the end of
it, and insert a thinner brick, with two layers of tarred
felt between the brick and the joist, at the same time
wedging a piece of felt between those joists that touch
each other. The skirtings should be taken off, and the
space behind filled with plaster. If the cause is really
in the walls and not in the joists, try covering with one
of the thick pulp papers, such as Lincrusta-Walton,
anaglypta, or Japanese leather paper.
Newspaper Rack in Bamboo,— The rack shown in
the accompanying illustration has four corner posts,
each 19 in. long, slightly bent at the bottom to form
the feet. The posts are connected by three rails A,
B, and 0, back and front, each 15i in. long, and at the
sides by rails D and E, each 9 in. long. Tliere are also
three cross rails running from front to back connecting
the rails A. The rails B and the posts p (the latter
being 131 in. long) are halved where they cross. Con-
necting the posts ris a rail G 15i In. long, to which the
handle H, of |-in. cane, is fastened. Running from the
in position. The square hole should be slightly tapered,
BO that the wedge can be easily released. Eun a saw
kerf straight through the block B down to the slot,
as shown at (Fig. 1). The kerf should be just wide
enough for the scraper S (Pig. 2) to slide freely ; then a few
rubs backwards and forwards will produce an edge
which cannot be otherwise than sciuare with the lace.
It is somewhat difficult for the novice to hold the
scraper perfectly upright, so as to prevent it from
swaying from side to side on the oUstone whilst setting
up the edge. A block something similar to Fig. 1 could
be adapted for holding the stone, or even a square piece
of wood might be held on the oilstone to act as a fence
for the scraper ; this at least would preserve the square-
ness of the edge. It is when the scraper becomes too
dull and rounded on the edges by repeated applications
of the " steel " that the edge requires to be turned over
to an acute angle with the face. The proper instrument
lor turning Over the edge of a scraper is a currier's
"steel," which is a hard-tempered and highly bur-
nished little tool. Lay it flat on the bench, with
the edge projecting Jin. or «0; hold it firmly to
keep it from shifting; grasp the "steel" with the
right hand, handle downwards, and work it along
the edge. The " steel " should be held almost perpen-
Newspaper Rack in Bamboo.
raU 6 are two 4-in. canes K, each about 19Jin. long,
pinned together where they cross, and fixed underneath
the rail D. An inclined rail J runs from B to C, the lower
end being li in. away from the corner post and the upper
end belngiSi in. Another rail L, 9 in. long, inclined In the
opposite direction, meets the rail J about 3iin. from the
top, and in the triangular opening thus formed panels
are fixed. The dotted lines indicate how the cane L
might be fixed if a variation in the design is desired. In
this case the rail B would terminate where it meets L.
The centre of rail A is 6iin., and the centre of B 9iin.,
from the ground, and the distances between centres of D
and E 31 in.
Sharpening a Cabinet-maker's Steel Scraper.—
A scraper, to be of au^ use, must have the edge as
keen and sharp as possible. The contrivance shown
in Figs. 1 and 2 for trueing the edge of a steel scraper
does away with the necessity lor a vice, or even a
bench. It Is so simple that it can be used without risk of
rounding the edge of the scraper. It is easily made from
a piece of any kind of hard wood, 4 in. long, 3i in. deep, by
li in. thick. Dress up the piece of wood to size, and cut
out the slot A (Pig. 1). The slot should be wide enough
to allow a flat, fine out file being easily slipped
through, and it should also be twice as long as the
file Is wide, so that the lull breadth of the file may
be made use of for trueing purposes. Bore a i-in. hole
through the block, and square it out as shown at B;
this is to take the wedge W (Pig. 2) which holds the file r
Sharpening a Cabinet-makei's Steel Scraper.
dicular: an angle of 80 decrees is about right. Then
the edge of the scraper is turned over in this way,
the edge of the work bench forms a guide lor the
hand which holds the "steel," so the operator has
the assurance that the edge of the scraper is turned
over to a regular and certain angle. The proper amount
of pressure to be used can be ascertained only by trial ;
some scrapers require more force than others on account
of their difference in temper. A coarsely turned edge
only works in fits and starts, and is apt to leave the
work with a lumpy finish ; therefore, when turning the
edge, do not give the steel too much angle. After
trueing and setting, the edge should be as keen as a
razor. Many fail to get a good edge on the scraper through
trying to turn over the edge when holding the scraper
edge upwards on the bench.
RepoUshing a Bath Top.— Scrub off the polish with
strong washing soda, using a little powdered pumice
stone or Bath brick to assist. When 'dry, smooth down
with glasspaper. Bath tops are usually French polished
with a trace of red in the polish to make them look rich
in tone. It this is done, and the surface left perfectly
free from grease, and afterwards given an even coat of
best quality oil varnish as used by house painters, a
good wearing surface will be secured. If unable to French
polish, fairly good results may be obtained by the use
of a combined mahogany stain and varnidi, as sold at
paint stores, but a good quality oil varnish must be
used afterwards.
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
135
Wheelwright's Horse for Mortising Wheel Naves.
—The horse shown in Figs. 1 and 2 is to be preferred to
the pit for light work. It stands close against a wall,
preferably under a window; the larger parts can be
made of deal. Itis Tery light, and can easily be remoTed
If desired. In Fig. 2, A shows the front of top of wheel horse
and B the back, each being 4 in. sguare ; o D are the legs,
3in. square; E Bare two pieces connecting front and back
of horse together, 2iin. wide by Uin. thick. These are
driven tightly into a mortise about halfway through
B and pegged or screwed ; the other ends fit fairly tignt
in a mortise going right through A, so that the whole
front of horse, with legs, can be knocked backwards
and forwards to accommodate hubs of different
lengths. Two pieces P F, 2 in. square and 19 in. long with
{-in. bolts, are nailed or screwed on top of wheel horse
and hoUowed out on top for nave to rest in. To strike a
curve on front piece, open the compasses 2i in., and for
back piece 3 in. The nave is fixed with pieces of iron about
lin. wide and I in. thick, dropping loosely over the
bolts and spanning the nave at front and back, which
they are bent to fit. A frame tor a pit for making
very heavy wheels would have to be a fixture; the
front might be 71n. wide in the centre, and taper
on the inside to 3iin. at ends, thus forming a bow
?4ece to allow for the dish of the wheel. The timber
or making the pit frame shown in plan. Fig. 3, should
be Sin. or 4in. thick, the pit being 2ft. 6in. deep.
pinion, 8; fourth pinion, 6; 'scape pinion, 6. Then
60 X 60 X 51 X 13 = 2,527,200 ; and 8 x 6 x 6 == 288. There-
fore, the train = 2-527,200 h- ^= 17,550. Select a hair-
spring of about Vke required diameter to suit the
regulator pins, or a little larger, and lay it in position
on the balance, pushing the brass hairsi)rlng collet
down tightly upon it to hold it temporarily in position.
Then hold the outer end of the spring in a pair of
tweezers, and lift up the balance, just allowing the lower
pivot to rest upon a watch glass. In this position,
give it a rotary motion, as in the watch, holding it as
steady as possible. When once started, the balance
will continue to vibrate backwards and forwards for
more than a minute. Have at hand a watch with a
seconds hand, and carefully count the double vibra-
tions in a minute, or, for a preliminary trial, in twenty
or thirty seconds. If thel trial spring is too slow, try a
stronger one ; it too fast, try a weaker spring. Be care-
ful to hold the spring in the tweezers at the point where
it must be pinned into its stud, as a spring that is too
large for the watch must have several complete turns
broken off before using, and in such a case must be
held in the tweezers for counting several turns from the
outside end. By repeated trials, select a spring that,
when held at the reciuired diameter, counts the correct
number in a fiill minute. To pin it into its collet, put
the collet on a broach and hold in the hand ; cut out
FIG. 4
FIG. 3
Wheelwright's Horse for Mortising Wheel Naves.
The four mortises G are l|in. square, and the ground
should be cleared away underneath them so that the
fleces shaped like Fig. 4 (which are about 22 in. long,
fin. thick, and 4in. wide at the top) may be knocked
back from below. The inner surfaces of these holding
Sieces should be shaved out on the bevel, so that when
riven In they come into close contact with the sides
and top of the hub, thus holding it in place. These pieces
(Fig. 4) take the place of the four thumbscrew bolts of
the wheel horse.
Fitting a New Hairspring to a Watch.— It is
first necessary to know how many beats per hour
the balance is required to make. This varies according
to the kind of watch. A Geneva or an American watch
will lieat 18,000 per hour ; an English watch may beat
14,400, 16,200, 18,000, or some number between. In an
English lever, if the fourth wheel has ten times as many
teeth as the 'scape pinion has leaves, the train is
18,000 ; it nine times as many, it is 16,200 ; if eight times
as many. It is 14,400. A watch with an 18,000 train beats
150 double vibrations per minute, and so on. The
number of beats per minute of a watch balance when
keeping correct time may be anything between
240 and 300. Watch trains are calculated as so many
beats per hour. Thus, a wWch beating 240 per minute
is said to have a 14,400 train, and one beating 300
per minute has an 18,000 train. To ascertain the train of
any watch, multiply together the numbers of the teeth
in the centre, third, fourth, and 'scape wheels. Also
multiply together the numbers of the leaves of the
third, fourth, and 'scape pinions. Divide the first product
by half of the second product, and the result is the nTim-
ber of beats per hour. Thus, centre wheel has 60 teeth ;
third wheel, 60 ; fourth wheel, 54 ; 'scape wheel, 13; third
the inner coils of the spring until the collet will easily
pass through ; then bend the inner end sharply ihwai-ds
to pin in the collet._ T^o cut out the centre, lay the
spring on a watch glass and, holding the inner coil with
a fine pair of tweezers, break off about one-third of a
turn at a time until it is correct. When properly cut
out, and the end bent inwal'ds, pass the hairspring over
the broach upon which the collet was placed, and insert
the bent-in end for pinning. Pile up a smooth brass pin
to fit, flat it on one side (to go against the spring), try
it in the hole before cutting off, and half cut it through
with a knife ; then insert it, and break off, afterwards
pushing it home with the tweezers. Then see that the
spring is flat as it stands upon' the broach, and revolve
the broach in the flngers to test it. If flat, take it off
the broach, lay it on a watch glass, and see that it is
true to centre— that is, that the collet occupies the exact
centre of the spring, and that the spring starts away
from the collet freely, and does not " hug " it. Then
put it on the balance, and again count it for a full
minute, trying it repeatedly until a point is found at
which, when held, it counts one beat per minute too
slow. This is the point at which to pin it in its stud.
Then try in the watch, and if too slow, as it will be a
trifle, shorten it until correct. It is always best to pin
them in a little slow at first, and shorten till right, as,
if the spring is once made too short, it cannot again be
lengthened. When finished and in the watch, be care-
ful to see that the spring lies quite flat, and is free of the
balance arms and the balance cock ; that its outer coil
passes freely between the curb pins of the regulator,
and plays between them nicely : and that the second
coil does not touch the stud or the inner curb pin, and
in a Oreneva watch be careful that the outer coil never
touches the centre wheel.
136
Cyclopaedia ot Mechanics.
stain and Varnish for Towel Rail. — Towel rails
are usually finiBhed in Imitation pine or mahogany.
For pine, mix a small quantity of raw sienna with
stale heer or vinegar; apply with a brush, rubhing
well into all quirlis, and wipe off the sui-plus with
clean rag. For mahogany, use burnt sienna. When
dry, rub smooth with coarse rag or fine glasspaper.
Then coat several times with spirit varnish applied with
a camel-hair brush. A more intense red may be gained
by adding one pennyworth of Bismarck brown to each
pint of varnish. A suitable varnish consists ot
methylated spirit, Ipt. ; sheUac, 1 oz. ; resin, 2 oz.; and
gum sandarach, 2 oz. Dissolve in gentle heat, and care-
fully strain.
Mitring a Cornice nTouIding.— The method ot mitring
the cornice moulding shown by Fig. 1, when the cornice
is built up as shown by the section (Pig. 2), should pre-
sent little difftculty in respect ot the members A and
B. To keep the moulding in position whilst cutting
the mitre of C, place a strip of wood E in the mitre
box (Fig. 3) ; the distance from the edge ot this to the
back of the box must be equal to D (Fig. 2). For ordinary
Wired tubing is made in the same way, the wire serving
in place ot the mandrel. Some tubing is made by knead-
ing between steam-heated rollers the unoured rubber
with sulphur and inert materials, such as zinc oxide,
French chalk, etc., and forcing it through a hole in a
die in which is a plug the same diameter as the tube.
The rubber tube is drawn away as fast as it is formed,
then placed in French chalk and heated to 140° F. The
core of catheters and similar things is an iron wire,
which is withdrawn after curing.
Making Fhotographio Carbon Tissue. — Carbon
tissue may be purchased either sensitised or unsejnsl-
tised. Sensitised carbon tissue will keep for a tort-
night, under pressure ; unsensitised tissue will keep
indefinitely. To sensitise the tissue, immerse it in
a solution ot bichromate ot potash, and let it dry
squeegeed in close contact with glass. This operation is
conveniently performed at night, when, it the room is
kept fairly dark, the glasses may be placed in the rack
over the kitchen fire ; in the morning they will be dry.
Care must be taken to dry the tissues away from -gas or
oil fumes, as these make the tissue insoluble. Many
Mitring a Cornice Moulding.
purposes, mitres made direct from the saw without
shooting are suitable; the saw must have but little
" set," and the mitre box must be true. Should easing
be necessary, use an iron face smoothing plane set Une.
In more important work where the mitres have to be
shot, a screw mitre shoot wUl be found very useful. A
simple form ot shoot can be made by naiUng together
four pieces ot prepared wood and carefully mitring the
end, as shown at Fig. i, in which ^the moulding can be
firmly held while it is being shot by a couple or more
screws going through the box into the back and top of
the moulding, as indicated at G and H (Fig. 4) .
Making Ind'arnbber Tubing. — There are two
methods of mai^lig rubber tubing. The pure rubber
is treated with carbon bisulphide or benzine to form
a dough, which is rolled out into thin sheets and then
cut into strips. A strip is rolled round a cylindWcal
mandrel the diameter ot the tube required, the super-
fluous edges are cut straight along, and the freshly
cut edges touched with rubber solution and pressed
together. The rubber is now cured either by soaking
for the requisite time in a solution of sulphur chloride
in carbon bisulphide, or by heating in a mixture of
French chalk and sulphur to a temperature ot about
140" C. The mandrpl can afterwards be withdrawn.
good authorities, however, consider that better results
are obtained when the bichromate is mixed with the
gelatine before coating the paper. The following is
Burton's procedure :— Cover 4 oz. ot Nelson's opaque or
other soluble gelatine with 15 oz. ot water, and allow it
to sweU tor an hour or so ; then thoroughly dissolve by
placing the jar containing it In hot water. Dissolve
Ijoz. of loaf sugar in 2oz. of water, and add to the
dissolved gelatine. Next dissolve ioz. of potassium
bichromate in 3oz. of water, and add to it sufficient
ammonia to give it a decided odour : then mix with the
gelatine. The favourite pigment is Chinese ink, but any
pigment in a very fine state of division is suitable ; it
should be broken up, and made into a stiff paste with
water. Mix some ot this pigment thoroughly with the
gelatine in small quantities, stirring vigorously, until
more pigment has been added than is necessary to
render quite opaque a thin film spread on pa^er. The
support must be a good tough paper that wiU stand
rough handling when wet. Over the top ot a trough is
then fixed a large glass rod or tube. Two sheets of
paper are placed back to back, and, one end being
brought under the rod, the solution is poured out until
it halt covers the rod; by gently drawing the paper
round the roller the two outside faces are coated. Hang
up to dry, and the paper is then ready tor use.
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
137
Making Watch Hairsprings. — The operation of
making watch hairsm-lngs requires special skUl. In
making by hand, flat wire is fastened at one end tq
the aroorot a winder not unlike a mainspring winding
tool and wound up cinlte tight, and kept flat by a
brass guide on each aide like a bobbin, when wound
singly and released, the spring will open out a trifle only,
and the finished spring is a " close-coiled "one. But when
two or three wires are wound up one over the other, the
results are more open in the coils. The best hairsprings
are afterwards fli-e-hardened and tempered, but common
ones are left soft. They are hardened by being heated
to redness in a box specially made to exclude the air, and
then jlunged into oil or water. They are tempered by
being heated on a metal plate until a slip of bright steel
, placed beside them turns to a lull blue. They are then
polished by means of i-ouge and oil on a peg or wood
polisher (this is very delicate work), and afterwards
"blued" by heat on a metal plate over a lamp flame.
These fire-hardened hairsprings are expensive, but are
always used in the best watches.
Fastening Tenon Saw to Lid of Tool Chest.— A
, simple method of fixing a tenon saw on the lid of a tool
chest is to use a wooden clip, as shown at A (Fig. 1) , which
holds the end of the saw. The handle can be fastened by
a button, as shown at B. When the button is moved to
the position shown by the dotted lines, it will allow of
black. All trees and foliage shouldbe treated in the
same way ; the buildings, etc., should be covered with a
deepened local colour, especially in the dark parts and
shadows. Windows and illuminated parts should be
covered with Indian yellow for yellow lights, and with
lakes for red lights guch as a fire. The dioramic change
is made by gradually tuiming down the light in front
and turning it up at the back. The stronger the light
the better wUl be the effect.
Making Cyanide of Potassium.— Prussian blue, f erro-
cyanlde of potassium (yellow prussiate) , and cyanide ot
potash are now recovered by the Gas Light & Coke Co.
from the purifying materials used. There are two
methods of recovering the cyanogen compounds ; the first
by absorption in the scrubber, the second by absorption
in the oxide purifiers. In the first method a scrubber is
used containing soda or potash and some suspended
oxide or hydrate of iron; the cyanogen in the gas
combines with the iron and alkali to form ferrocyanide,
if the iron Is in excess the compound is insoluble
(probably as Prussian blue), but if the iron is not in
excess, then the compound is soluble. After a certain
period the liquid is run off for concentration. In the
second method the cyanogen is fixed in the oxide of
iron purifiers as Prussian blue (ferric ferrocyanide). By
leaving one oxide purifier as No. 1 in the series long
after it hasbecome saturated with sulphuretted hydrogen
FIG. 2 U.v*^
Fastening Tenon Saw to Lid of Tool Chest.
the saw being taken out. Pigs. 2 and 3 are enlarged
sketches of the clip and button respectively.
Recipe for Dead Black Waterproof Ticket Ink.
—Take Ivory black or any dry colour and grind (on a
slab with a muller) in japan gold size to the consistency
of honey (the proportions cannot be given, as one colour
will absorb more size than another colour). Now spread
the colour on a piece of stout blotting paper, and let it
remain for about an hour j this wUl extract the grease
from the gold size. Collect the colour in a pot and thin
with benzine, as the latter evaporates quicker than
turps, leaving a better flat.
Preparing Scenery for a Diorama.— The kind of
cloth used for dioramas is called union ; it is made in
various sizes, and requires no preparation to receive the
colours. The subject to be represented is first carefully
drawn in outline with a pencil. Then mix some Vandyke
brown with hot double size, and with a fine brush go
over the pencilled outline. When thoroughl^r dry, the
painting of the picture may be proceeded with. JeUy
size is the medium, about 1 qt. of water to a pound of
size. Only transparent colours should be used, such as
azure blue, celestial blue, indigo blue, damp lake, brown
lake, Dutch pink, raw sienna, burnt sienna, Indian
yellow, Indian red, Vandyke brown, ivory black, blue or
sky colour. Break up some" whiting and cover with
water. Take as much a*ire blue as is recimred for
the sky colour, and make it into a paste with water,
adding just enough whiting to make the blue flow
evenly; the colour should be semi-transparent. Cover
the whole of the picture with this colour, commencing
at the top and working downwards. As the work
proceeds the colour should be thinned with the
medium, so that there may be a gradual change
of tint from dark to light. All Illuminated parts
must be thinly covered. When this Is dry, give the
other portions of the picture their local colouring,
and finish off. If the other side ot the picture is
to represent moonlight, draw the moon with a nne
line and slightly tint it with appropriate colour. Forthe
dark parts of the sky, use celestial blue ; for the dark
clouds, indigo; and for very dark clouds, sadden with
as much as 8 or 10 per cent, of Prussian blue has been
obtained from it. The oxide of iron is exposed to air in
the usual way to revivify, and the sulphur extracted by
carbon bisulphide in closed vessels ; the sulphur is
recovered, and the carbon bisulphide used over and
over again. The spent oxide is boiled with lime and
water, when the Prussian blue is decomposed and ferro-
cyanide of lime is produced. The clear solution is
drawn off acidified, and a per and proto salt of iron
added yielding a pure Prussian blue, which is allowed
to settle, washed, collected in bags, filter pressed, and
dried. Prom this pure ferrocyanide of potash is pro-
duced by boiling with the calculated equivalent of
caustic potash. Cyanide of potash is formed by fusing
Prussian blue or ferrocyanide of potash with the right
proportion of carbonate of potash.
Sizing and Varnishing Wall-paper.— To size and
varnish the paper of a hall and staircase, dissolve
7 lb. of size in 3 gal. of boUing water. When cold
it will be of the consistency of a weak jelly.
Apply this to the paper with a double-knot distemper
brush, being careful to go over every bit of the paper.
Twelve hours alter, apply a second coat ot size.
Twenty-four hours after the second coat has been
applied the paper wUl be ready for varnishing. A good
paper varnish may be made by well mixing i gal. of
pale oak varnish, igal. ot turpentine, and Jpt. ot raw
oU. If the weather is frosty, the stau-case and hall
should be heated to about 60° P. If this is not praotic
able, wait until the frost disappears. Spread the varnish
with a hog's-hair varnish brush, commencing at the top,
and working evenly downwards. A second coat of
varnish six months after the first has been applied
would make a first-class job.
Preventing Oxidation of Molten Lead.— Strew pow-
dered charcoal over the surface of the metal; or add
borax, which wUl fuse and form a layer upon the lead,
thus excluding the atmosphere. The brown powder Is
largely oxide ot lead ; it may be reduced by mixing with
finely powdered charcoal and a little borax and raising
to a red heat; from it the lead which it contains can
thus be recovered.
138
Cyclopsedia of Mechanics.
Arohltects' Perspective Drawings.— The perspective
drawings prepared by arohiteots sometimes have the
principal lines put in by the rules of geometrical
perspective as taught In the art schools, hut usually
they are found hy a special method shown in the
accompanying diagram, where a very simple building
Is ohoseu to Indicate the course pursued, 'i'he drawings
angles of the plan, aa on line a 6, writing the names
against the chief ones so as to know one from the other.
A line representing the ground line is then drawn below
i'*^
J^
being often on separate sheets, the plan is first fastened
down on the table by drawing-pins. A suitable point of
view is then selected, and a common pin stuck in to
represent the spectator. A narrow strip of paper is now
fixed by two drawing-pins, and a line ruled upon it in
the position chosen for the transparent plane, or picture
plane, which should touch the nearest angle of the
building, and a straight-edge is used to mark lines
across the picture plane from the pin to all the chief
the .position ot spectator, os if the view were a septlon,
vertical lines drawn from the corners of thebuililinft
and the heights of the angles set off above the grouna
line. Dotted lines are now drawn from the extremitie|. ,
of these to the pin, cutting the picture plane in- tns
Cyclopsedia of Mechanics.
139
Mints marked. Now, for the perspective, take a clean
sneet or paper, and fasten It down on a drawing-board,
pin the strip ct paper a b horizontal near the bottom
edge, and project yertical lines from the points which
represent the angles of the building. Decide where the
Dottom of the nearest angle in the perspective shall be,
and above it set off the heights where the dotted lines
crossed the picture plane, measured from b, and from
them draw horizontal lines to intersect vertical lines
drawn from ah. Join the Intersections, and the two
visible sides of the house will be obtained. Produce
these to intersect on each side, and the two vanishing
points will be found. For the remainder draw vertical
lines from any given points on ab, such as cd, set up
the height of the parts on the front angle of the perspect-
ive, such as ef, place a straight-edge from these points
to line with the vanishing point, and the intersection
with the vertical lines wUl give the required perspective.
UeometWcal perspective is useful as giving a scientific
foundation and reason for the appearances of objects of
all kinds when viewed naturally by the eye. Ordinary
drawings of buildings and details are merely conven-
tional representations, and although theymay be looked
upon as flat models, and are most useful, they do not
represent things as they are seen. Architects' perspect-
ive IS an empirical or "rule of thumb" method suited
to the circumstances, but not available as a basis for
the general study of the subject.
Medicine Cupboard.— Fig. 1 shows a front elevation
and Pig. 2 a side elevation. It is 2ft. long and 17in. wide,
and IS fastened to the wall by four mirror plates, one at
each corner. The four shelves are let into the ends
about iV in. by sawing two gates and cutting out with a
FIG. 2
A Simple Medicine Chest.
narrow chisel. The doors have imitation panels made by
mitreing strips, chamfered at the edges, of a plain door
lln. by iin. The piece sawn out of the top is fastened
to the edge of the top shelf. The bottom shelf is rounded
at the corners to bring it to the width of the end, as it is
narrow where the bottom shelf goes. The ends are of
i-in. wood, the shelves of l-in. wood, doors ^of J-in. ori-in.,
and the back of l-in. wood. A button on the partition
wiU do instead of locks.
Waterproofing Van Sheets.— A waterproof paint for
van sheets may be made by boiling together, at a tem-
perature of 500° P. for four or five hours, ligal. of linseed
oil, 2 oz. of litharge, 2 oz. of umber, and just sufficient
vegetable black to colour it. Another paint is made
from leal, of boiled linseed oil, Jpt. of japanners' gold
size, lib. of vegetable black, and lib. of best patent
driers. The sheet should belaidupona table and painted
with either of the above paints, dried in the open air
for several days, then again painted and dried.
Disinfecting Books.— If the book to-be disinfected is
not of much value, burn it. A valuable book may have
each page dipped in a solution of bichloride of mercury,
blotted and dried, the covers removed and burnt, and
the book rebound. Or the book may be passed through
a hot-air disinfector, the pages being opened so as to
allow the hot air to pass between them ; and probably
the book will have to be rebound. A steam disinfector
is equally effective, but the book will be more damaged
than by hot air, and the covers will be completely
ruined, making rebinding a necessity. At Sheffield,
a disinfecting apparatus is in use in connection with
the free library, the books being placed in a closed
chamber in which carbolic acid is vaporised by heat,
which it is claimed makes the carbolic acid more
SSr^* ^^^ active! the vaporisation takes place at
°u -P.. the vapour being raised to about 200" P., snd
the books being subjected to this process for about
titteen minutes. It is also stated that books can be dis-
infected in fifteen minutes in a closed space simply by
tormaldehyde vapour (or vapour of commercial formalin)
by using Icub. centimetre of formalin to 300 cub. centi-
metres, or less, of air. The books may be placed on
their ends, but the better plan is to hang them up j th6
covers are opened out until they touch each other, and
are fastened together, being suspended from the fastener ;
by this means all the leaves are slightly separated, and
free access for the hot air, steam, or disinfecting vapour
permitted. They should never be placed fiat. These
methods are equally suitable for typhoid germs as for
tuberculosis.
ReviTing Polish on Pianos.— Take equal parts of lime
water, jaw linseed oil, and turps. Well shake the lime
water and oil till a cream is formed, then add the turps.
Apply liberally with wadding, and wipe off with rag.
Clear out aU greasiness, and bring up the polish by
means of a clean rag made fairly moist— not wet— with
methylated spirit. Kepeat if required. Should there be
any peeling off by reason of the paste already on, wash
off with 2 gal. of warm water, to which has been added a
teaoupf ul of common washing soda.
Bed-rest for Invalid.— A simple form of back-rest
suitable for an invalid when sitting up in bed is
Fig 2
■^(ii^/>!!xy^ja!xiifi'j/»:s//^//^/mtmmx&
FlQ. 1
Bed-rest for Invalid.
shown in the accompanying'sketoh. Por its construction
good red deal, birch, or mahogany may be used. Make
three frames similar to Pig. 1, the outer edges being
rounded. These three frames are hinged together as
shown at Pig. 2, the back frame having a slanting edge
to fit into the notches of the bottom frame. A pair of
iron or brass hinged stays, fixed at the sides, will prevent
the sliding back from slipping.
Lacquering Brasswork.- To relaoquer fire brasses,
curbs, etc., have them perfectly free from grease, and
heat them on a hot plate of some kind, and when hot
enough apply the gold lacquer with a camel-hair brush ;
then place them on the hot plate again for a short time.
Take the articles off and allow to cool; do not touch
them whUe hot with the fingers.
Polishing Teak to Resemble Rosewood.— To
stain and polish teak to represent rosewood, dissolve
one pennyworth of Bismarck brown in Ipt. of hot
vinegar and water (equal parts). With this, brush
over the article once or twice. When dry, wipe over with
" red oU," which is made by steeping 2 oz. of alkanet root
in i p1f. of raw linseed oU. The work is then ready for
polishing. As teak is a hungry wood, to gain good
results a grain filler should be used. Mix finely crushed
dry whiting into a creamy paste with turps, colouring it
to match the wood by adding Venetian red and vegetable
black or lampblack. Eub well in in order lo fill Up the
grain. Wipe off clean, leaving the surface of the wood
free from paste, and polish in the usual way, adding
Bismarck to the polish to give a reddish tinge; if a
darker tone is desired, a trace of black may be added.
140
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
Erasing and Re-engraving Initials on Watoh Case.
—To erase Initials from a watch case is a delicate job.
If the letters are in the centre of an otherwise plain case,
tsike a fine flat file (costing about id. at a jewellers
material dealer) , and, with short, Arm strokes, file out
the letters. Then go over the surface with a piece of
snakestone or Tam-o'-Shanter hone, and finish with
putty powder on a piece of soft leilther. It the letters
ai-e in a small shield, the tendency is to damage the
outside work, which would require to be re-eut. With
a small rilBer, or bent fUe with a flat surface, file out
the letters, dress with snakestone fashioned to a point,
and finish as described abOTe. If new initials are re-
quired, first draw them in pencil, and scratch them on
with a point or etching needle. Then whet up a craTer
at moderately sharp angles, outline lightly, put in the
thickening cuts, relieve the whole with light and graceful
sprigged work, and then clean up.
Combined Jewel, Glove, and Handkerchief Case.—
A case made in the form of Pig. 1 will be suitable for
holding jewels, gloves, and handkerchiefs. It Is 14in.
by 8 in. by 9 In. deep, and contains two drawers,
one to receive handkerchiefs and one to receive
gloves. The upper jjart is fitted with a tray to lift
out ; this is to hold jewellery. Figs. 3 and 4 are plans
of the two drawers. Fig. 2 is a plan of the tray ; the
centre part A Is movable, and is arranged to hold a
watch, the latter lying on a cushion formed on a piece of
citric acid. This tends to Improve and retain the bright.
nesa of the image, by dissolving out the remaining iron,
and preventing the deposition of a white precipitate
over the blue. It Is very desirable that the paper should
not in any case be washed for a lengthy period.
Tinning Inside Copper Pipes and Brassworh,—
For tinning any metal it is first necessary to oleaa
it from dirt and sand and remove the surface which Is
oxidised or tarnished. This surface Is removed by pick-
ling the metals for a few hours in clean water containing
a small quantity of sulphuric acid. The metals are then
dipped in chloride of zinc, and afterwards laid in a bath
of molten tin, out of which they are taken and held up
for the surplus tin to drain oft. It is doubtful whether
this process is entirely satisfactory for artificial mineral
waters, as the so-called tinned surface partakes more of
the nature of an alloy of tin and zinc. Unless the proper
appliances are at hand. It Is cheaper and better to buy
the copper pipes already tinned. It is also probable that
white-metal cooks or taps would answer equally as well
as those made of brass, which would have to be tinned
before being ground in.
Contents of Tapering Vessels.— A gallon of water
occupies 2T7'27cub. in., and the capacity of the frustum
of a cone can be obtained by adding to the sum of the
ai-eas of the two ends the square root of their product
and then multiplying by one-third the vertical height.
FiQ.'2
Fia 1
l^\\\\\\\'\\'\V
F,a 3'
Combined Jewel, Glove, and .Handkerchief Case.
T^Ii-in. wood. The part at the back Is left open to allow
the watch chain to fall into the drawer or box under-
neath the cushion. The back part of the tray is fitted
with four compartments to receive trinkets, etc. j the
side parts marked B, with ribbon loops, are for pins,
brooches, etc. ; the sides marked are slotted to receive
rings, etc. The whole of the Interior Is covered with
velvet plush, the inside of cover of the case is fitted
with a bevelled mirror, and the sides are lined with
plush, and buttoned. If a smaller case is required, make
a box In the ordinary manner, and fit It with a tray
as i ig. 2, omitting a compartment in length. To line the
drawers of the glove box rebate the inner upper edge of
the drawers as shown In the accompanying sketch, and
after fixing the lining A, fix in the bead B. T is the top
edge of the division and r the front of the box. The
divisions should stand lower than the upper edge, and
In covering, the lining should be stretched over the
top edge, the raw edges being carried to the bottom.
Glue, if used thick, will not spoil the pile ; if used In
n thin state, the glue will percolate through the founda-
tion, and so spoil the velvet.
Hints on Printing Blue Photographs The de-
tails of the picture should be fuUy out, and the dark
parts should have a bronzed appearance. Careisrequired
to prevent the blue becoming less Intense, and-there-
Jore the white lines not showing up so much. A pi'int
too much exposed appears weak, but the same occurs
with too little exposure. The ferricyanide used should
be as pure as possible. It is affected by air and light,
which may change It into ferrooyanide. The first forms
a blue pi-eoipitate, and the second a white. Crystals of
ferricyanide should therefore be rinsed befoi-e use to rid
them of the changed outside covering. The first wash-
ing water should be acidulated with hydrochloric or
The contents will be in cubic inches if the areas and
heights are measured in square inches and inches
respectively. Of course, there are many varieties of
tapering vessels that will hold 1 gal., but, assuming
that the diameters are 3| in. and .41 in. at bottom
and top of the vessel respectively, the .height can be
determined as follows :— The areas of the two ends
will be 3i X 35 X -7854 = 10-3 sq. in., and 4i x 4i x -7864
= 14"2 sq. In. respectively j the product of these is about
144, its square root being twelve. The sum of the ends,'
etc., is therefore lO'S -I- 14-2 + 12 = 36-5, so that the height
should be 3 X ?^ = 22'7in. (say).
Btching on Copper.— A copper plate is polished, and
fixed in a mixture of resin and beeswax by warming the
wax and laying the copperplate on. All grease is removed
with whiting, the surface of the copper coated with fine
wax, and the pattern drawn with a fine etching needle
passing through the wax to the copper. Nitric acid is
then applied to the surface ; this eats into the copper
plate where pricked with the etching needle, the wax
^eventing the acid from biting in places not required.
When Bulflclently bitten in, the plate is removed, the
wax warmed and pulled carefully off, and the plate
cleaned with turpentine.
Making Night-liglits. — Nlght-Uguts are made by
melting the material and pouring it into metal
moulds in which the wicks have been prevlouslolaoed.
The commoner night-lights are made from parafSn wax,
whilst the better ou6s are made from stearin (the fatty
acids which are obtained from tallow or palm oil by
saponification and pressure) -, or from composite, a
mixture of paraffin wax or cerasin with stearin {gl/yceryl
trietearate).
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
Ul
Copying a Mounted Photograpli.— The print should
be copied in contact with glass. Presuming the print
is upon an ordinary mount (that is, not set hack In a
cutout mount), place it In a frame containing a per-
fectly clear sheet of glass, and press into close contact.
Set up the frame facing a full light, care being taken to
avoid reflection by covering up objects that are reflected
in the shadows of the picture. If a studio is not available ,
the copying should be done out of doors in full sunlight, in
which case it may be possible to avoid grain without copy-
ing under glass. Slow plates are the most suitS,ble, but
much depends upon the degree of contrast in the print,
the printing process to be used, etc. For example, it the
copy is very hard, and the picture is to be printed upon
P.O.P., use a quick plate and the usual developer. If, on
the other hand, the copy is flat and wanting in contrast,
and the negative is for printing in carbon or for repro-
duction, use a process plate and hydrociuinone developer.
Position of Mast in Canoe.— The centre of effort
of a single lug-sail should be about 3 In. ahead of the
centre of lateral resistance of the immersed portion
of the canoe's hull ; the correct position of the mast
will therefore depend on the position of the centre
board. It any, or the shape of the keel, neither of which
is given. The centre of any triangle's area is the point
at one-third of the line from the centre of any side
to the opposite angle. Hence, if the sail be divided by
line AC (see sketch) the points E and V will be the cen-
tres of triangles ABC and A C D respectively. Join these
points by line E 1?. Again divide the sail by the line B D,
find G and H the centres of triangles A B D and BOD; join
G and H, which line intersects EF at 3, the "centre of
effort " of the sail. To ascertain the centre of resistance,
o c
Position of Mast In Canoe.
let down the centre board, place the rudder amidships,
and let the crew on board hold' one end of a string in
such a position that when the other end is steadily
puUed by a second person, the canoe will approach the
latter, remaining at right angles to the string. Mark
this position, and step the mast in order that the sail's
centre may be 3 in. or 4 in. ahead of it measured horizon-
tally. The rudder stock must not extend below the keel,
but the drag maybe curved to 4 in. below it and
extending aft to 10 in. A nearly vertical stern-post is
advisable.
Power trom Waterfalls, Tides, etc.— The different
methods by which water can be made to perform me-
chanical" work are: First, by its weight; second, by
shock, as when a stream of water Impinges at right
■ angles on a moving surface ■ third, by action or im-
pulse, as when an unconflned stream or water meets a
moving surface, the relative velocityJiaving no portion
at right angles to the surface, but gliding along and
ultimately leaving the surface; fourth, by reaction, as
when a stream of water enters, flows through, and
ultimately leaves a moving pipe or channel, which it
completely fills ; and fifth, by a combination of two or
more of the above methods of action. The classification
of the motors may be as follows : (a) Water wheels (the
water acting on the outside of the wheel) are either
undershot,' breast, or overshot wheels ; (6) turbines (an
arrangement where the water acts through the inside of
the wheel) are either on the axial or the radial fiow
system, and may work either by reaction and impulse
combined or by pure impulse alone. Water power is
useful for any industi-y requiring slow-moving, regular
power, such as corn-grinding, ore-crushing, chemical
mixing, etc. Tide motors may be on two systems : in
the former, the tidal waters rush through a small
opening into a reservoir, actuating a turbine which is
fixed in the opening, and the ebb water rushes out
through another opening (the first opening being closed
by a penstock or shutter) actuating another turbine.
The cost of the reservoir, which is practically a tidal
dock, is very great. In the other system, a series of
wooden gates hanging from a frame are set in motion by
the rise and fall of the waves, and their motion is con-
veyed by cranks and rods to an engine. Tidal motors,
especially the latter form, are only available for
purposes not requiring regularity, such as pumping
water for keeping a reservoir replenished.
Rubber Solution for Patching Mackintosh.—
Rubber solution must be made from indiarubber
which has not been vulcanised; Para rubber is con-
sidered best for the purpose. The rubber should be cut
into thin shavings with a very sharp, wet knife. The
shavings may be dried, then placed in a dry, wide-
mouthed bottle, and covered with benzene (coal-tar
naphtha) or carbon bisulphide. Benzene is preferable,
as it does not smell quite so strong as carbon bisulphide.
The bottle should be tightly corked, placed in a warm
place, shaken from time to time, and more solvent added
as the rubber swells. One ounce by weight of rubber
will take from 15 oz. to 20 oz. by measure of the benzene.
This solution will be found suitable for patching a
mackintosh or for use In places where rain penetrates,
but as a dressing for re- waterproofing it will not stand.
Electric Alarm Device for a Clock.— The diagram
below shows how to attach an electric bell to a clock, the
bell to ring at any given time. A' is an alarm device
cemented to the face of the clock. The flexible wire
at B is connected to the battery at 0, and thence to
the bell D and make and brealt switch E. The terminal
connected to the pivot of the switch may be connected
Electric Alarm Device for a Clock,
to a terminal IT fastened on the clock case. Thus a com-
plete circuit is formed with the whole of the api)aratua
in series.
Polishing Tarnished Copper. — The quickest and
cheapest method of polishing tarnished copper is to
buff up the article on a polishing machine; if this
is impracticable, it may be polished by hand. To do
this, mix some fine flour emery with sweet oil until a
thin paste is formed, and, using a piece of house flannel
as a pad, scour the tarnished surface with the paste
until the surface is quite clean. Wipe off the oil from
the copper, and with a dry piece of flannel dust the copper
over with crocus powder, and polish with this until quite
bright.
Painting Canvas Canoe.— Both sides of the canvas
material of the canoe should be painted. The object
in painting the inside is to prevent any water getting
between the framework and the skin and thus rotting
the canvas. Particular attention must be paid to all
inside corners and edges of the stringers j the frame also
must be painted before stretching the skin. There is
nothing better than ordinary paint, but see that the
white lead is good and not half whiting. Use plenty of.
boiled oil for the last coat, as salt water tends to harden
paint. There is not much difference as to the durability
regarding the effects of salt and fresh water.
Removing Brunswick Black.— To remove Brunswiok
black from a stone mantelpiece previous to painting it,
use American potash dissolved in water, and made into
the consistency of paste by adding newly slaked lime.
Apply this with an old brush, and let it remiain on for
a few hours, then wash off ; if the first attempt does not
remove the black, repeat the process. Care must be taken
when using the potash, as. it is dangerous to fingers and
nails ; should any of the liquid get on the hands, they
should be at once well washed in water containing a
little vinegar or a few drops of acid.
142
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
Preventing Ru&t .In Kitchen Boiler.— A boiler can
often be cured ot rusting by giving it two or three coats
of limewash to which has been added a little size to act
as a iixative ; about the same proportions should be used
as in making a whitewash for a ceiling, but builders'
ordinary quioltlime must be used. The first coat must
be well rubbed in. Before applying the limewash the
boUer should be thoroughly cleaned, and as much rust
as possible removed from the surface ; then let it dry.
Meaning of Term Kilowatt. -This is a measure of
electrical power or rate ot doing woric, and means
1,000 watts. It is usually applied to large electrical
outputs, and can be determined by multiplying tlie
electro-motive force in volts by the current in amperes
and dividing by 1,000. Thus, if the electro-motive force
at the terminals ot a circuit were 200 volts, and the
cui'rent in the circuit 250 ampJres, the output would be
200 X 250 = 50,000 watts, or ^''■°"°= 50 kilowatts.
Sham Timber Building.— The usual way to get an
appearance of old-fashioned timber work on a house is by
nailing boards on the brickwork to represent the framed
timber and plastering the intervening spaces flush with
the -wood ; the plaster to be afterwards whitewashed, and
the boards painted a darlc brown. Tolerably stout deal
boards should be used, and for plaster, Portland cement,
with a fair propoi'tlon of sand, is advised. The arrange-
ment of the sham timbers is a matter of taste ; but
suggestions are given In Figs. 1 and 2. By the " look-out
note. If two notes are used together, they may be
nearly alike as is the duplex vfhistle used by ths
police, or they may be tuned in the Interval of a third
major or minor. The combination ot two sounds nearly
alike gives rise to "beats," which are very eftective as
" noises." With two sounds representing the dot and
dash of the Morse alphabet any signal can be trans-
mitted.
Distinguishing Good and Bad Fur Skins.— When
appreciating the good and bad points ot skins of mink,
marten, and other fur-bearing animals, every skin has
its own special points, and age, season, and even sex
must be taken into consideration. In a general way,
the pelts of immature animals will be of little value-
those from breeding females will in most cases be of no
use— and every hole or tear will take off some value even
from good skins. The best skins are obtained during
the coldest parts of the severest winters, when the
underlying fur— the soft, downy part nearest the skin-
will be thickest, and the internal part of the actual skin
most free from black spots and patches.
Graining Walnut in Water-colour For the ground-
work, give a coating of white lead 2 lb., Oxford ochre
2oz., Venetian red 2oz., burnt umber loz., thinned
with equal parts ot turps and boiled oil. Bamp the
work thirty-six hours afterwards with water 7 parts,
beer 1 part, then brush it over with weak beer, burnt
sienna, and a little Vandyke brown, and, when dry,
mottle it with a large mottler. JSTow over-grain with
FlQ. 1
Fia 2-
Sham Timber BuUding.
In the root" it la presumed that a dormer window is
meant. The illustrations show such a window, which
recedes a little from the eaves. It rests on, and is
framed to, the rafters ot the roof. Its triangular sides
and gable will be of lath and plaster. In the elevation
(Fig. 2) a roughly carved barge board is shown in the
gable. This adds much to the effect, and should not be
omitted.
Enamel for Coating Pills.— Finely powdered French
chalk forms the white enamel used as a coating for
pills. The pills are first dipped in a sugar syrup con-
taining white of egg, then placed in the chalk in an
agitating machine, the shaking thus polisbing the outer
surfaces of the pills and producing the enamel-like
surface. The shaking could be done in a tin box if
desired.
Far-reaching Signal Sounds.— An oi'gan reed— that
is, a reed with a vibrator larger than its aperture—
produces a more powerful sound than any instrument
ot the flue-pipe variety. The wind pressure in each
case being equal, a low note can be heard at a
greater distance from its source than a high note, but
a low note requires a larger tube. A note within
the limits of a man's voice, say low P, would be suit-
able. This note could be produced with a tube about
B ft. long. A great pressure of wind is not required. The
most powerful organ pipes speak under a pressure of
about the weight ot 12 in. of water, that is, about 631b.
to the square toot, but everything depends on the
weiEht and flexibility ot the vibrator. The conical tube
used for a speaking trumpet is a suitable shape for a
mouthpiece. Two instruments could be adopted, which
may be used either together or alternately. A short
sound followed by silence is better than a continuous
a hog-hair over-grainer dipped into a thin mixture ot
Vandyke brown and weak beer; use it very freely,
and soften upwards only. While this is wet, the dark
veins and curls should be put in with an over-grainer.
using drop black thinned with weak beer. Soften in all
directions. Glaze or shade with drop black and a little
Indigo. Do not overcrowd the work. When dry, it ia
ready for varnishing. Take as a pattern for the graining
some article of furniture in walnut, such as the case of
a piano.
Oak Finish for Yellow Pine. -Staining and French,
polishing will give the colour ot oak, is generally
considered the best finish, and is readily cleansed.
Pine finish Is easier to gain j generally the polish only
will give it this appearance, especially it dark-coloured
shellac is used. Mahogany and walnut tones are
considered superior, the colour being gained by first
staining. Oak Is not advised as a first effort: to
make the work look really well, and pass for oak,
requires rather clever treatment. Shellac, 6oz., dis-
solved in 1 pt. methylated spirit, makes French polish as
used by most polishers. It gives best results when
applied by means ot polishing pads, but it applied with a
camel-hair brush 2 oz. of resin should be added.
Varnishing Oil Paintings.- To finish oil paintings
that have not been varnished, they should not, as a rule,
be entirely coated with varnish, as this will tend to make
them ob.ieotionably glossy. Whenapaintinghas become
thoroughly dry, certain parts of it will be much duller
than others, and these parts may be brightened by
applying a little raw linseed oil with a hog'sOialr brush.
It the whole picture is dull and requires varnishing, ft
thin coat only of varnish may be put on. Both varnish
and oil should be bought from an artists' colourman.
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics,
143
PoUshlBS Flooring. — first coat the floor with a
solution of patent knotting, made by adding i gal.
of metliylated spiWt to each gallon of knotting. Place
near the fire for halt an hour ; shake well hefore using.
On e hour after applying the first coat, glasspaper slightly ;
then give another coat. Now take some crude paraffin
or paraffin wax and thin with turps j put this on with a
brush. Ifow take a 14-lh. polishing iron, which has a
long handle like a sweeping brush, the iron working on
a swivel, heat it on a coke fire, then work it rapidly to
and fro over the flooring. Do a small piece of flooring
only at one time. '
Perforated Metal Screen for Window.— To make a
perforated tin or zine screen for a window frame 35 in.
wide by 30 in. high, cut from the metal sheet a rectangle
311 in. by 29iin. A tube frame round the edge makes
a neat and strong finish. Now cut two lengths of S-in.
split brass tube 35 in. long, and two lengths for the ends
30 in. long i make the cuts at an angle of 45° so that the
pieces of tube will mitre, and measure the lengths along
the side of the tube opposite to the split seam. Place
the tubes in position round the perforation, solder the
corners strongly, and solder a semicircular-shaped piece
of metal with a hole punched in it to the tube at the top
corners, so that the screen maj' be hung on two brass
hooks fixed at the sides of the window. Clean off the
solder at the mitre joints, polish the tube, and enamel
the perforated part green or other suitable colour, and
the screen is finished.
Simple Folding Table.— Pig. 1 is an underneath plan
of the folding table. A narrow frame A, about 2 in.
deep, is fixed by means of screws or wood buttons to
the underside of the top. The legs are connected to
end pieces B, and fold inwards. The connecting pieces B
to any desired shape, and after evapoi-ation of the
alcohol this material becomes quite hard. To cheapen
the material, large quantities of starch, zinc oxide,
whiting, or barytes are mixed with the above material,
yielding the ivory or bone-like products usually seen.
The coloured varieties are made by incorporating pig-
ments with the celluloid, and tortoisesheil and other
forms are made by special treatment. To soften cellu-
loid, break it small, add a small quantity of camphor,
and then add sufficient spirit to cover the mass. After
standing a few days it will be soft enough to work.
Horn can be softened, but not dissolved, oy treating
it with caustic soda for a short time, whUe prolonged
action of the alkali will convert it into glue.
Copying Manuscript by Photograpliy.— The cheapest
plan of copying manuscript books is to use one of the
ordinary methods of copying written matter. This, how-
ever, necessitates the first copy being written out with
special ink. If the writing is on one side of the paper
only, procure some fairly pure paper and mix together
(A) potassium ferricyanide 2ioz., water 10 oz.; and (B)
ierri-ammonium citrate 2i oz., water 10 oz. Mix an equal
quantity of each, and coat the paper by rubbing the solu-
tion well over it several times with a soft sponge or tuft
of cotton wool. The paper should be coated as evenly
as possible, but no notice need be taken of streakiness,
so long as the paper has been well covered. A convenient
tool consists of a glass tube through which slides a loop
of fine wire holding a tuft of wool. When pulled up
tight, the wire is wound around the top of the tube. As
the potassium ferricyanide is exceedingly poisonous. It
is not advisable to get more on the fingers than can be
avoided. The paper is printed in contact with the draw-
ing or writing in the usual pressure frame, or the sheets
may be fastened together with wooden clips between
FK3. I
Simple Folding Table.
are rebated on the inner edge, 6 in. by i in. The piece C
is 6 in. wide and t in. thick, and is screwed to the centre
of the table top as shown. This piece fits into the
rebates cut in B, and serves as a spring to keep the legs
rigid when the table Is set up. Pig. 2 is a half elevation
of the table showing the spring fixed in the leg.
Fainting Compo Work on Building. — To paint
stone-colour newly compoed work on the front of a house,
mix well together 7 lb. of dry red lead, i gal. of boiled
oil, 1 qt. of turps, but no driers. Coat the compo with
this, and. let it stand for forty-eight hours. TiTow take
71b. of white lead, 4 gal. of boiled oU, 1 qt. of turps, and
41b. of patent driers, and give the compo two coats of
this, letting it dry well between each coat. Forty-eight
hours after the last coat, take 71b. of white lead, 41b.
of yellow ochre, and 41b. of patent driers; thin with
boiled oil so that it will cover nicely. Por washing down
the remainder, boil in 1 gal. of water until dissolved 41b.
of soap cut into thin shreds, then add one tablespoon-
fnl each of alum and carbonate of ammonia. Apply
thoroughly with a brush, and wash off with cold water
before the ammonia has had time to act on the paint.
Asphalt Damp-proof Course.— An ordinary damp-
proof building course may be made. by mixing 12 gal.
coal-tar, 4 cwt. pitch, and 2 gal. creosote oil. It will
take nearly an hour to melt this quantity, and it
should not boil more than a few minutes. After being
poured upon the wall, which should be first swept and
quite dry, it should be sprinkled with sand. The above
quantities wUl cover about 12 sq. yd.
Composition for Making Cheap Combs.— The combs
sold at a penny each are usually made of celluloid,
a composition produced by treating collodion cotton
with camphor and methylated spirit. The camphorated
spirit dissolves the collodion cotton sufficiently to
convert it into a gelatinous mass which can be pressed
two pieces of glass. Printing on this paper requires a
longer time (six to ten times) than silver paper ; but on
taking the print from the frame it merely requires
■washing in water, to the first bath of which it is advisable
to add a little citric acid. This procesa gives white
letters on a blue ground. Por black lines on a white
ground the following is recommended. Make up three
stock solutions : (A) Gum 1 part, water 5 parts. (B) Ferrl-
ammonium citrate 1 part, water two parts. (C) Ferric
chloride 1 part, water 2 parts. For use, take (A) 30
parts, (B) 8 partSj (0) 5 parts. Develop with potassiuni
ferrocyahide (or yellow prussiate) 60 gr., water loz.,
and fix in a lO-per-ceut. solution of hydrochloric
acid. If the writing is upon both sides of the paper,
the only plan wUl be copying through the camera.
The book must be taken to pieces, and pages in consecu-
tive order arranged on a board to go as near as possible
into the size plate to be used, and copied on process
plates, using hydroquinone developer. From these nega-
tives enlargements could be made, or the optical lantern
could be used. Great care must be taken to get a
thoroughly sharp negative : use a lens with a flat field or
a small stop and keep the negatives fairly thin. If, for
example, the pages are 6 in. by 4in.,then twenty-four
of these could be copied in one exposure on a half-plate,
making seventy-five exposures in all. The wet collodion
would be the best and cheapest process to employ.
Removing Iron Stains from White Marble.—
Surface iron stains may be removed by applying a
solution of oxalic acid and then washing with water ; but
it the stains have penetrated through the marble, they
cannot be removed. They mjiy be covered by applying
a little lime cream (lime slaked with water) and, after
drying, brushing over it a solution of silicate of soda, but
this coating would be without polish. On highly polished
marble, zinc- white ground with copal varnish and turpen-
tine carefully applied might serve to cover the stains.
144
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
BemoTlng Damp Stains from Pictures,— To remove
damp stains from prints or engravings, they are im-
mersed in a bath containing chloride of lime. Pastels,
water-colours, and pencil sketches are more difficult
to ivork upon ; in fact. In the case of these latter it is
almost impossible to remove damp effectually.
Double Seats for Sbop.— Figs. 1 and 2 show the ends
of two seats different In design for the centre of a shop.
Fig. 1 is a double seat, with a footboard 10 in. wide
raised 6 in. from the ground. Fig. 2 is a double seat 1 ft. 8 in.
from seat to ground and 2 It. 4 in. wide, with one centre
back rail. The seat shown at Fig. 1 is 2 ft. 10 in. wide
and 2 ft. lin. to the ground, and will be found very
useful, as it enables the shopman to fit boots easily,
A and B are back rails, and the top raU. A centre
leg will be necessary under the footboard and seat, and
cross bearers framed Into the longitudinal rails. The
footboard may be made movable by framing the rails
into the legs of the seat and fixing them by means of
a bolt through each leg, tightened up on the inside
with a wing nut.
Double Seats for Shop.
Strengtb of Beam.— The usual formula for finding the
strength of a beam when simply supported at both
ends is—
W = c
bd^
Where W = breaking weight in cwt. in centre, c = con-
stant (3'6 spruce fir, I'O Northern pine, Dantzio, and
Memel, 3'5 Riga, i'S Baltic oak, 5'0 English oak), b =
breadtn of beam in inches, d = depth of beam in Inches,
L = clear span or length of beam between supports in
feet. Where the load is distributed a beam will carry
double the amount. The safe load for temporary work
may be one-sixth of the breaking weight, but for per-
manent work it is better not to exceed one-tenth.
Cleaning a Plaster Bust. — The best method of
cleaning a plaster bust when it has got blinded by the
finer markings getting dulled with dirt, is by careful
scraping. If the whole figure is simply stained, or
presents a dirty appearance, the best way Is to give it
a coat of knotting— a fine varnish that may be bought
from any house painter— and, when this has become
thoroughly hard, paint the whole with whitewash,
adding a little glue to keep it from rubbing oft too
readily. Whitewash Is preferable to paint for tne reason
that when the former becomes soiled it is easily removed
by soaking the bust in water. The water wUl soften the
whitewash, but leave the varnish underneath intact,
thus making it possible to retain any delicate modelling
there may be, and preventing the finer parts from ge£
ting filled up as they would be it a succession of poats of
paint were applied. To attempt to wash the figure would
only be to further rub in whatever dirt there was on it.
Making a Scribing Block.— The scribing block shown
in the accompanying illustrations is made from a rod
of mild steel 10 in. long and i in. in diameter. This
is turned down to A in., finished smooth, and quite
parallel throughout its length. The top is finished
off as at A (Fig. 1), and the other end, for rather more
than 1 in., is turned and threaded i in. A collar B is
then screwed ou tightly. The bottom disc of iron or
he
t-
ii *
FIG. 4
How to Make a Scribing Block.
gunmetal 0, with the bottom dished out, is tapped to
suit the post. The hole in the sliding block (Fig. 2)
should be a sliding fit oh the post, the saw cut meeting
the large hole i this wUl enable the block to grip tlie
rod and scribingpoint when the nut (Fig. 3) is tightened.
The steel pin (Fig. i) should be turned, drilled, aiid
threaded to fit the nut. Two washers (Pig. 5) are
required, one being grooved diameterwise for the scriDer
to bed into ; they are planed one at each side of tne
block (Pig. 2). The ends of the scrlber (Pig. 6) should be
hardened and tempered.
Clarifying Dextrine.— A solution of dextrine may bo
rendered clear by adding to each pint i drachm of alum
dissolved in J oz. of water ; shake thoroughly, and then
add i drachm of washing soda dissolved in i oz. of water ;
again shake, and allow to stand for a few days. The
hydrate of alumina precipitated out will carry with it
the suspended matter and some of the colour, leaving
the liquid much clearer and brighter.
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
145
stiffening for Straw Hats. — For stiffening straw
hats, thin glue size applied warm is generally used.
Ordinary glue size may be employed for coloured straws,
and parchment size for white straws. For black straws,
add a little aniline black to the size to colour it. Spirit
varnishes may be used for stiffening straw hats ;
ordinary French polish, diluted with methylated spirit,
IS also suitable.
Etching Brass Plates with Acid. — First make a
pencil drawing on paper of the lettering to be etched ;
plain block letters will be the best for the purpose.
Then get a brass plate oi the size required and about Jr in.
thick, and coat its polished side with white wax or ordin-
ary beeswax. To do this, heat the plate and rub the
wax evenly over the surface ; then transfer the lettering
to the waxed surface of the plate by means of carbon
paper placed between the plate and the sketch, and
marked with apeneil. The letters will then appear plainly
on the plate. Then carefully scrape away the wax inside
the outline of the letters, care being taken net to remove
the wax from any part of the plate not to be engraved. A
wall of wax is then put round the plate to retain the
acid, which is then poured on the plate and left there
until it has bitten deeply enough, when it is poured off
and the plate washed in clean water. The plate should
then be polished and the letters filled in with black
japan varnish.
Simple Curtain Rod.— The accompanying sketches
show at A an old gas bracket, large enough for a f-in.
rod as B fitted with curtain rings supporting the curtain.
The bracket is screwed to the door-post C, and a brass
Simple Curtain Eod.
eyelet in the far end of the rod holds a brass chain D so
that it will bear the weight of the rod, etc., the chain
being attached to the post about 20 in. above the
bracket A. Fig. 2 shows a piece of wood which is fastened
to the wall to act as a stop to the rod.
Re-covering Cushion with Moquette or Wilton
Pile.— For a seat 20 in. wide, allow 21 in. for the top, 1 in.
for the joining seam at the back, 6 in. for the square
front, and two piped seams, making a total width of
29 in., providing the seat cover is made out of one piece,
as is usual with edge seams of cushions made of
moquette or strips of leather. The heavy pile of the
cloth prevents a neat appearance. The under lining can
be made of black glazed linen. Machine up before com-
mencing to stuff, leaving one corner open to put in the
stuffing materials. If deep tufts are required, do not
pack tight. If the front and back are made square the
cushion will be reversible. Moquette is the French
name for "Wilton pile.
Aunt Sally Gallery.- An Aunt Sally gallery should
be from loft, to 20ft. long and from 10ft. to 12ft, wide,
" and the apex of the root from 8ft. to 10ft. high,
sloi)ing from 5 ft. to 6 ft. at the side. The posts or
uprights, 18 in. of which should go into the ground,
should be about 3 in. square ; the apex piece for the
roof should be 4 in. wide and lin. thick, and the frame-
work for supporting the canvas should be 2 In. square.
Fasten the woodwork together with smaU carriage bolts.
The dolls, of which there may be one, two, or three rows,
should be about 2 ft. high and about 2 in. apart, six or
eight dolls being placed in each row. The foundation
for a doll is a stick or piece of wood about 2 in. square
and 2 ft. long. The head of the doll is made of tow or
rags tightly wrapped round one end of the stick till it
forms a ball 4 in. in diameter. The ball is covered with
calico, the ends of which are tied round the neck of the
doll; a coat of white oil paint is then applied, after
which the face is painted in. The body of the doll is
10
fashioned from rings of steel wire, the ends of which
are bedded in the wood. First ring, the neck, 3 in. in
diameter; second ring, the shoulders, Tin. ; third ring,
6in.; fourth ring, 5in.; fifth ring, the bust, 4 in. ; sixth
ring, the hips. Sin. Kings 1 and 2, lin. apart; all the
other rings 2 in. apart. The rings are connected to each
other by lacings of finer wire, passing from top to
bottom, the apace between the lacings being 2 in. in the
largest ring. The legs are made of calico stuffed with
tow, and are attached to a piece of wire, 4 in. long, that
has been driven through the centre of the wood just
below the sixth ring. A frilled cap is placed on the head,
and the dolls are otherwise dressed according to taste.
Hinges are used for fixing the dolls to their perches.
Coke -breeze Concrete Floor.— In a large area of
coke-breeze concrete flooring, the coke breeze should
pass through a sieve of 4-in. mesh, all larger pieces
being broken smaller, and be retained on a sieve of
T',i-in. mesh, all the dust that passes through being
rejected. The proportions should be 24 parts of coke
breeze, 2 parts of sharp clean sand, and 1 part of
Portland cement. The whole of the materials should
be carefully measured, and thoroughly mixed in a dry
state. The water should afterwards be added slowly
through a rose nozzle, and the materials turned over
again at least twice to ensure thorough mixing.
Fixing Trellis Work The best way to fix a fenca
of trellis work is to drive stumps (A, Fig. 1) into the
ground, and to nail on them a top rail B and a bottom
rail 0. The trellis can then be nailed to the face of
the stumps and rails. The top rail should be Sin. wide
Fixing Trellis Work.
by 2J in. deep, the top being bevelled on to each side
as shown iu the section (Fig; 2), and a 1-in. by i-ln.
rebate made on the lace side. The stumps should be
2i in. square, and must be driven in the ground about
18 in., the top then being cut off to the right height.
Each stump must be notched to receive the bottom
rail, which must also be notched, so that when the
two are together they will be level or flush on the
face side. The top rail must be notched the depth of the
rebate to fit on the top of the stumps, as shown at D D
(Fig. 1) , and, in fixing it, the rebate must overhang the
face of the stumps ; this prevents the wet from getting to
the ends of the laths. The end stumps must be rebated
in the same way as the top rail, to give a better finish.
Fitting a Mainspring to a Skeleton Clock.— Take
the clock to pieces and obtain a spring of the correct
height and length for the barrel. This should be about
-,',i in. less in height than the inside of the barrel, and
when in, its wire should just be capable of slipping
inside. Ease off the wire tie to the top edge, and slip the
spring in, taking care that the hole for the hook is in
such a position that it will slip on the barrel hook.
When in as far as it wUl go, cut the wire tie and knock
the spring quite down to the barrel bottom by taking
the barrel in the hand and striking the bottom heavily
on the floor or on a wooden bench. If unable to do this,
hold the spring in a duster to protect the hands, and out
the wire tie. Then commence at the outside end and
coil the spring iu a portion of a turn at a time, holding
it tightly to prevent it slipping out. Rest the barrel on
a firm stool during the process and hold it with a duster
lor protection. The operation requires a firm wrist, as
the spring must not be relaxed in the slightest degree
until it is aU in. A little bending with pliers when it is
in will ensure the spring catching on the barrel arbor
hook in the centre. When in and the cover is on, screw
the square in a vice and, with the hands, wind it up
by turning the barrel to the top to see that aU is right.
Plenty of oil should be applied.
146
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
Afflx:n; Gol'l Leaf to Glass. — The only reliable
medium for afflxing gold leaf to ^lass is weak isinglass
dissolved in rain-water. The backing should be red lead
ground in varnish and thinned with turps. Cracking
and chipping at the edges is due to the use of Bruns-
wick black, japan, and asphaltum ; these materials are
nusui.able, beoau.^e cold contracts and heat expands
them to a very marked degree.
Cement for Repairing marble.— A simple and ex-
cellent cement is made by beating the white of an egg
in flour till the mixture is of the consistency of thin
paste. This cement will even withstand hot water, and,
ou account of its colour, is not easily detected. Clear
shellac or superfine plaster of Paris may also be used.
Method of Working Mouldings on Arches.— Arches
of moderate span, say about 6 It., can be worked as
follows:— Two pieces of timbei'ing should be bolted
to the caps of the brickwork columns, on which
another piece is fixed to take the bolt which is in the
centre of the arch, and holds the radius rod in position
(see elevation of arch. Pig. 1). A radius rod shotild be
prepared, to the end of which the templates necessary to
run the mouldings can be Bxei. The plain part of the
wall above arches shonld be flanked in with Portland
cement, this then forming a screed on which the mould
to work mouldings can travel. A mould should then be
cut from a piece of wood to the shape of the moulding,
i in. less being allowed in every part to allow for
the finishing coat. After this has been used to run
the moulding in cement, another should then be pre-
pared to the exact shape and size required, this one
being faced, as shown in section of arch (Pig. 2), with
either copper or zinc. The fine stuff is then laid On the
a grooved seam by folding an edge over on one »a(l
upon the hatchet stake, and the opposite end, is swaged
with a hammer swage, which forms a bead of semi-
circular section along the edge. Half of the bead is
worked over inside with a round-faced hammer on a
hatchet stake so as to form a fold, into which the fold
on the opposite end will fit wheu the body is turned
round. A flange is next thrown off along the top edge
with a round-faced hammer on an anvil stake, and this
flange is worked over towards the outside of the body
upon a hatchet stake, the size of the flange being pro-
Sortionate to the size of the wire which it is to cover.
iraw the fold down over the wire with a mallet, using a
round-headed stake for the body to rest on, and then
close the fold down neatly over the wire with the wiring
machine. With the mallet work round the two ends or
the top to a radius equal to the top of the body, and
then Work the body round by pressure from the hands
upon any convenient tool until it is circular at both
ends; hook the folds together and draw them together
closely upoil the saucepan belly stake with a groover.
Throw off an edge at the bottom with a jenny. Cut out
the bottom, making it sufficiently large to allow an edge
to be taken up to flt over that thrown off on the body.
Planish the bottom by covering the surface with a
number of blows from a flat planishing hammer upon a
bright anvil. Next edge up the bottom and pene down
the edge upon the edge on the body, work the edges
partly over upon the hatchet stake, and close it down
smooth and true upon a mandrel. Next rivet on the
handle, solder round the bottom, along the groove, and
over the rivet heads to complete the body. II a lip is
Method of Working mouldings on Arches.
oement backing, and worked to the required section by
moving this moiild round the arches by aid of the radius
rod, as shown. After the moulding has been finished,
the key block can be moulded and placed in position.
The intersections of the arch mouldings can all be run
by having the toil part of the template, from the dotted
line A upwards, hinged on to the radius rod, so that it can
be held back while passing over intersecting points.
Improving Furnace for Melting Lead Ashes.—
To improve a cube lead-melting furna.ce from which
the slag comes out with the lead and blocks up the
hole, the temperature of the furnace should be raised
gradually and air allowed to enter the furnace to oxidise
the sulphur contained in the coke. The front of the^
furnace should be luted with clay, and a tap hole made
to remove the slag above the lead. It this cannot readily
be done, add a shovelful of lime to stiffen the slag. The
temperature can then be raised and more lime thrown
In, if necessary, when the slag can be removed in
lum{)S. A comparatively low temperature is required
for rich slags and a high temperature for poor slags.
Making Saucepans. — When making round-bellied
saucepans, first cut the pattern for a frustum of a right
cone, usin g the length of the curve of the side as the slant
for the cone, and the top and bottom diameters of the
saucepan for the diameters of the ends of the cone. The
body is hollowed, usually in tacks of four, on a tinman's
block. Commence by woi-king across from side to side
on the block until the whole surface has been covered
and the metal slightly hollowed equally all over. Now
take the metal over a deeper hole in the block, and work
along the bottom edge and up to the centre of the body,
so that the curve of the lower part of the body stands
out more boldly than the top. Again work over the
whole of the surface until the metal is smooth. The
tacks of bodies are then smoothed on a planishing
wheel, separated, cleaned, and planished singly, either ou
the planishing wheel or on the anvil. A square notch is
next cut at both ends of the top, and a corner notch at
the bottom of the body. The ettds are then prepared for
required, the wired edge of the body is held firmly on an
extinguisher stake at the place where the lip is to be
formed, and a few smart blows are given with the heel of
a mallet upon the wire at each side of the stake. A lip
punch is then held firmly on the body from the wire
downwards, and a blow delivered upon this gives the
required taper. Oval bodies are the same size at the top
and bottom, and are usually made in four pieces, the
seams being formed in the same manner as for the
round ones, and occurring at the parts of the oval
where the side curve joins the curve of the end.
When hollowing, the end pieces are hollowed deeper
than the sides, and equally at the top and bottom.
Oval bodies are usually wired after being grooved
together.
Warming Buildings by Hot Water.— The custom-
ary method of calculating the amount of hot-water
radiating surface required to warm a building is to
allow so many superficial feet of radiating surface
per thousand cubic feet of space in each room, hall,
or corridor. Thus, in living-rooms (a dining-room,
for instance), it is usual to allow 15 ft. of radiating
surface per thousand cubic feet of space, and such a
room measuring 15 ft. by 20 ft. by 12 ft. high-whioh
would have 3,600 cub. ft. capacity— would need a radiator
with 54 ft. of surface to it. Entrance halls need 20 ft. per
1,000, as practically all cold air enters here and should
receive warmth before going farther. Bath-rooms, 20 ft.
per 1,000 ; bedrooms, 10 ft. to 12 ft. per 1,000. These figures
will give an i&e■^. of what will be needed for other
purposes. They will afford a temperature of about 62
when there is a hard frost outside. The piping used is
the "red steam" quality. This is stronger than gas or
water pipe. Custom has decided that this is the quality
of pipe to use, but except in very high buildings such a
thick pipe is not needed as regards its ability to resist
pressure. Boilers are made of A-ln. and Hn. iron, and
capable of withstanding any ordinary pressure, but with
high buildings the saddle boiler or any shape having
large flat surfaces should be avoided, as the plates may
bulge out.
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
147
Remotlng , zinc from Solder.— To remoye the zinc,
just melt the solder in a pot, thea take It oft the Are
and stir in a good handful of powdered sulphur or
brimstone until the whole is of the consistency of wet
sand. Replace the pot on the fire and melt, but do not
stir the contents. The sulphur and zinc will rise to the
surface and form into a cake. Now takff the pot oft the
fire and carefully remove the cake without breaking if
possible. This can be done with two pieces of hoop iron
with bent ends.
Design for an Arbour.— Fig. 1 is a plan with dimen-
sions marked, Pig. 2 a front eleyation, and Fig. 3 a side
elevation i at Pig. 4 is shown a section through a rail and
boarding, as at DD (Fig. 3). Fig. 5 shows the construc-
tion of the joint at A (Fig. 3), Pig. 6 that at B, and Pig.
7 the group at C. The general dimensions and sizes of
the principal members are also shown. For the panels
and roofing, }-ln. prepared matchboarding will be most
suitable.; the roofing should be covered with felt. The
is employed, it is either sugar syrup alone or sugar
syrup to which white of egg has been added. The toys
made from pure sugar will not melt iu the sun.
Whlte-enamelltng Furniture. — For white^^narael-
ling the surface of new wood, the foundation Is built
up with gilders' washed whiting and patent or parch-
ment size ; three coats at most should prove sufficient.
This is smoothed down with worn glasspaper. At
least four coats of white' euarael should then be
applied, allowing each coat time to dry before applying
the next. A superior finish can be obtained by French
polishing the surface, using transparent polish with or
without the addition of flake white, as the undercoa,t-
ing may re9Lnire. If the furniture has previously been
enamelled, it is not neoessai-y to remove the old enamel
right down to the wo'od. The surl:ace should be freed
from grease by thoroughly washing with warm water
in which a small teacuptul of washing soda has been
dissolved. A little pumice powder will prove beneficial
—2.8
Design for an Arbour.
sash could either be made fixed or hinged. The arrange-
ment of the seats is shown in Pig. 1. A simple method of
fixing the boarding to the framing by means of beads
at each si,de is shown at Pig. i.
Making Moulds for Sugar Toys.— First make a
model of the toy in wax, and take a cast of this in
glaster of Paris. To do this, procure a small wooden
ox which will hold the wax model comfortably. Mix
some plaster of Paris with water -to a very thick
cream, and pour enough of this into the bo.x to about
one-third fill it. Next pla,oe the wax model upon the
plaster with its base pressed against one side of
the box, and fill' up with more plaster. "When the
plaster has set, take the box to pieces, remove the wax
model, and with a fine saw very carefully out the
mould in half. The cut faces may be smoothed by
scraping carefully with a knife so that they fit close
together. The mould may be improved by warming
and rubbing It with warm paraffin wax or a waxed
cloth until it has received a slight polish. In using the
mould, bind the two halves together with rubber bands
and force the sugar paste or syrup through the opening
left by the base of the wax model until the mould is quite
fall. The colours now used are harmless, coal-tar
(aniline) dyes sold specially for the purpose. If a glaze
Fio 6
if the furniture is very dirty. The whiting and size may
be omitted, and the surface built up with two coats of
white enamel, as in new work. A suitable enamel can be
made by mixing finely crushed flake white in transparent
polish J strain through muslin before use. For a bright
finish, mix flake white iu best quality white hard varnish.
Fitting a New Mainspring Barrel to a Watch.
—In an English lever with fusee and chain, the
fitting of the barrel is a very simple job, the barrel
being merely a brass box. Take the rough barrel
and broach out the bottom hole to fit the bottom
shoulder of the barrel arbor tightly. Serve the cover
in the same way. Then turn the inside of the cover
central boss down until the top shoulder of the barrel
arbor just appears through. Turn down the inside
bottom boss until the arbor has just a little end-
shake in the barrel ; then put in the hook and cut the
chain hook-hole. F6r the latter, drill two small holes in
the barrel and broach one slanting into the other. To
turn the barrel and cover with turns, place them on
arbors ; with a watch lathe, hold them in step chucks
and use the slide-rest. For a Geneva barrel with stop-
work, if possible use the old cover with the stopwork on.
When finished, ease the arbor in the holes at top and
bottom.
148
Cyclopsedia of Mechanics.
Finishing Cement Cornices.— A smooth finish is
obtained by the use of fine Portland cement mixed neat.
As this works " short," it is left a little time till
It begins to set ; then fresh water is added, and it Is
beaten up again. This process brings the cement to
the state known as " killed," when it sets moi-e
slowly, attains a less ultimate strength, and works
easier in the running of the mouldings. If this last coat
is laid some time after the body of the work has set, it is
advisable to wet the surface on which it has to be placed
so that the moisture is not drawn out of the finishing
coat too quickly.
Material for Sketching on Glass.— To make the
material used by sign-writers for outlining letters, etc.,
on glass, melt together i parts of stearic acid, 3 parts of
mutton suet, and 2 parts of beeswax. Add 6 parts
of red lead and 1 part of purified carbonate of potassa.
Mix well together and pour in glass tubes or hollow-
reeds to set.
Making a Finder for a Hand Camera.— To make a
finder for a hand camera, procure a plano-convex or
bi-convex spectacle lens, unedged or centred, of about
1-in. focus (cost, 3d.) ; also a piece of zinc and a piece
of silvered glass. Cut the zinc to the shape shown in
the figure, and bend on the lines A, B, C, D, B, and P.
The first two, being bent outwards, enable it to be
attached to the camera top ; and the last two, bent
inwards, form a support for the ground glass, which
rests at an angle of 45°. 'Without knowing the make
of camera it is intended for, it Is impossible to state
how the finder should be finished and attached; a
very common plan, however, is not to make the finder
complete in itself, but to let the camera top and front
form the remaining sides. In this case, cut an opening
in the camera top II in. by lin., and sink a rebate to
hold the ground glass, rough side inwards. This may he
the grain is to run ; then with a fine comb go over the
coarse combing in a zig-zag manner : this will cut up the
combing like the fine fibres seen in real wood. Now take
a piece of rag, fold it over the thumbnail, and wipe
out the lights. The most important thing in graining is
to get clean joints. Even if the work is otherwise well
done, a bad Joint spoils it. The work is then ready for
coating with copal varnish.
Affixing Anaglypta.— When attaching Anaglypta and
Lincrusta Walton to ceilings and walls, all but light
quality should be trimmed with a metal-edged straight-
edge and a sharp knife, such as a shoemaker's knife.
The material having been cut to the required lengths
and trimmed, should be pasted with ordinary paper-
hangers' paste. Let it stand tor fifteen to twenty
minutes, then cover it with ordinary paste to which is
added one-fourth glue, and at once hang the material
before it commences to dry. Use a cloth for pressing
the Anaglypta to the wall, as a roller presses down the
relief. Lincrusta is hung in a similar manner, but for
this a roller can be used, as the relief is solid. A better
finish is gained by first lining the ground with a common
brown paper.
Heating Chicken Rearer.— The accompanying sketch
shows a small heater 8 in. by 6 in., with about 9 ft. of i-in.
pipe attached. There is an air valve on top of the
heater, and a small filling cistern is connected to the
return pipe. This would fall owing to aii* in the pipes, and
it must be diiflcult to fill the pipes without locking air
in with the pipes arranged as shown. Putting an air
pipe to each pipe at the point marked with an asterisk at
A should prove a remedy; these two air pipes either
going up separately or .ioining together, but in each
case they must go as high as the little cistern. This
point should be the highest point in the 61rculation, the
floT pipes from the top of the boiler rising, say, lin.
Making a Finder for a Hand Camera.
fixed in with pins. Fix the frame with the mirror, and
sink the lens in a recess until the image is sharp, then
fasten in with a ring of wire. With strips of black paper,
block out on the ground glass of the finder as much of
the picture as is not shown on the screen of the camera.
The best finders tor instantaneous work are those of the
brilliant pattern, but these are not easily made. One
should be chosen the image of which does not vary with
the angle at which it is viewed.
Power of Model Steam Engine. — A steam en-
gine has a steam pressure of 25 lb. per square inch,
the bore of the cylinder being I in., the length ot the
stroke l|in., audi the speed 35U/revolutions per minute.
Tile maximum effective pressure may be 22 lb. per
square inch. The area ot the piston is I x 1 x •7854
IJ
= •7851 sq. in., and the length of the stroke is J2 = j'ltt.
Then, if the engine is double-acting, and the steam supply
is kept up throughout the stroke, the maximum indicated
.„ , 22 X ,'j X •7(J5i X 350 X 2
power will he Siom ~ ^V horse-power
(say ) . The maximum brake-power will be less than this
—say a*,, horse-power.
Light Oak Graining.— To grain and varnish yellow
deal a light oak, first kill all knots by applying a coat of
shellac (knotting) over them; then prime with light
colour. When the priming is dry, putty holes and make
joints good, etc. Now paint a second time with light
colour ; when this is dry, lay on a ground made of lib. of
white lead, 2 oz. ot patent driers, and 2 oz. of Oxford ochre.
Thin with oil or turps (some gralners prefer a dead
ground, others a bright ground to grain upon). Forty-
eight hours after the ground is dry, rub down slightly
with fine sandpaper. The work is now ready for grain-
ing. The graining colour should consist of 2 oz. ot
Vandyke brown or 2 oz. ot burnt umlier. To tliis should
be added, for a warm shade, I oz. of burnt sienna ; for a
cold shade, 1 oz. ot raw sienna. Thin with equal parts of
oil and turps, and add driers in the proportion of about
loz. to Ipt. Brush over the work sparingly with the
above colour, getting it as even as possible. Now draw
a coarse graining comb down the board or panel the way
Heating Chicken Kearer.
to the air pipes, and then descending I in. from this
point towards the cistern connection.
Making Tube Chimes.— A set of chimes may be made
from tubing suspended from a frame. These metal tubes
are open at each end, and composed of a special alloy.
Their musical pitch varies according to their thick-
ness, diameter, and length. The longest tubes sound
the deepest notes, and are usually both larger and
thicker. It the tubes were all of the same material
and diameter, their pitch would vary solely accord-
ing to their length; and given two tubes, one twice
as long as the other, the long one would sound the
same note as the short one, but one octave lower. Eight
is a good number for a peal, tuned to a complete octave. ,
The distance apart does not affect the tone. The tubes are
suspended by silk or leather thongs threaded through
holes at each side near the top. They are struck uear~
the top end with leather-faced hammers. To form the
scale, make one (the longest, 2tt., 3ft., or 4ft., according
to fancy and the note desired) aiid set its measurement
down on paper, for the longest, and another, half its
length, for the shortest ; then draw a slanting line from
the lower end ot one to the lower end ot the othei^. It
the remaining six tubes are now drawn in between the
longest and shortest, at equal distances, the slanting
line will cut off each to its proper length. These lengths
are only approximate, and the tubes will require tuning
in unison with an octave on a piano, cutting them down
carefully until each one sounds the note desu'ed.
Cement Rendering on Rubble Wall. — Portland
cemeut and sharp sand should be used in the pro-
portion ot, say, 1 cement to 3 sand. The cost would
vary with local circumstances, but might be about
2s. per yard super, for plain face finished from the hand
float, with, say, 3d. per yard extra for jointing to imitate
ashlar work; mouldings, say Jd. extra per inch girta
per toot run ; arris edges, Id. per foot run. A ■''ihble
wall is generally supposed to be required one-tnird
thicker than a similar brick wall. Brickwork, say 9 in.
for top floor, and 44 in. extra for each floor below.
Rubble walling, say 12 in. for top floor, and 6 in. extra tor
each floor below.
Cyclopsedia of Mechanics.
149
Working Paper Pulp.— To give the pulp tenacity,
It is boiled In a solution of gum arable or size. To
make figures, the pulp is poured into the mould and
a counter mould pressed over the mass so as to make
the casting a mere shell. For flat articles, like trays,
etc., different thicknesses of sheets of paper are glued
together and pressed so as to become one. To make
casts of heads in relief, stiff, unsized paper is damped
and placed with the dry side next to the figure to be
moulded. It is then patted with a cloth into all the
markings of the object, and after about five minutes is
taken off and left to dry. A polish impervious to water
is obtained by using a varnish composed of turpentine,
amber, and ivory black. This is applied in a heated
room, and the cast afterwards placed in an oven.
Design for a Model Brickwork Clock-stand.—
The accompanying design represents a gateway, over
which is the opening lor the clock. Two types of
arches, are shown— one camber or flat, the other semi-
circular. There Is very little enrichment, and what
there is might be dispensed with and plain brickwork
substituted. The string-coursing, capitals, and bases of
linseed oil. Common washing soda, carbon.ite of soda,
or water in which lime has been slaked, will give different
shades. A French method is to rub the surface with
dilute nitric acid, which, when dry, may be brushed
over with a solution of Hoz. dragon's blood and ioz.
carbonate of soda dissolved in 1 pt. of methylated spiriii.
Brickwork and Foundations for Tall Chimney.—
In constructing chimney shafts tor Lancashire boilers,
tlie area of the chimney at the top is based upon
the size or capacity of the boilers. Thus, area in square
. , 180a 100 HP 1.5 p
inches = — — = — — ^ = — — r, where a = area of fire-
gra1:e in square feet, HP = indicated horse-power of
engine, or I' =■ quantity of coal consumed per hour in
pounds. The diameter externally at the base should
be A to fi of the height. The latter should be O'S in.
to the foot, or about 1 in 33, though this is not impera-
tive. The brickwork should be 9 in. in tUckness for the
top 25 ft., and increase half a brick at each 25 ft. from the
top. If the inside diameter at the top exceeds 4ft. 6 in.,
the top length should be 14 bricks thick, and each of the
^.he pUlars could be made of 3-in. moulded bricks. The
chamfered plinth might also be constructed of bricks,
though plain terra-cotta pieces of the full depth would
be preferable. The brickwork could be carried out as
far as the outside pillars, and still leave Buffielent space
for the small flower vases as shown in the design. If
the space between the pillars be left empty, a second
pillar will be required at the back to support the entab-
lature. Small statuettes, vases, or any bric-ii-brac,
might be appropriately placed over the pillars as illus-
trated, or a mirror could be let into the vacant space for
the gateway. An approximate idea of the sizes may be
gathered from the courses of brickwork.
Darkening Mahogany.— To darken mahogany, en-
close the finished articles in an air-tight box, on
the floor of which are placed a number of shallow
dishes containing liquid ammonia '880 per cent. The
fumes, which may play around for hours, have such
a penetrating power that a thin shaving of the wood
might be taken off without disturbing the colour ; this
treatment does not raise the grain. Stains may also
be applied with a brush. Dissolve Ioz. of bichromate
of potash in 1 pt. of water ; two or three applications
of this may he given, and, wl^en the stain is dry, the
colour may he enriched by wiping over with red oil,
obtained b.v steeping 2oz. of alkanet root in ipt. raw
lower lengths consequently half a brick thicker. The
foundations should be carried down to the solid ; they
should be spread out so as to make a good broad base,
and the load on the foundation should not exceed 1 ton
on the square foot. After arriving at what appears to
be a solid bed, it is a good plan to sink a trial hole under
the centre of the chimney some feet lower ; it the ground
is found to be good, the hole may be filled with concrete
at 10 or 12 to 1. The base for the chimney should consist
of a solid block of concrete, 6 to 1, not less than 2Jft. or
3 ft. thick ; and as concrete is cheaper than brickwork, it
may be carried up in concrete to the invert of the flue.
Making Crocus Powder.— Crocus is an oxide of iron,
and it is made by calcining copperas (sulphate of iron) •
the residue is divided into two portions, a bright red
p iwder known as rouge, and a bluish-red powder known
as crocus.
Making Putty Powder.— Putty powder Is made by
heating metallic tin in a furnace, and thoroughly
stirring it so as to bring it in contact with the air;
the tin is gradually oxidised, forming first a grey
powder and finally a white powder of oxide of tin, or
putty powder. The commoner kinds of putty powder
are made from an alloy of 75 parts of tin and 25 parts of
lead.
160
Cyclopsedia of Mechanics.
Graining Mahogany In Water Colour.— Mahogany
graining should be worked on a ground made irom
white lead, Venetian red, and chrome, first damp the
work to he grained with a sponge dipped in water to
which has been added a little f uUer's-earth or whiting ;
this will prevent sissing. The colours required are
Vandyke brown, burnt sienna, mahogany lake, and blue
black— all ground in water; these may be bought in
tubes from Is. each. The tools required are a 3-in.
mottler, a medium-size sash tool, a thin hoghair over-
grainer, a small beveUed cutter, a sable pencil, and a
badger hair-softener; these would cost from 10s. upwards.
The method of working is as follows : Rub up on a palette
a little Vandyke, burnt sienna, and lake with weak beer
and water, keeping each colour separate; dip the sash tool
in the colours and cover the work, which in some places
should be dark and in others light, in the direction of
the grain. Next dip the mottler in water, wipe it on
the washleather to take out superfluous water, then
mottle the work to imitate the real wood; soften off
with the badger brush. Higher lights or feather mark-
ings can be taken out with the cutter ; soften the work
as it proceeds. The work may next be overgrained by
using the thin overgrainer with blue black. Divide
the hairs by drawing it through an ordinary comb whilst
wet. Use the sable pencil for the fine or feather work.
Weight, Measurement, and Streugtb of Timber.—
Information on the weight, measurement, and strength
of timber is scattered through various books, from which
the following table is extracted :—
Timber, Selected Quality.
White pine
Spruce fir
Larch
Honduras mahogany
Elm
American red pine ...
ITorthem pine
Eaurl pine ../
Ash
Beech
Baltic oak
Pitch pine
English oak
Teak
Spanish mahogany ...
Greenheart
(1)
28
31
a5
a5
37
37
37
38
45
47
48
50
50
50
53
60
fi§8
1-5
1-5
1-5
2-0
1-6
2-0
1-9
3-0
3-0
30
1-8
1-8
2-5
2-5
2-8
3-0
2-2
2-9
2-8
3-5
3-8
3-2
2-9
3-2
3-8
3-0
5-8
(2) (3) (4) (5) (6)
3-8
3-6
3-5
4-9
3-0
4-0
4-0
4-8
5-0
4-5
4-3
5-0
50
5-0
5-p
8-0
"'is
■27
■22
•58
•60
■76
•90
The safe load in tension and compression, columns 3
and 4, would be from one-tenth to one-flfteenth of the
amounts given. The safe bearing pr^sssure across the
grain of timber as at the ends of a beam will be about
one-fifth of the amounts given in column 6. Column 5
gives the coefflolent C in the formXila W = b d^ •*- L.
and the sate load would be about one-sixth of W for
temporary work, or one-tenth for permanent loads.
Deepening tbe Colour of Electro-gilding.- When
chains, etc., are electi-o-gilt their surfaces are coated
with a film of pure gold, which assumes a pale yellow
tint when deposited from a new solution, or from a
slightly warm one, or by a very low tension current.
The colour may be deepened by re-dipping in an old
solution or in one heated to 180° P., or under the influ-
ence of a ID-volt current. If the chain is made of bronze,
copper, or dark brass, or coated wltl^ a deep colour gold,
the deep colour ma.y be restored by carefully heating it
on a sheet of iron over a gas stove, or over a charcoal
fire. The chain must be moved about whilst being
heated, and removed at once when the colour comes.
When cool, it must be polished by brushing with a hard
brush.
Varnishing Oil Paintings.- The primary object of
varnishing an oil painting is to protect it, much in the
same way as glass is put over a water-colour drawing ; in
fact, valuable or delicately painted oil pictures ai-e often
Srotected by glass, and a lot of future trouble saved,
[astic varnish is used for oil paintings because a thin
coat is generally suificient to bring out all the detail in the
dark parts without giving a vulgar gloss. It has very little
colour, and can be easUy removed when necessary, which
is not the case when a "durable" varnish, that Is, one
made from hard gums and drying oil, is used. An oil
painting from the artist's studio should be carefully
hung up to lean forward slightly, so as not to catch any
dust, etc., certainly not over a fireplace or near a gas
burner. At the end perhaps of about three years van
surface dirt, fly spots, etc., should be removed with a
clean wet cloth (not flannel) and a coat of varnish
applied. This will protect the surface of the picture from
futui'e atmospheric Influences ; In fact, all dirt, etc. .will be
on the varnish instead of on the pictv/re. Mastic varnish
will sometimes "bloom," that is, the picture ivlll be
covered with a slight opalescent film. This can be
removed by breathing on a small portion at a time and
gently rubbing in small circular strokes with a tuft of
cotton wadding. KTever partially varnish a picture,
because even mastic will turn yellow with age, and show
an objectionable distinction between what is varnished
and what is not.
Comparison of Beaum^ Hydrometer Degrees with
Specific Gravities.- The degrees in the Beautn^ hydro-
meter for both heavy and light liquids can be transposed
to ordinary specific gravities by the following tables,
from the German. The first is for liquids heavier than
water:—
B. Degree.
Specific
Gravity.
B. Degree.
SpecifiA:
Gravity.
B. Degree.
Specific
Gravity.
1-
18
1134
46
1-431
1
1-C07
20
1-152
48
1-462
2
1-013
22
1-167
50
1-490
3
1-020
24
1-188
52
1-520
4
1^027
26
1-206
54
1-551
5
1^034
28
1-225
56
1-583
6
ro4i
30
1-245
58
1-617
7
1-048
32
1-267
60
1-652
8
1-056
34
1-288
62
1-689
9
1-063
36
1-310
64
1-727
10
1-070
38
1-333
66
1-767
12
1-085
40
1-357
68
1-809
14
I-lOl
42
1-381
70
1-854
16
1-118
44
1-407
75
1-974
The following table applies to liquids lighter than
water : —
B. Degree.
Specific
Gravity.
B. Degree.
Specific
Gravity.
B. Degree.
Specific
Gravity.
10
1-
ao
■936
41
•811
11
-993
24
•913
45
•807
12
-986
25
•907
48
•794
13
-980
28
•890
50
•785
14
•973
30
•880
52
•777
15
•967
32
•869
55
■764
16
■960
35
•854
56
■760
17
■954
36
•849
• 58
■753
18
■948
40
•830
60
■7io
19
■942
42
•820
Phosphorescent Paint,— Luminous paints require
direct sunlight for some time, and the phosphor-
escence they displajr in the dark only lasts for a few
hours. Luminous paints are usually made by heating
oyster shells in the fire until they become white, and
then placing them in a crucible with sulphur and melt-
ing. Another method is to mix thoroughly 100 parts
chalk and 40 parts flowers of sulphur, and heat in a
closed crucible until fumes cease to be evolved. Powder
the residue of calcium sulphide, mix with the smallest
possible quantity of gum water or glue size, and use it
as a paint ; it is said to be not so good if mixed with
boiled oil or varnish. Luminous paints can also be
made by using strontium carbonate in place of chalk.
Oxidising Steel and Silver.— To oxidise silver chains
to a good dark colour, dip them in a solution of potassium
sulphide 24 grains, sal-ammoniac 40 grains, water Ipt.
For steel chains, dip them in sodium hyposulphite
200 grains dissolved in water I pt., then rub with sand or ft
scratch-brush. Repeat till the desired colour is obtained^
Meaning of Term "Amp6re-tvirn." — The term
" amp6re-turn " is applied to winding dynamos and elec-
trical instruments. The magnetising effort of a coil
carrying a steady electric current depends on the pro-
duct of the number of the complete turns or loops in the
coll and the current in amperes, and the magnetic eitect
thus produced is measured in ampisre-turns. Of course,
the coil is supposed to be wound so that the magnetic
effect of the turns is in one direction. Thus, if a coil of
sixty complete turns carries a ourr.ent of 5 amperes, the
magnetic effect of the coil is 60 x 5 = 300 ampSre-turni.
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
151
Incandescent Burner for Oil.— The accompanying
sketch shows an ordinary central draught oil lamp
argand turner adapted for use with a mantle. It is so
designed that the entire outside;, including mantle and
chimney, lifts off for lighting and trimming, and leaves
the wick-tube standing clear. This is not absolutely
essential, but it lessens the risk of damaging the mantle.
The tube A fits into the wick-tube as shown, and can be
removed if a mantle is not available, and carries with it
aU the special fittings. Another tube B is attached to A,
contracted, and perforated at 0. On the top a flange D
is fixed. InsldeB a socket Fis fixed to support the disc or
" spreader " E. A Cone G is attached to the removable
part of the burner, from which the wire H rises to
support the mantle. When the wick is lighted, and
raised about halfway between the top of the wick-tube
and flange D, air enters through the triangular space K
(always present in a burner with a conical wick-tube).,
Part of the air-current goes through the perforations C'
in B and is slowed down by so doing. It is directed
against the inside surface and edge of the wick,
and develops from the wick the gas of combustion. A
rapid current of air enters through perforations ,1, and
by the tightened nut, makes a pound joint which soon
hardens. Leather should not be used, but a collar cut out
of sheet indiarubb'er will make an excellent and clean
joint quickly prepared. The hole in the rubber over the
Tail of the cock (inside the boiler) should bg a close fit.
Making a FaralBn Blow-lamp.— The parafBn blow-
lamp here shown is used for removing paint from doors,
etc. The reservoir A is made of thick sheet bi^ass
strongly soldered. It has a hollow B in the top, in the
centre 'of which the burner is screwed, an asbestos
washer making all air-tight. A pipe C, about iin. bore,
is soldered into the burner, and reaches nearly to the
bottom of the reservoir. An air-pump D is soldered or
screwed into the reservoir, so as to permit the burner to
be screwed in, and a piece of small tube E conveys the
air from the pump to the top of the reservoir. The
burner consists of a solid brass casting T?, the bottom
part of which is formed into a hexagon G to fit the
spanner, and a screw is cut to fit the screw collar H. A
hole is drilled to meet the tube C, as shown by dotted
lines at J. and another hole is drilled at K so as to run
into J. Two short pieces of tube L' and L', about Jin.,
Incandescent Burner for Oil
FiQ. I.
making a Paraffin Blow-lamp.
rises between cone G and the wick-tube, and carries the
flame up from the outside and outer edge of the wick,
whereby a blue fla'toe of intense heat is produced.
Another current of air rises in the centre of the burner
and issues laterally between flange D and spreader E.
This causes a whirling or eddying motion of the air and
the vapour of the oil,, ensuring thorough mixture and
freedom from soot and smell. It also causes the flame
to rise in the form of a long cone, completely enveloping
the mantle. Tet another air-current rises through the
perforations L and keeps the flame away from the
■chimney. The air-currents are indicated by arrows
without letters appended. A cone outside G, and some-
what higher, may be added, over which the end of the
mantle will slip, and thus will be held steady whilst the
lamp is moved about. The wick winder is not shown.
Some experiment will be necessary to get the right pro-
portions, between the air-currents.
Fastening Range Tap.— To fasten a brass tap that
has become loose in a kitchener, the nut on the tail of
the tap inside the boiler must be loosened and removed
and fresh packing material put around the tail before
replacing the nut. The usual packing is a ring of
hemp, called a " grummet," which has a mixture of red
and white lead worked into it, and this, when eomprejsed
are soldei'ed on so as to cover up the holes in P. A piece
of tube M, mitred as shown (Pig. 2), is soldered to L' and
V, the dotted lines showing the position, aud another
piece of tube, U-shaped (N, Fig, 3), is soldered to M. A
nipple O, with a very fine hole in it, is screwed into N,
the tube having another piece of metal soldered to it to
provide thickness for tlie screw thread. On working the
pump, the space xp. the reservoir above the oil will be
filled witli compressed air, which will force the oil up 0,
through J and K into L' and I/, round M, then into N, and
out of the nipple O. Some of the oil is allowed to run
into the hollow B, and is lighted. As.soon as the burner
gets hot enough to gasify the oil in the tubes the gas
will issue from the nipple with a roar, ignite, and, as it
passes through the centre of M, will turn the oil therein
into gas, and so become self-acting. A nozzle or tube Q
is attached as shown to concentrate the flame, and a
handle and screw cap for filling must be added. A small
air-tight tap must be soldered in the top of the reservoir
so as to let the air escape when the lamp is done with.
Experiment will show how much oil is wanted. If the
flame is too large for general use, or if the burner gets
choked by too much oil, the tube C can be pinched in a
little at the bottom, or by making P a little taller a tap
might be arranged for. Brass and hard solder must ba
used throughout.
152
Cyclopasdia of Mechanics.
Cleaning Floor Tiles.— For cleaning glazed terra-
cotta floor tiles, a rub with a dry or Rlightly damped
flannel is all that is necessary. Unglazed floor tiles
occasionally present a white scxim on the surface,
caused by the evaporation of the lime and cement used
ia the foundations. In cases where the tiles have been
laid on new foundations, this scum may continue
appearing for some months. The floor is not injured by
this, ana the scum may be easily removed. Floor
tiling should he cleaned two or three times a week
with soft soap dissolved in tepid water and applied
with a hand ecrubbing-brush. Paint spots or similar
stains, and also cement marks, may be removed by
pouring on them a small quantity of sulphuric acid
diluted with an equal quantity of water and allowing it
to remain for a few hours. It should then be washed ofl:'
and, if necessary, again applied till the stain has dis-
appeared. For removing ink stains, use nitrous acid in
place of sulphuric acid. Particular care should be taken
when using these acids, as they will burn both hands
and clothes. A piece of old flannel may be used for
washing the acid from the tiling.
Preventing Knots showing through White Enamel.
—White-enamelled articles made of cheap wood show
the knots and dark parts of the grain. . To prevent
this, dissolve 2 oz. of pale shellac in 4 pt. of methylated
spirit, then mix in some finely crushed flake white.
Apply this solution to the knots, etc., with a camel-
hair brush ; several coats may be laid on so long as the
solution is evenly distributed. Any harsh edges must be
smoothed down with flne glasspaper before applying the
enamel, which should not be used too thin.
Fixing Cylinder Pivots in Watch.— The cylinder of
a horizontal watch is composed of a thin, polished steel
tube open at each end. Into the open ends plugs are
fitted, and the pivot is formed by turning the plug end
smaller, and is therefore solid with the plug. When a
pivot is broken, the plug is knocked out with a Rpecial
punch shaped as shown below, a new one fitted, and
the pivot turned and polished to fit the jewel hole. In
knocking out the plug, rest the cylinder on a stake with
copper, 3 parts. Medium : flne gold, lO parts j flne sIlTer,
parts; copper, + parts. Common: flne gold, 84 parts:
flne silver, 64 parts ; copper, 5 parts. The solder is cast
in long ingots, rolled thin and flat, and cut up, or filed
into dust, and thus applied to the cleaned joints, using
borax as a flux. After the joint has been closed under a
blowpipe flame, the whole ring is annealed on an anneal-
ing plate to a dull red heat, then cooled, pickled in
acid, and polished. The film of grease left on by the
polishing process is washed off in hot soda water, and
the ring dried in hot sawdust. Hard-soldered rings may
be coloured with a film of electro-deposited gold.
Bleaching Bone Grease.— Bone grease may be
bleached by adding sulphuric acid and then
thoroughly washing in water. Use two tanks, lined
with lead, one above the other, and fitted with agitat-
ing gear: the, lower tank should be fitted with a
perforated steam coil. The melted grease is first run
into the upper tank, and for each 10 gal. 1 lb. to IS lb.
of strong sulphuric acid is added, and quickly agitated
with thfe grease for about half an hour. The grease ia
then run into the lower tank, in which it is thoroughly
washed with several lots of hot water and steamea.
After settling, to further clear it the purified grease
may be run off Into a tank kept in a warm place, or
the grease may be run into barrels it the presence of
a small quantity of water is not detrimental.
Boehm System of Fingering for Oboe and Clario-
nette.— The Boehm system of fingering, which was
introduced about 1846, consists in making the keys
(which formerly closed by springs) open automatic-
ally, the closing being effected by means of rings
round the finger holes. By adopting this device,
hfiles can be bored in more correct positions, and
the fingers are not strained by stretching. Bass
fingered wood-wind instruments are also made pos-
sible. Even in the flute the holes are very far from
being in their best position. In the accompanying
illustration of a flute it will be seen that the lowest
flnger hole is too high ; if it were in its right place it
would be too far for the third flnger to close it, therefore
L
Funch for Removing Cylinder Plugs.
graduated holes in it. Let the brass collet rest on the
stake and gently tap the punch. In most cases the plug
comes out easily; but sometimes the brass collet will
shift flrst, especially when the plug is very tight. In
such a case, to start the plug use a stake with coned
holes, and when once started the plain hole stake can
be used ; select a hole which exactly fits the plug and
that will not let the cylinder body come through. To
turn the pivot, warm the cylinder gently on a brass
plate or over a flame and run it full of shellac ; this
makes it solid and firm to turn and prevents breakage.
Also, if turns are used, fix a turning ferrule on by means
of shellac. If a lathe is used, cement the cylinder in an
ordinary wax chuck having a coned hole into which the
bottom pivot of the cylinder is firmly pressed, and it is
run true in the lathe while the cement is warm by means
of a pointed watch peg.
•
Preparing a Signboard for Gilding upon.— The
hoard should be well rubbed down with a flat piece
of pumice-stone and plenty of water to efface any old
writing and also to get a level surface. The rubbing
should be done lightly with a circular motion. Should
the stone clog, free it by rubbing two pieces to-
f ether; wash oft with clean water and allow to dry.
or the flrst coat of paint, beat up 41b. of genuine
white lead in turps, add 4 lb. of drop black, and thin to
the consistency of cream with good carriage varnish
and turps; this will make a dark lead colour. Lay
on evenly with a i ground hog -hair brush. The
mouldings may be done with a medium size sash-tool.
When thoroughly dry, the board should /be lightly
glasspapered with flne paper; then dust off and
give a coat of all drop black ground in turps thinned
with varnish; allow time to dry hard, and give the
final coat, which should be quite flat, made from drop
black ground In turps with just enough varnish to
bind the colour. This last coat should dry off without
gloss. The gilding can then be proceeded with.
Hard-soldering Gold Rings.- For hard-soldering a
gold ring without discolouring it, use solders containing
gold, which is afterwards brought to the surface by a
process of annealing and pickling. The solders are pre-
pared to suit the quality of the gold to be soldered,
BO that they may " colour " well and thus hide the
joint. The following is a list of coloured solders ;—
Best solder : flne gold, 124 parts ; flne silver, 4J parts ;
System of Fingering Flute.
it is brought nearer, and made smaller, the result being
that what is gained in convenience is lost in tone.
Hiccama therefore made his flutes with open keys for
this and the corresponding hole on the middle joint,
closing them by leverage, which is brought to an easy
position for both of the third flngers. Another advantage
of the Boehm system is the better manipulation of the
fingerings, by which the alternate opening and closing
of the holes work the keys which produce the chromatic
sounds. In the one-keyed flute, nearly all these
sounds must be produced in this way ; and even when
keys are provided it Is sometimes easier to use the
fork or cross fingerings. Thus, let 1, 2, 3 represent the
right-hand fingers, and all closed holes represent D, 1
and 2 closed E, 1 closed F sharp ; the fork for P natural
would be 1, 3 closed, 2 open. Now if hole 2 is bored, so
that with hole 3 open it makes a good P sharp, it by no
means follows that the closing of 3 will enable the open
hole 2 to produce a true F natural. By the use of a small
auxiliary hole, and rings round 2 and 3, both sounds can
he made perfect. If the Boehm system could have been
adopted in its entirety, self-closing keys would have been
superseded by self-opening keys: but that being found
■ impracticable, the system has been modified, and Is
partially applied to very many instruments, one of the
most advantageous being Barro's improvements for
oboes and clarionets. It is really a combination of
old aud new systems, whereby a lever allows the self-
opening keys to act, while they are closed by rings
round the proper holes when they must be shut.
Solution for Electro-Silvering.— To make a good
silvering solution, procure 2oz. of the best crystal-
lised silver nitrate and dissolve it in Iqt. of distilled
water. Also procure 2oz. of best potassium cyanide and
dissolve it in 1 pt. of distilled water. Add this a little at
a time to the sUver nitrate solution, and stir well each
time with a glass rod until no white curdy precipitate is
caused by the addition of a few drops. Allow the white
curds to well settle down, then pour off all the liquid.
Pour on clean water, allow the curds to settle a^ain, and
repeat the process several times; finally, drain ofl as
much of the water as possible. Dissolve these white
curds iu a solution of potassium cyanide and add a little
surplus to make it work freely. Use anode plates of pure
silver, and work cold iu a stoneware or glass vessel with
current from two Smee cells, or from two or three
Daniell cells.
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
153
Making Portland <3einent Wash.— To make a Port-
land cement wash of a light stone colour, llrst spread
the cement dry on tne floor for five or six hours,
then well mix with water In a large tub. The con-
sistency must he judged by the condition of the wall
to which the wash is to be applied. To every 5 gal. add
1 qt. of soluble glass ; keep well stirred when using.
This will make a grey stone colour, but not that
known in London as stone colour.
Constructing the Corner oi a Billiard Table.
—Pig, 1 shows the pla,n of the corner, the figured
dimensions indicating how it is produced. The outer
lines are at right angles, the inner lines are parallel
with it, A being the intersecting point of the inner,
and G of the outer. From point G mark off 41 in. on
each outer line to H, and a line 2i in. long square with
it to I. With point A as centre, and the radius A J,
insci'ibe the segment forming the inner edge of the
pocket-holder ¥. With point K as a centre and a radius
of l|in., inscribe the segment E forming the corner.
gradually increase the angle of incidence until the
image grows dim. By slightly tilting the' mirror the
image may be made to pass over every part, and should
appear equally though feebly illuminated in every
position. Another method is to hold the mirror hori-
zontally, about level with the eye j then, when looking
along it at the window, no greyness should be visible.
The glass is now ready for polishing. The more
thoroughly the fine grinding js done, the less polishing
' will be necessary and the less injury will be done to the
figure in the polishing. What is known as the shadow
test is applied continually when figuring and polishing.
Sometimes the speculum becomes tightly locked with the
tool during the process of fine grinding, and this may be
explained as follows;— As the upper disc moves along
the lower one there is a tendency to heap up the emery
towards the centre and away from the edges. This
makes the convex tool slightly flat, and the concave
speculum slightly hollow in the middle, thus leaving an
empty space between them. After a time the film of
moisture between them becomes exceedingly thin, a
Constructing Corner of Billiard Table.
With point L as a centre and a radius of 35 in., inscribe
the arc forming the cant of the cushion. B is the
cushion, D the rail, P the brass pocket-holder let in flush
with the top edge of the rail. Fig. 2 is a section through
the rail showing the slate bed and its screw ; the cushion
E is termed the low cush, the ball A standing well
above it to enable the player to strike near the centre.
The cord pocket (see Fig. 1) hangs from the holder P on
one side and is fixed underneath the bed at the curve
E. The cushion is fixed with either sci'ews or glue.
Gas Fire Roaring.— The roaring of a gas Are is
■ generally due to some roughness in the interior of the
burner, caused either by a bui-r in the tube or by an
accnmulation of deposit, the result of the burner firing
"back. This is often found to be a source of the
trouble.
Speculum Grinding.- In rough grinding, use flour
emery until all the pits left by the coarse grains are worked
out. The surface of the speculum will then appear quite
uniform when examined with a magnifying lens of about
1-in. focus. The fine grinding is then commenced. A
good way.of judging when the process of fine grinding is
completed is to hold the speculum in such a position
that a gas flame is seen by oblique reflection in it : then
partial vacuum forms in the centre, and thd cwj discs
become locked together. The chances of sueh mishaps
may be lessened by dividing the surface of tho tool into
parallel grooves 1 in. apart and at ric'-.t angles to one
another. To make these grooves, first mark them out
with an American glass-cutter and then deepen them
with a steel graver, keeping the part wet with turpentine.
Obscuring Glass -with Acid.— Glass may be obscured
by first laying it fiat and then holding some thin strips
of glass 1 in. wide on edge, and painting round with
hot tallow. When this sets it wUl form a wall all round
the glass, and keep in the acid ; or paint a bank round
the glass with two or three coats of hot tallow. Now pour
on white acid, and let it remain until the glass is matted.
Bringing Watch to Time— To bring a watch "to
time " means to makeit keep correct time. To do so with
a good watch, the curb pins inust first be closed until the
hairspring has no play between them. Then regulate
by lengthening or shortening the hairspring, the regu-
lator meanwhile being kept in the centre. Shortening
the hairspring makes the watch go faster and vice versa.
After each alteration of the hairspring, the watch must
be set in beat afresh by turning the hairspring collet
round a little.
154
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics,
Folishlnf; and Cementing Alabaster.— After wash-
ing, melt a little white beeswax, dip a dean cloth in
It, and polish the ornaments with the Cloth. The best
cement for mending alabaster is white gelatine size,
made by melting 1 part of gelatine in about 5 parts of
water. Plaster-of-Paris is very often used as a cement,
but only in places where the joints would not be seen,
and it is not a strong cement.
Making Elgbt-day movement for a Lantern Clock.
—The frame should be made of brass plates i in. thick,
and should measure 4J in. by 6 in. The pillars (four) must
be i in. diameter and IJin. long between the plates. The
barrels should be liin. diameter and IJin. long. For
going train, use fusee main wheel of 96 teeth, liin.
diameter; centre wheel of 84 teeth, IJin; diameter,
pinion 8 leaves ; third wheel of 78 teeth, lA in. diameter,
pinion 7 leaves ; 'scape wheel of 40 teeth, 14 in. diameter,
pinion 7 leaves. For motion work, use minute wheels
of 36 teeth, Jin. diameter; hour wheel of 72 teeth,
liin. diameter; minute pinion, 6 leaves. For striking
train, use fusee main wheel of 84 teeth, IJ In. diameter;
pin wheel of 64 teeth, IV* In. diameter (eight pins) , pinion
8 leaves ; pallet wheel of 70 teeth, lin. diameter, pinion
8 leaves; warning wheel of 60 teeth, fin. diameter,
pinion 7 leaves ; and fly pinion, 7 leaves. Either chains
or gut lines can be used, but chains are best. The fusees
must be cut for sixteen complete turns of the chains.
On account of the small size of the movement, it can
then connect the wires to the battery and allow a full
current to pass through the solution, from one gold strip
to the other, (or about two hours. Then take off- that
gold strip which Is attached to the wire from the zinc of
the battery, and ' substitute a strip of clean German
silver. If this takes on a good coat of gold In a few
seconds, the solution Is In working order, and the two
gold strips may then be both attached to the wire from
the silver, copper, or carbon of the battery and used as
anodes. If the coating is not satisfactory, dissolve some
more of the gold as at first, until the solution will gild
well. The same solution may be made at once by the
direct process— that is, by dissolving * oz. of gold cyanide
in the hot cyanide of potassium solution. These gold
solutions give good results when worked at a tempera-
ture of from 140° to 160° F., and will give a good coat of
gold with current from ope Smee cell when an anode (or
dissolving plate) of pure gold is employed.
Making a Trousers Press.— Figs. 1 and 2 show eleva-
tion and plan respectively of a simple trousers press, A i
being two flat boards 14 in. wide and about 30 in. long.
Three iron bars B are screwed ' on each board. The bars
on the top board are hooked at their extremities, as
shown in Fig. 2, to allow the board to be removed with-
out taking off the wing nuts. In Fig. 2 the wing-nuts
are removed so as to show the slots. The bars on the
under board are not hooked, but have holes at their
extremities to receive coach bolts, which should be fixed
Eight-day Movement for a Lantern Clock.
Fig. 2 C-
Trousers Press.
carry a light hammer spring only. The pendulum
win make 178 beats per minute, and will be of 4'31n.
acting length, which, with a 2-in. diameter brass bob,
and allowing for suspension, will measure nearly 6 in.
long over all, and just swing clear of the bottom of the
case. The pendulum should be provided with the rating
nut above the bob, after the usual pattern of English
bracket clocks, and thus save the space occupied by a
nut under the hob. The centre pinion, when made from
pinion wire, is thickened at the front end by having the
leaves at that part forged up solid. This method will be
almost impossible in so small a clock as this, and if
pinion wire be used, it vv ould be advisable to drive on a
steel collar to form the shoulder of the front pivot. In
the accompanying sketch, A A are the barrels ; B B, the
fusees ; C, centre wheel ; D, third wheel; E, 'scape wheel;
F, pallets; G, pin wheel; H, pallet wheel; I, warning
wheel i and J, fly.
Preparing Creosoted Timber for Painting. —
Painters' knotting is a good material for coating creo-
soted poles and other wood previous to painting, because
It dries quickly and tends to prevent oil or grease
oozing through. The best kind of knotting will be that
made from shellac ; the commoner material will contain
more or less common resin.
Solution for Electro-gliding.— For gilding small
goods by the electro process, place a pint of distilled
water in an enamelled iron saucepan and dissolve
therein loz. of best potassium cyanide. Heat this
to 160° F. on a gas stove. Get two strips of pure gold
and two lengths of No. 22 copper wire, and susjieud
the gold strips by the wii-es in the hot cyanide solution ;
with screw-nuts before the bars are fastened to the
board. When the ba,rs are fastened to the boards, the
top board can be screwed down wi1;h wing-nuts. A sheet
of thick cardboard should be placed between each
pair of trousers before pressing them.
Golden Brown Paint for Castings.- To obtain a
rich golden brown colour on castings, mix the colour
with the best copal or carriage varnish, adding gold
size. Paint the castings in the usual way, and then
stove them. Or another method would be to paint
them with the colour required rubbed up in oil and
with gold size, and then varnish with best varnish.
A Bucket as a Photographic Print Washer.—
To make a cheap syphon washer that will keep photo-
graphic prints in circular motion, to one side of a
bucket solder a syphon of ordinary lead piping, the
short leg inside being lin. above the bottom. At
the top of the syphon punch a hole and fit a cork.
Fix in a circular sheet of perforated zinc inside the
bucket Sin. from the bottom. At the top of the
bucket opposite the syphon attach another pipe, con-
nected with the ordinary water tap by rubber tubing,
through which the water flows. This Keeps the prints
moving. The contaminated water falls below the per-
forated disc and is removed by the syphon. When the
cork of the syphon is in, the washer will run dry, but In
use the cork should be removed, so that, in the event of
any obstruction or failure of the water supply, the
washer will remain flUed level with the cork-hole. The
edges of the zinc must be bent downwards, aa there
must be no sharp edges to come In contact with the
prints.
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
155
Hard Woods and Soft Woods Classified. — It is
customary in England to speak of all timber obtained
from coniferous trees as " soft wood." Pitch pine
is, of course, much harder than a number of the so-
called "hard woods," but it wovild nevertheless be
olassifled as a " soft wood." Much better is the system
adopted In some parts of America, where four grades of
hardness or softness are recognised— namely ; " V er.y hard
woods," "hard woods," "middling hard woods," and
' soft woods." The names of a few familiar woods will
illustrate its application :—
required to make a stawdard, multiply 1,440 by 16"5, and
divide the product by the sectional area in square in-cbes
of the required scantling, the quotient being the number
of feet. Taking 9 in. x 2 in. as example: (9 x 2 = 1»).
Then 1,440 x 16-5 -;- 18 = 1,320. The following ta.ble
includes the most general sizes; others can be worked
out as above; —
v. H. Woods.
Hard Woods.
M. H. Woods.
Soft Woods.
Hickory.
Hard maple.
Locust.
Best oak and
elm.
Persimmon.
Ash.
Black walnut.
Beech.
Oak and elm.
Laoewood.
Pitch pine.
Douglas flr.
Larch.
Sweet gum.
Light birch.
Pine and flr.
Redwood.
Poplar.
Whitewood.
Cypress.
The classification is ari-ived at by the amount of power
required to indent a square inch of the surface of the
wood to a given depth.
Centering for Brick Arch.— A figured design of a
centre for a seven-ring brick arch of 45 ft. span and
18ft.6in. rise, the length of the arch being 17ft. 6in., is
here given. It is assumed that the centering has only
Size.
Foot Run.
Sfae.
Foot Run.
4x2
2,970
4 X 24
2,376
4x3
1,980
4J X 2
2,640
5x2
2,378
5 X 2i
1,900J
5J X 2
2,160
6x2
1,980
6ix 2,
1,827t°j
7x2
1,6971
I =< 1*
1,357^
7x3
1,131?
8x2
1,4«5
8x3
990
9x2
1,320
9x3
880
9x4
660
10 X 2
1,188
10 X 3
792
11 X 2
1,080
11 X 2i
864
U X 3
720
Intensifying Photographic Negatives.— Dulness in
a photographic negative is generally due to fog, caused
by over-exposure, incorrect development (i.p. using too
much No. 2), or accidental exposure to light. If the
negative is fairly transparent, soak it in water tor a
tew minutes, and then immerse it in a saturated solution
LACCINCa 4>3
Centering for Brick Arch.
to carry the arch bricks. It should be very carefully
put together, as there is no surplus strength in an arch
of these dimensions.
Refining Impure Tin.— In refining impure tin, melt
the metal, well stir it about while in a molten state, and
allow ib to settle down for a while. Skim the dross from
the surface, and remove the top half of the molten metal
with a small ladle, disturbing the lower pax-t of the
metal as little as possible ; use only the part of the
metal removed for the best work.
Tinning Copper Moulds.— A bright, smooth, but very
thin deposit of tin upon the interior of an ornamental
mould may be obtained by first thoroughly cleaning tbe
mould, then placing the open end upwards in boiling
water and fastening it so that the edges are not quite
immersed. In ' guiiicieut water to just fill the mould
dissolve about an ounce of cream of tartar. Melt some
tin in a ladle and pour it into cold water, so as to obtain
it in spongy fragments. Place sorne of these in the
cream of tartar solution, then pour the mixture into
the mould. Boll the water in which the mould is placed-
for about an hour ; the interior will then be found to
have received a fine silvery, though thin, deposit of tin.
Probably a bright, smooth surface and thicker coating
could be obtained by first tinning the mould by the
regular process, and afterwards standing it bottom
downwards in Eusgian tallow, which is kept heated to a
temperature a little above the melting point of tin ;
the tin would then probably melt and run smoothly
over the tinned surface (in the same way that it does
upon tinned ia-on plates) , and leave a surface tor polishing
of a similar character.
Petersburg Standard of Timber. — A Petersburg
standard is ISOASft. 11 in. x IJin. = 165 ft. cube. To
ascertain the number of feet run of any sized scantling
of bichloride of mercury until it begins to bleach to a
cream colour. Wash for fifteen minutes, and then place
in a clean dish, film up, and pour over it a solution com-
posed of 2oz. of water and thirty minims or drops of
strongest liquor ammonia. The negative will instantly
turn black (or it should be allowed to remain until it
does). This operation is called intensifying : it increases
the density and contrast of the negative. As the
ammonia solution in careless hands is liable to produce
stains, due to insufflcient washings, some people prefer
to use a saturated solution of sulphite of soda, with
which very little washing is required between bleaching
and blackening ; but the density obtained is much less,
partly owing to the blue colour of the deposit. Allow-
ance for this should be made by bleaching thoroughly.
The following formula may also be used after thorough
washing, and gives a red image of great contrast;—
Uranium nitrate 100 gr., potassium ferricyanide MOgr.,
acetic acid 4 oz., water 10 oz. Binse only and dry. Wet-
ting the negative, pressing it between blotting-paper to
absorb surface moisture, immersing in methylated spirit
for ten minutes, and then di-ying by gentle heat, clears
the shadows and gives greater contrast. Of course, if
the dulness arises from a want of sharpness, the above
is of no service, and the only remaining plan is to work
over it with the retouching pencil, but this is a long and
tedious process in most cases.
Cleaning Copper Utensils after Tinning.- It is
doubtful whether there is any solution that would
cleanse both the copper and tin from the dirt left
from the tinning process without injuring either metal.
The usual method of cleansing tinned copper vessels is
to thoroughly scour them inside and out with sand and
water or with any fine gritty substance until the whole
of the surface is rendered clean, then rinse in cold water
and dry the article in sawdust. '
156
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
Making a Spill Cutter.— To make the spill cutter
here described and according to the dimensions given
in rig. 1, a piece of wood some Sin. by 14iu. by l|in.
must be obtained, and a grooTe about 4 in. wide and
Jin. deep cut along the centre of one ot its broad
Bides. At one end this groove is further hollowed out as
in Fig. 2, which shows the shape of the groove and also
illustrates the slits, 2 in. long, in which the linife is to
be ilxed. Now cut from the bottom a strip of wood
some 6 in. long and Jin. thick, so as to leave a piece
projecting from the under side at the rear end as shown
in Figs. 1, 2, and o. The knife itself is a piece of steel 2 in.
long and IHn. wide, into the sides of which two holes
have been drilled as indicated in Fig. 3. The edge (see
side elevation B, Fig. 3) is ground sharp just like a
chisel, after which the knife is placed in the slits
previously cut in the block. Then find the correct posi-
tions for. the holes D D (Fig. 2) In the wood, through
Fig, 5
A Handy Spill Cutter.
which pass the screws which hold the knife securely in
its place. At Fig. i is given a section which illustrates
the position of the knife, the cutting edge of which
is raised about -i, in. above the bed ot the groove. The
cutter, being finished, may be put to work. First
place the projecting under piece against the edge of the
table, as shown in Pig. 5. A piece of straight-grained
wood being pushed sharply forward through the groove,
its bottom edge strikes against the slightly raised blade,
and a spill issues from the aperture beneath the knife.
By means of such a tool, spill making becomes astonish-
ingly easy, a,nd a large number can readily be cut in a
very short time.
Clip for Engineers' Scribing Block.— The accom-
panying illustrations show a form ot scribing block
clip greatly in favour a few years ago, simply because
turning, rather than fitting, was principally reauired.
Pig. 1 shows the clip complete in elevation. It con-
sists essentially of three pieces, the clip itself A, the
square washer B, and the handle 0. The clip is shown in
plan by Pig. 2, and in end elevation by Pig. 3. It may be
made from square steel-; drilled with a twist drill at one
end to fit the post, this end, the left in Figs; 1 and 2,
being rounded off to suit. The sides, ot these holes
having been faced on a mandril in the lathe, these edges
can be placed on any true surface, and centre lines
scribed across at the ends. Or the piece can be placed
on a mandril, and, the rounded end being centred,
the ends of the mandril resting in V-blocks, the
point of a knife tool is set to the mai'k, the tool
withdrawn by the bottom slide only, the piece
turned round, and the point of the tool moved up to
marii the other end. The top slide must not be
moved in these opei-ations. Of course, the ends
should have been prepared for scribing previously
by filing and chalking. This method will ensure that
the turned and threaded part shall be square with the
hole, the mandril and a packing piece under the shank
end being used in drawing the ci-oss centre lines. The
rest of the work presents no diiHculty, but the face
at D (Fig. 2) should be turned back just past the hole,
a collar belns formed at E. The turning down of the
■ G 1
K^
i^-i^-
i IgI I
Fig, 3 .FIG. 5
Clip for Engineers' Scribing Block,
shank at 1? is for ease in chasing the thread. G (Fig. 3)
shows the slots left by the turning back at D (Pig. 3).
Pig. 4 is a plan, and Fig. 5 an end elevation ot the
washer, "the outer surface ot this corresponds with the
shape of the large end of the clip, and a recessed hole Is
bored in it, the larger end fitting on the collar E (Fig- 2).
while the small hole slides over the threaded end of the
clip. The washer is slit down the centre nearly but not
quite to the bottom, a hole for the scriber having pre-
viously been drilled across as shown at the top ot Fig. 1.
The handle (Fig. 1) is threaded to fit the screwed end ot
the clip. The cross section of the boss and of the handle
itself is circular. The washer also may be circular instead
of rectangular, and will then work easier on the post.
Cementing Amber Mouthpiece. — When a broken
amber mouthpiece of a tobacco-pipe requires to be
jointed, touch the broken parts with boiled linseed oil,
and hold them for a tew minutes in a gas ilame ; place
them together, and bind with wire. Lay aside for a few
days for the cement to harden, and pare oft the excess
with a sharp knife.
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
157
Giving an Ivory Appearance to Plaster Casts.
—Over a slow Are melt ^Ib. of beeswax with 1 pt. ot
turpentine, and apply to the plaster by means of a soft
brush. Several successive coats are necessary to cover
the plaster well. If the mixture is too thick, add a
little more turpentine. Plaster casts may be coloured by
Inpluding a tint in the wax and turpentine.
Making a Fisherman's Landing Net.— The illustra-
tions show a simplfe frame for a landina net as used by
anglers. The two side pieces AA are made of No. 7 B.W.G.
steel wire, the outer ends being turned to form an eye.
The ends that fit on the stick are bent at right angles for
iin., as shown at B. One of these should be longer than
the other, as they would weaken the stick if they came
opposite. A hole C is bored on each side to take the
turned ends of the wires, and the stick is grooved so that
each wire wiU iit in flush. A cord is stretched across
between the two eyes, and this completes a D-shaped
tow on which the net is threaded. To hold the frame on
the stick, a loose ferrule D is slipped up, or a lashing
may be used instead if preferred. To take the net to
and produce these lines to join a'g^ at V, c', d', e', f.
Join the division points on the plan by straight lines,
and from 6'', c', d", e^, f' draw projectors to join the lines
with corresponding letters on the plan, and if a curve
were drawn through the points found, that curve would
show the plan of the section of the ventilator on the line
a' (;i. Join the division points a B, B c, Od, DC, E f, P s by
a series of dotted lines, as shown, and these would be
the plans of a series of diagonals joining the points
indicated. Next find the true slants of the stripes and
diagonals by drawing lines at right angles to B 6, C c,
D <J, E e, F f, and on the lines drawn at right angles mark
the upright height pg', as shown. Join the division
points on the inner circle to the points marking the up-
right height, and this would form a series of triangles ;
the slant length forming one side of the triangle would
be the true slant ot the line on the cone in each case.
Next find the true slants of the dotted diagonals by the
same method, using the same upright height as for the
slants. The hypotenuse of the triangle formed in each
case would be the true slant of the diagonal. To find the
true slants of the lines above a' gi, where the projectors
Making a Fisherman's Landing Met
pieces, the ferrule is slipped back to the position shown
at £, when the wires may be removed and the net rolled
round theni. The stick may be made of greenheart or
hickory.
Pattern for a Ship's Ventilator. — To cut the
Sattern for a ship's ventilator in four pieces, first
raw a side elevation of the required size, then
divide the throat curve into a number of equal pai'ts,
corresponding to the number ot sections required tor th»
rentilator. Next divide the top' curve, forming the top
of the ventilator into the same number of equal parts
nsed for the throat, and also draw the semicircle A G (Pig.
1). Join the division points on the throat and top curve
by straight lines ; these would show the four sections
whose patterns are to be developed. As the method of
working would be the same for each section, the method
adopted for the section AG, a? s' (whose half-pattern
is shown by Fig. 2), could be applied for developing
the remaining three sections. A very near approxi-
mation to an accurate pattern is obtained by assuming
that each section is a part of an oblique cone, and if this
be done, the semicircle A^ (Fig. 1) would be the halt-plan
of the base of an oblique cone containing the first sec-
tion. Now join Aa^ and G'ff', and also draw a line from
fl' parallel to AG to cut A a"; then this line could be
assumed to show the smaller end of the frustum of the
cone on the elevation. Draw projectors from a' ffi to
join A G, and with half this length as radius draw the
semicircle ag to show the plan of the small end. Next
divide the semicircles into a similar number ot equal
parts as A, B, C, a, b, c, etc. From the division points B, C,
D, E, P draw projectors to A G', and from b, c, d, e, f draw
projectors to Join a's'. Join B'b'.Qic'. D'd', E'e', r'/''.
Pattern for a Ship's Ventilator.
drawn from V, c^, d',e^, P join the lines with corresponding
letters in plan ; draw lines from the points found at right
angles to the plan lines, and on these lines mark off the
perpendicular height of b', c^, d", e", f when measured
from the line a' o'. Now join b, c, a, e, f to their re-
spective upright heights, marked on each right angle
to obtain the true slants of the lines produced to
out a' cr'. To work the pattern, mark on a straight line
the length A'- a^ (Fig. 1). With the true length of the
diagonal joining a to B as radius, and using a' (Fig. 2) as
centre, draw an arc; with the division length AB as
radius and A' (Fig. 2) as centre, out the arc first drawn.
Next, with the true slant of the line B b as radius, and
using B' on the pattern as centre, draw an arc. With the
division length a b as radius, and a' on the pattern as
centre, cut the arc last drawn at b': this would give the
points A' a', B' b' on the pattern. The remaining points
are obtained by repeating the working for each division,
using the slants and diagonals in their proper order tor
obtaining the points C c', D' d', E' eS f^ E' to complete the
top part of the pattern. Join the points A' a'-, B^ b', etc.,
on the pattern by straight lines, and produce them
below the inner curve, then add the length a' a'^ (Pig. 1)
from a' to a* on the pattern. Transfer the true slant of
the line b' b' (obtained from the triangle drawn on the
plan) to the pattern, marking from b' t6 give the point
b' ; transfer the remaining true slants to the stripes
with corresponding letters on the pattern, and draw
a curve through these points to finish the halt
pattern for one section. By repeating the method ot
working shown for each section, the pattern for the
complete ventilator would be obtained. Allowances
tor hollowing, seams, etc., must be made to the pattern
as shown.
158
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
Amount of Rainfall on Roofs.— In eetimating the
size ot gutters on intei'nal root's and behind parapet,
the amount of raiut'all should he provided for. An
exceptional rainfall is about '05 in. per minute, and
this gives about "026 gal. for each square foot of
catching surface. An average rainfall In London would
be about one-third of the above, but, for preventing
gutters on internal roofs, or behind parapet walls, over-
llowing inside the house, the maximum should be allowed
for.
Quantities of Cem&nt and Slag in Concrete.— The
amovint of cement and slag required for laying 100 super,
yd. of floor, lin. thiols, in the proportion of Itol, is as
follows :— The cubic contents ot the concrete when laid
will be 900 super, ft. x y^ft. = 7.5 cub. ft. There will be
required about 2oub.yd. of slag, broken small enough
to pass through a i-in. ring, and 54 cub. ft. ot cement (at
90 lb. to the cubic foot) = 45 cwt. This 108 cub. ft. of
cement and slag will shrink to about 75 ft. when mixed
and wetted.
Cylinder-tank System Hot-water Supply.— In the
sketcli, A indicates the bath tap, B that for the lavatory,
and C that for the scuUer.y. The sketch shows a well
designed and proportioned apparatus on the cylinder-
tank system. The boiler (dome-top kind) should be a
No. 3. A smaller size would do, but small boilers do
wall evenly; twenty-four hours afterwards apply the
remaining portion of the colour, thinning with turpen-
tine so that it works freely and covers well. The time la
an important Item ; If the interval is more or less than
twenty-four hours the second coat will be sheary— that
is, bright in some places and dull in others. It the last
coat is stippled the result will be a better job. To stipple
is to dab the surface all over with a flat brush: this
takes out the brush marks. Commence at the top
and work downwards. There may be a little colour lett
over.
Making Imitation Tortoiseshell.— A very good imi-
tation of tortoiseshell can be made by colouring a
portion of the pasty celltUold with a brown or yellow dye
soluble in spirit (aniline colour) , and then working the
dough along with some nearly colourless celluloid. As
the two are not properly amalgamated, streaks and
patches of colour appear throughout. Considerable ex-
perience, however, is required.
Running Return Bead round an Arch,— To work
a return bead round the arch shown by Fig. 1, a mould is
prepared to the required shape, and fixed to a radius
rod, as shown in Fig. 2. The flat part ot the wall is
roughed in, and the bead la run in coarse stuit by the
aid of the mould, which also works a part of the soffit,
the rest ot which between the two beads is done with the
floating rule. After all the work has "been roughed in
ready for the fining coat, the mould is readjusted so as
1o be in position to work the finished bead, which is
usually done in Keene's cement. The part of the head
Cyllnder-tauk System Hot-water Supply.
not take a sufUcient charge of fuel, and they therefore
need more frequent feeding and attention than large
boilers. It hard water is used, the boiler should have
the water-way carried below the fire-bars, and be pro-
vided with cleaning holes and lids.
Hints on Enamelling.— To treat white enamel to
prevent it setting too qulckl.y, it should be thinned with
the same varnish as is used in making it. To enamel
successfully, get a good flat ground to work upon, and do
not try to improve the work by giving a second coat of
enamel if the flr.st does not turn out well. Never put a
bright on a bright ; the correct way is to finish a gloss on
a flat, or a flat on a gloss. In the case of spoiled work,
the work should be rubbed down with ground pumice-
stone, flatted, and then enamelled again. Enamelling
should be done in a warm room. All enamels become
ropy if exposed to the air; keep well corked, therefore,
and pour out for use only a small quantity at a time.
Fainting a Staircase Wall.— In repainting a staircase
wall, representing about 120 aq. yd., to a shade of green,
if tbe colour, etc., is procured from a colour mer-
chant (not .an oil shop) the quantities and the cost will
be as follows ;— 241b. of white lead, cost 5s.; 21b. of
patent dryers, cost 8d. ; lib. of deep lemon chrome,
cost Is. ; 31b. ot deep brunswick, cost 2s. ; 2oz. ot drop
black, cost 3d., all ground in oil ; 3 qt. of linseed oil, cost
Is. 6d. ; and 3 qt. of turpentine, cost 2s. The white lead,
dryers, chrome, black, halt the green, and 1 qt. of oil
should be mixed well together, after which small quanti-
ties of the reserved green should be added until the
desired shade is obtained. The paint should be mixed
lighter than the sample, as it will dry darker. Divide
the mixed colour into two equal parts. Thin one part
with the oil so that it works freely, and spread on the
Fig. 2
Running Return Bead round an Arch.
below the springing line is done by detaching the mould
from the radius rod, and using it in the ordinary way ;
while in cheap work the bead round the arch is some-
times worked without the aid of the radius rod. The
walls are then finished off, the bead is run, and the
soflit ot the arch completed as in roughing out.
How to Copy a Glass Positive.— When copying a
collodion positive mounted on glass and varnished at
the back, the first proceeding is to remove the varnish.
It may be possible to do this by placing tor a short
time iu a dish of methylated spirit and then wiping
down with a tuft of wool. Try one edge and see whether
the picture is affected. When the varnish is removed,
a print or transparency can be made by contact in the
usual pressure frame. A better plan would be to pm
the picture to the wall with drawing pins, and copy
through the camera in the usual manner. To obtam a
copy the same size as the original, it may be necessary
to make a conical front, place two cameras together,
or otherwise increase the extension, which should be
twice the focal length of the lens. Copying is merely
photographing a picture at close quarters. The only
difllculty is to avoid the reflection of bright objects in
the shadows and the picture. Slow plates should Da
used, and a strong pyro-soda developer.
Underglaze Colours for Biscuit Ware.— Undei'glaze
colours are applied direct to the biscuit ware, and are
therefore under the glaze that is applied after colouring.
The coloured ware should be heated to the same temper-
ature as in burning tor biscuit, but the different colours
may require different times, which will be founo W
experience'. Time is not very important, however, as tne
colours are, to a large extent, fixed by a short heating,
because they usually contain fusible materials.
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
159
WorUtue a Ship's log.— The speed of a ship is ascer-
tained toy the "patent log" or by a "log ship" and sand
glass, the lattei- still being preferred by most sailing
ship masters. The " log ship," two forms of whlcji are
given in Pigs. 1 and 2, is hove over the weather quarter
attached to the log line divided into " knots," a " Isnot "
hearing the same proportion to a mile as the sand glass
running in seconds does to an hour. Band glasses, or
" log glasses," are made to run H seconds and 28 seconds
(the former being for use when fast travelling, and the
knots by line have of course to be doubled it spaced for
28 seconds). It must be remembered a nautical mile is
2,027 yd., usually called 6,080ft. It corresponds with the
minutes of arc ; thus there are 360 x 60 = 21,600' of arc, or
nautical miles, on a "great circle" (or the equator).
The number of yards therefore in a " great circle "
divided by 21,600 will give the number of yards in a
nautical mile. In calculating the length of a knot in
feet, the rule adopted is this. To the seconds run by the
glass affix a cypher and divide by 6. The remainder
when doubled gives the inches. Thus for a 28-seoond glass
280
-g- = 46 + 4, or the distance between adjacent knots =
46 ft. Sin. This is not correct, hut the error is for safety,
as the ship, unaffected by favom-ahle currents, will be
behind her position by log or " dead reckoning," as it is
called. To calculate the exact length between adjacent
bearing in the back of the meter would be an improve-
ment. Owing to the length of flexible line through
which the revolutions are transmitted, the motion is a
succession of spurts, but this, however, doss not affect
the correctness of distance registered in the twenty-four
hours.
Ingredients for Seltzogene Charges.— The chai-ges
for a 3-pt. seltzogene are tartaric acid 1 oz., ana bi-
carbonate of soda IVj oz. Any difference observable In the
taste of the ready-criarged syphons and of the water from
the seltzogene using the charges purchased is probably
due to the kind of water used, and also to the fact
that a small quantity of carbonate of soda is added to
the waterin the syphons, whereas in the seltzogene there
will be no soda in the water unless it be put in before
filling the seltzogene.
Making Billiard Chalks.— To prepare green billiard
chalks, mix together 5 parts of powdered magneslte
and 1 part of china clay, and add 1 part of mineral
green or terra verte ; for a blue elialk, substitute 1 part
ut artificial ultramai'ine. Make the mixture into a very
stiff dough with the least possible quantity of water,
allow to stand for several days, roll it out into a cake of
the thickness required, then cut it into squares with a
fine wire ; impress a hemispherical indentation on each
square, then separate them and dry them very slowly—
knots on the line, multiply 2,027 by 14 or 28 and divide
by 3,600. Fig. 1 is the wooden log ship ; it is a wooden
quadrant about iin. thick and 10 in. diameter, the arc
being weighted with lead to make the log float vertically.
The end of the log line L passes throng a hole and is
secured by knotting at the back, while a wooden peg P
is attached to a span n from the line L. "When the log
line is suddenly checked in its running out, this wooden
peg withdraws its hold in the quadrant, and the log
ship is hauled in with ease. The canvas log is shown
in fig. 2. The log line is attached at D to the canvas
bag C, at the mouth of which is a span seized to the
peg at E, which is pushed into a wooden ferrule W
seized to the log line ; when the line is checked ithe
peg withdraws as in the former case, and the bag
closes, being hauled in bottom foremost. The " patent
log," by which name the several revolving logs go at
sea, is self-registering, and not hove at intervals as
the former kijid. A meter is clamped to the taffrail,
showing on its face by three hands the units, tens,
and hundreds of nautical miles run since the last
setting, which is done at noon. This meter is a simple
train of wheels to which motion is imparted by -.i
threaded pin. At the back of the meter and attached
to the pin is a brass universal joint J (Fig. 3) , to which is
secured the end of a line sufRoiently long to clear the
eddies and baekwash of propellers, etc. At the other end
is the spinner S, a three-bladed brass fan, pitched to
revolve at such a speed that after being towedT one mile
the unit hand on the meter shall have made one revolu-
tion from ,to 0, the intermediates being marked J, i, f .
Sometimes a light fly-wheel is attached to the line just
abaft the taffrail, but this is not really necessary. Ball
bearings between a cone collar on the shaft and a dished
first in the air, then in a warm oven. If tihe squares are
shaped in brass moulds the material' should be made
very stiff, almost dry in fact ; the chalks will then be
harder. If the chalks are too soft, add more china
clay i the colour can be made to suit by trial.
Reaovating Old Oil Painting.-rTo restore to its
original colour an old oil painting that is black'with age
and smoke, wash it with a sponge or soft leather and
clean water, and dry with a silk cloth. If the painting
is very dirty, take it out of the frame and lay over it a
clean damp cloth. Allow the cloth to remain for a day
or two, keeping it damp all the time. Then remove the
cloth and place another clean damped one over the
picture, and keep on renewing the cloths till the dirt is
thoroughly soaked out of the painting, when it may be
washed with a sponge and water. The.n rub over the pic-
ture a little clear linseed oil, or give it a thin coat of mastic
varnish applied with a clean flat brush till every part is
covered, and set aside to dry where no dust will fall on it.
Converting Fat into Soap.— In converting a few
pounds of fat into a good hard soap, dissolve 1 lb. of
caustic soda in 3pt. of water; then melt down 61b. of
fat in an earthenware bowl. Bring the temperature
of the fat to about 110° F-, and the temperature of the
soda lye to about 80° P. Now pour the soda lye very
slowly into the centre of the fat and stir thoroughly
with a stick, so that the lye becomes amalgamated
with the fat as fast as it is poured in, and the two
form a perfect emulsion. Now wet a large piece of cloth
and place it in a box so that the whole of the wood is
covered ; then pour in the mixture just made, cover the
box, and place it In a warm pla,ce tor twenty-four hours.
The soap is then ready to be cut up and used.
160
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
Cleaning White Marble.— To clean white mavble
that is much discoloured, make a thin paste with
tuller's-earth and watei- to which has been added 25 per
cent, of liquid ammonia. Spread this over the marble
with a brush, allow it to remain twenty-four hours, then
wash off. If all the stains are not removed, repeat the
operation.
How to Make a Bevel Set-sciuare.— Fig. 1 shows a
side elevation of a carpenter's bevel set-square of suit-
able dimensions for setting out diminished stile doors
constructed of plank widths; but a much smaller tool
would be more handy for general purposes. The tool con-
sists of two parts : a skeleton set-square made of steel or
stout zinc, the former preferably, and an adjustable stock
working in a slot which is about two-thirds the length of
the long edge of the square. The stock is Tery similar to
that of an ordinary bevel, except that it is in two parts
which are connected at the ends by means of clamping
set-screws, as shown in the end elevation (Fig. 2) ;
it is applied. The tool can easily 'be changed Into a
perfectly true mitre square by fixing the stock at equal
.listances along both edges from the angle, or it can be
used as an ordinary bevel. A wooden instrument based
on the same principles is used by some joiners, but it
is a clumsy article, and cannot be finely adjusted. The
tool can be used as a set-square, or, by clamping down
the stock in the position shown by dotted lines in
Fig. 1, as a try-square.
Particulars of a 10-ft. 6-in. Spltt-cane Fishing-rod.
—The handle of a split-cane fishing-rod, 10ft. 6in. long,
which is to be made in three lengths, should be of cedar
or walnut 16 in. long and li in. diameter at the largest
part ; butt, i in. diameter above the handle, tapering to
lit a ferrule of i-in. bone j total length of butt, 3 ft. 6 in.
Second joint, f in. diameter at the counter, tapering to ftt
a i-in. ferrule at the top ; total length, 3 ft. 6 in. Top, i In.
diameter at the counter, tapering to A in. at the point ;
total length, 3ft. 6 in. The number of pieces in each
How to Make a Bevel Set-square.
the tool can thus be adjusted to almost any position.
Fig. 3 is a part elevation of a diminished stile door,
shown in order to explain the application of the tool in
setting-out the shoulders of the joint. This is shown in
detail at Fig. i. The dotted lines on the part A are the
setting-out lines for the rail, and those on the part B are
the setting-out lines for the stile. Figs. 3 and 4 should
be compared. The rail and stile are shown sepai'ated in
the sketch for the purpose of illustrating the method of
using the square. Fig. 5 shows another joint where the
tool can be applied with advantage. Fig. 6 shows the
tool being used as a pitch-board ; it can be worked from
either edge of the string, and although it does not do
away with the wooden pitch-board itself, no sliding slip
is required, while its thinness and metal edges enable a
much cleaner job to be made with the striking-knife.
Fig. 7 shows the tool applied to roofing. A number of
rafters can be laid side by side, and the length squared
across them with aline at both ends. The stock of the
square is then set to the pitch of the roof, and both
bevels are obtained at once ; no awkward moulds require
to be lifted up and down, and both the bevels and the
square are comprised in the same instrument. Fig. 8
shows a mitred joint of two different thicknesses of
wood 1 the thick lines show the edges of the square when
part will depend on the thickness of the cane ; but the
butt may be built up with six segments, each one made
up of two thicknesses of cane, making twelve pieces in
all. The second joint and the top should each be made
with six pieces of cane. A good iron-faced plane, file,
piece of glass, brace and bits, hammer, and glasspaper
are the tools actually required.
Making an Enlarged Photograpblc Negative.-
Any of the methods employed for making a bromide
enlargement may also be Ubed for making an enlarged
negative, that is, by replacing the small negative by a
positive transparency and enlarging this on to an
ordinary dry plate. For cheapness, and with some sub-
jects, bromide paper may be used for such transparency,
developingrather dense with a strong but well-i'estrainett
developer, and, when di-y, waxing the print and heatmg
over a lamp. The best kind of transparency to use is
one by the carbon process, as these are most free from
grain and give the best gradation. As the emulsiow usea
on dry plates is considerably quicker than that used for
bromide paper, and is consequently more liable to f?' *;
is advisable to use an enlarging camera where the P"™?
is enclosed in a slide. Enlargements are best made oy
daylight, otherwise there is a tendency to hai'dness.
Cyclopsedia of Mechanics.
16]
Reproducing Photographs by the Half-tone
Process.— Photographs are reproduced lor printing by
what 1b known as the hall-tone process, tine hlocks
giving merely the outlines are produced in the same
manner, except that no screen is used. Considerable
plant is required to do the work thoroughly. A
negative showing strong contrasts is taken on a
photo-mechanical or wet collodion plate, a screen
ol sheet glass, ruled with a' network ot flue lines,
being interposed between the lens and the plate.
The screen usually contains about 120 crossed lines to
the inch, but lor work on tine surface paper 240 lines, to
the inch can be used. This screen breaks up the shadows
into fine dots ol varying size. A sheet ol zinc coated
with gelatine or ilsh glue, and sensitised with hlohro-
mate ol potash, is then placed in contact with the
negative. The parts exposed to light become insoluble
in hot water, as in the carbon process. The unexposed
jarts are washed away, leaving the zinc bare between
the dots. The plate is then immersed in nitric acid,
which etches it or cuts into it. It is then mounted on a
block ol wood or metal to bring it level with the type.
Comparative Designs of Girders.— A-ssumingthe load
is 10 tons distributed over a span ol 18 It., the calculations
will be as follows. (1) Flitch beam : W= jp (0 6 -1- 30 t) ;
where W= breaking weight in cwt. in centre ; <J = depth in
inches ; L = span in leet ; C = constant = 3 lor Memel ; b =
total breadth ol timber in inches ; t = thickness ol flitch
plate in inches. Factor of salety, 10. One or two trial de-
signs may be necessary belore finding asuitable one, when
Fig. 1 may be decided upon. Ten tons distributed = 5 tons
reversed. The film will probably expand readily, and IE
this is objectedto.it should be brushed over with collodion
before stripping. Contraction could also be obtained
with methylated spirit, but would be dilflcult when
dealing with so thin a fllm. Remove the broken glass
and insert a sheet of waxed tracing paper underneath
the film. Coat the new glass with thin gum (filtered), ahd
lift the tracing paper by the two ends with the film lying
on it, and lay down on the glass ; it may then be worked
into position, driving out air bubbles with a pad ot wool.
Reducing Flint to Fine Powder. — Flint may be
ground to a fine powder by first raising it to a red
heat and quenching it in cold water, then grinding it
either under edge runners or in a ball mill. The
edge runners are two large granite rollers mounted
on a horizontal shaft and revolving within a circular
iron pan ; for extremely fine grinding, water may be
mixed with the flint. The ball mill is a cylindrical
vessel built up ol iron or steel plates, and having a
number ol rests or shelves ol the same metal. Around
the mill there are holesi below which are fitted fine
sieves, and steel balls are placed Inside the mill. Sur-
rounding the mill is a sheet-iron cover, terminating
below in a hopper. As the mill revolves the steel balls
are carried up on the shelves and plunged down on
the material below, while the pulverised material goes
through the sieves into the outer casing of the mill, and
is withdrawn from the hopper.
Making Hfirness Composition. — A good harness
composition may be made by mixing lib. of bees-
wax, 6oz. of soft soap, Jib. ol ivory black, and
loz. of Prussian blue, with 2oz. of linseed oil and
No'ki"
•-14x4/2
/S^.J
541 STIFFEN ERS
lEVERY 4'.0'
Gomparative Designs of Oirders.
F^.^
in centre multiplied by 10 tor breaking weight = 50 tons
= 1,000 cwt. Breaking weight = ^^^^ (3 x 14 -H 30 x IJ) =
^ (42-1- 52i) = ^^'^ ^^ = 1,029, or a trifle in excess ol the
strength required. (2) Cast-iron girder : Depth, say, one-
twellth ol the span = 18 in. Stress in bottom flange ^'
_ 10 x_18 _ jj).jjjjg_ Allow Xi tons per square inch in
8 X ]'5
tension: i5=i0sQ.in. Make top flange same size to
lo
allow width lor building upon and possible tension in top
flange from ends being built in, so that the section will
be as Pig. 2. (3) Wrougnt-iron plate girder : For the same
depth the stress in bottom flange will be as found above
= 15 tons. Allow 4 tons per square inch on the gross
sectional area= 3}sq. in. Say, one i-ih- plate 8 in. wide
for each flange, with 24-in. by 2S-in. by A-in. angle irons,
and }-in. web, and stiffeners ever.y 4ft., as in Pig. 3.
EoUed steel joist : By reference to Dorman Long & CO.'s
section book, a 12 in. by 5 in. by 321b. rolled steel joist
will carry 10 tons disti-ibuted over a span of 18 ft. ; but
5 in. is narrow to build upon, and a |-in. top plate would
be a desirable addition, as in Fig. 4.
Removing Crystoleum Picture from Brolcen Glass.
—One means of removing an expensive crystoleum pic-
ture from cracked glass is to use hydrofluoric acid, hut
much depends on the process by which the picture
was produced. Soak tbe broken glass and picture
in water for some little time, then pour off and cover
with a 5-per-cent. solution of hydrofluoric acid. Alter
It has remained about a minute, stroke tlie extreme
edges of the glass and gently coax the fllm to frill, when
it may be rolled off the glass. Care must be takea to
unroll the film in the same way, or the picture will be
U
4 pt. of oil of turpentine ; heat on the hob or in the
oven till melted and thoroughly incorporated, taking
care that the vapours do not catch fire. Or melt to-
gether 2oz. of mutton suet and 6oz. ot pure beeswax,
then add 6 oz. ol fine powdered sugar candy, 2'oz. ol solt
soap, 2 oz. of lampblack, and ^ oz. of indigo in fine powder.
When thoroughly incorporated, further add J pt. of oil of
turpentine. Keep in pots or tins. Lay a thin quantity
of either on the leather, and polish gently with a brush
or cloth rubber.
Distillation of Resin.— Besin is distilled by heating
it in large iron retorts, when gases, water, acetic acid,
resin spirit, resin oil, aud resin pitch are left as a
residue in the stills. The crude resin oil imported
is too impure to be used except for the preparation
of common lubricating greases. To purify the oil,
it is first treated with sulphuric acid, washed with
water, treated with soda, and again washed witli
water. • It is then heated in a still and may be separated
into portions of different gravity by collecting the por-
tions distUling at different times in separate receivers.
To do this, a hydrometer should be floated in the oil in
the receiver, and the receiver changed as soon as the oil
in it has risen to the gravity required. The next portion
passing over will be collected separately and will have a
higher gravity, than the first one.
Particulars of Bates' Saccbarometer. — Bates'
saccharometer is used for determining the gravity ot
a wort or the percentage of sugar in a solution, in a
similar manner to the Sikes' hydrometer. A weight
must be placed on the stem of the hydrometer to sink
the instrument so that it floats with only a portion
of the scale below the surface of the liquid. The
reading on the stem is added to that on the weight,
and reference must be made to the book of tables
supplied with the instrumeut to determine the gi-avlty
or percentage ot saccharine tnatter.
162
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
Height and Width of Internal Doors.— The rule
piven by Vltruvius for determining the height of
internal doors, and the ordinary i-ule when the width of
the door is known, are the following. For Doric temples,
the aperture of the door is determined thus: The
height from the pavement to the laounaria is to be
divided into three parts and a halt, of which two con-
stitute the height of the door. The height thus obtained
is to be divided Into twelve parts, of which five and a half
are given to the width of thu bottom part of the door.
This Is diminished tuwards the top, equal to one-third of
the dressing, it the height be not more than 16 ft. From
lb ft. to 2.1 ft. the upper part of the opening la contracted
one-fourth part of the dressing. Trom 25 ft. to 30 It. the
upper part is contracted one-eighth of the dressing.
Those that are higher should have their sides vertical.
... It the doors are Ionic, their height is to be regu-
lated as in those that are Doric. Their width is found by
dividing the height into two parts and a halt, and taMng
one and a half for the width below. The diminution is
to be as in the Doric doorway. ... If the doors are
folding, the height remains the same, but the width is to
be increased. If in four folds the height is ,to be in-
creased " Adams: Quarter height of room + 4ift. =
height of door ; height of door -i- 4tt. = width of door.
When width of door Is given the ordinary rule is to add
4 ft. tor the height.
Portrait Enlargements In OH.— Painters of cheap
"oil portraits generally trace the outline with a panto-
graph or other similar appliance. Better class artists
make a bromide enlargement on thin paper, rub the
back with chalk, and trace through with a stylus.
Such methods only give rough outlines. Of course, it
would be possible to cast a shadow by means of the
optical lantern by showing the object by reflected
do away with this second stitching. Now cut the
shoulder strap to hold it up 2 ft. 10 In. long and slit it
1 ft, at each end ; finish up and punch the slits, and put
two rings pr l^rge dees on each side ot the oenti-e close
by the end ot the slits for the reins to run through
lor driving purposes. If for cart work, it must be
made stronger all through and coarser. The sizes given
are tor gig purposes ; for a pony, the measures must be
altered In proportion. It necessary, a small dee can he
placed in the centre of the collar for putting a martiu-
gale billet in, the other end going to the belly band
.between the horse's legs.
Strength of Flltched Beam.— Supposing a warehouse
floor is to be supported by JUteh beams, 10 ft. centre to
centre, the span of the beam being 20 ft. and the load
to be supported being 3 cwt. per superflcial foot, the
size ot the beams and the thickness of the flitch may be
arrived at as follows. Formula tor flltched beam w =
^ (Ob + sot). Where W = breaking weight in cwt. in
Jj
centre ; b = total breadth of timber in inches ; d = depth
ot timber In Inches; t = thickness ot flitch plate iu
inches p L = length ot span in feet; = 3 tor Baltic Hr.
From the question, 20 x 10 x 3 = 600 ewt. to be carriel by
each beam. Factor ot safety, say, 6. Assume b = 12 and
t = -75,
then 600 X 6 = ^ (3 X 12 + 30 X -75) ;
3600 = ^ (36 + 22-5) ;
. 3600 X 20 _ J23)
58.'5
This is evidently very wide of the mark, and an ordinarv
flitch beam will not meet the case. Assume oak timber
(P = '.
How to Obtain a Reflected Image.'
Strength of Flltched Beam.
light, but It would be much less trouble, to have a
quarter-piate negative made. Fix this negative In one
end of a box and adjust a lens at the other end at a
suitable distance. Block up with brown paper a well-
lighted window and place the box, negative side out-
wards, in an opening cut in the papei*. It the canvas is
supported on an easel at a proper distance opposite the
negative it will receive the enlarged shadow. To obtain
a reflected image, make a box A (see diagram) and attach
the photograph at B. The lantern with the lens
removed is placed at C. The rays are collected by the
lens D and projected on to the canvas E. As only a
small proportion ot the light will be reflected, a powerful
light will be needed. Two lanterns would be far better.
It might be possible to use two incandescent or duplex
paraffin lamps for a slight enlargement. Any lens ot
short focus and large diameter could be used.
making an American Breast Collar for a Horse.—
In making an American breast collar tor a horse,
assuming thnt the trace buckles are 14 In. wide, the
body of the collar cut straight should be 2i in. wide and 3ft.
long, the lay 14 In. wide to fit the buckles, with the end.s
turned In tor chapes so that the front ot the buckles will
be level with the end ot the body. Put a linlug in the
chapes and two good loops, or one long loop, behind the
buckle ; the lay can then be cut of a wavy pattern from
loop to loop in the centre, or it can be left straight.
Then make tour bearers the same as for breeching, but
with four breeching dees instead of two due-j and two
rings; S-in. buckles will do for them; put one on each
side between the buckle iind loop, and the two others
V, in. from them towards the centre of the collar, and
stitch the la,y, loops, and bearer's down. Now out two or
thre-e thicknesses of thickfawnserging or a piece of thick
felt and cover it with thin patent cowhide or basil, and
see that it is the same size as the body both in length
and width, j lining tlie cover in tlie centre underneath
and turning it in at the ends, then stitch to the
body all along both sides ; or stitch in with the lay and
(0 = 3'7) in three flitches, each 6 in. thick, and two flitch
plates, each 1 in. thick, then
3600 = ^ (3-7 X 18 + 30 X I X 2) ;
3600 = d^^;
(1^ = 3300x20^553.
123 '6
whence d = ^/616 = 23-83 ;
so that 21 in. deep would do, and the whole section would
be as in the accompanying figure. If the question was cor-
rectly copied from the examination paper, it is clear that
the examiner was Wanting in a practical grasp ot the
conditions, as flltched beams are never used of such a
size.
Painting Venetian Blinds.— Venetian blinds, if new,
may be painted in the following manner. Remove all
dust from the laths with a brush, and give the knots
two thin coats ot patent knotting. Beat up stiff in a
pot 21b. of genuine white-lead ground in oil with 4oz.
ot patent driers, ' using linseed oil and turpentine in
equal proportion as thinners. Thin one-fourth of this
with linseed oil tor the priming coat. Add to the re-
maining three-fourths the pigments for staining the
colour with which it is intended to finish. Take about
two-thirds and thin with one-third linseed oil and two-
thirds turpentine for the second and third coats ; the
remaining colour should be thinned with good carnage
varnish tor the final coat. Any colour pigments required
should be bought ground in oil, and not in the form of
powder. Strain the paints through fine muslin before
using ; allow plenty of time to dry between the successive
coats, and rub down lightly with fine glasspaper. . A
much quicker method is to use colour mixed with emnt
varnish, but the work done in this way does not stand so
well as by the method described above. Do the painting
in a warm room.
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics,
163
Dyeing Ostrich Feathers.— To dye feathers black,
soak the in in nitrate of iron liquor at 70° B. fortwelTe
hours, moving them well about; remove and wash,
then boil in a decoction of 21b. of logwood and lib.
of quercitron or sumach In 1 gal. of water : remove,
wash, dip in an emulsion made by shaking a solution of
pearlash in water (1 oz. to a pint) with an equal measure
of olive oil, and then swing the feathers about in a warm
room, or pin them to a line to dry.
Walnut Stain for Light Wood.— A good walnut stain
may be made by mixing Vandyke brown into a thin paste
with Ujuid ammonia, and thinning out with water till
the desired tone is gained by at least two applications.
The colour is enriched by a trace of red or black as may
be desired in the polish.
Making a Smoker's Companion.— If it is to be.
painted and enamelled, white pine is about the best
wood and easiest to work j but if it is to be polished, good
hard kauri pine or American basswood will suit. If care
is taken to select good stuff, either of these woods is
easy to work, and will finish with a very good surface.
The wood should be i in. thick. For the back, a piece
17 in. long by U in. wide will be required. It should be
shaped at the top , something like the illustration : a
hole is bored with a 1-in, centre-bit, cutting from either
side into it with a fret- or bow-saw, and flnishingoff with
spokeshave, rasp, and glasspaper. The rack at the top
should be 16! in. long by 2J in. wide, and have nine open-
ings for pipes. To make these openings, bore nine holes
with their centres IJ in. from the front edge. The first
three should beboredwithal-in. centre-bit, the next three
with a i-in., and the last three with a 4-in. centre-bit.
Now cut into these from the front edge at a slight angle
with a fine saw, thus making openings of the shape
A Smoker's Companion.
shown in the illustration. The edges should be rounded
with a wood file and glasspaper. The middle shelf is
18iin. long by 4 in. wide, and the bottom shelf 16iin.
long by .0*iui. wide. Both these shelves have a ledge
round the fronts and ends, fixed iin. from the edge.
The ledge should be made by striking a ij-in. bead
on a piece of the stuff that is left, and carefully
cutting it off. The large shelf should be fixed at the
bottom of the back, the middle shelf 4i in. above this,
and the rack 2iin. above the middle shelf. The
shelves should be screwed from the back with long
fine screws such as It in. No. 5. Two small ears should
be screwed on the back tor fixing to the wall.
Cementing Catcher, etc., on Brooches.— Shellac is
used tor fixing the fastenings on brooches made of jet,
shell, pearl, wood, or stone. A moderate heat only is
required to unite them. In some cases " Coaguline," a
cement obtainable of chemists, is used. Silver brooches
can be repaired with ordinary tinman's solder. For
a gold or gilt brooch, as well as silver ones, "hai-d"
solder, purchasable under the name of "silver solder'
or " gold solder," is preferable. These solders run at a
red heat. The heat required to run tinman's solder does
not injure gold or silver plating.
Hardening Axle Arms and Boxes.— To harden the
iron arms ot cart axles, place them in an iron box about
three limes the size or the proper box, sealing up the
front end quite close ; pack up the space between the axle
and box with crushed bones and shreds of leather, close
up the back end with clay or other.substance so that it is
air- ight, and place in afurnace witha good heat for about
eight hours, when the bone and leather should be con-
sumed. Allow to cool, fill up the space with powdered
potash, replace in the furnace ajain until it is consumed,
then take it out, and allow to cool until black hot, when
it should be cooled out in a tub of strong saltand water.
To harden the iusides ot boxes, make them fairly hot,
charge the ins ides with potash,and revolve them until the
potash is consumed ; repeat this, then cool out as before.
In Moxon's "Mechanical Exercises" the method of case-
hardening is thus described : Take cow-horn or hoot, dry
it thoroughly in an oven, then beat it to powder : put to
it an equal quantity of bay salt, and mingle them with
white wine vinegar. Lay some of this mixture upon
loam, and cover the iron all over with it ; then wrap the
loam all about it, and lajr it on the hearth ot the forge
to dry and harden. Put it into the fire when dry : when
it attains a blood-red heat, withdraw, and allow to cool
out.
Removing Paint or Varnish from Furniture.— The
following is a method of removing paint and varnish
from furniture without using glasspaper or a burning
lamp. To each bucketful of freshly slaked limewash add
21b. or 31b. ot common washing soda and a pennyworth
ot rock ammonia. Apply liberally by means of fibre
brushes. For carved portions, make the solution thicker
by adding more lime or sawdust. Scrape off the varnish
as it softens : several applications may be given. Swill
off with plenty of clean water, and brush over with
common vinegar before applying any stain. For deli-
cate and turned work, a solution of hot borax water and
rook ammonia will generally suflice. Or make a pickle
as follows— 41b. of American potash, 41b. of soft soap,
* lb. of rock ammonia, 1 lb. ot washing soda, and 1 gal. of
water.
Particulars of Hydraulic Ram, — The adjoining
illustration gives a diagrammatic section ot a hydraulic
ram. A is an air vessel, B and ball valves, D a
delivery pipe, and E the supply pipe. Above the
valve B is an opening, and the water, in running
down from a small fall at E, passes through this out-
let until the velocity is sufficient to close B. This, of
course, suddenly stops the stream, and the outlet valve C
is forced open owing to the great increase of pressure in
Section of Hydraulic Earn.
the ram. Through C the water passes into A and up the
delivery pipe D. This releases the pressure and the valves
B and C fall and the operation is gone through agaifi. In
some cases an ordinai'y lift or a flap valve, which must
be weighted to expeed slightly the static pressure of the
supply stream, is placed between E and 0. . Obviously, a
portion only of the supply water from a small fall is
delivered to a greater height, and the average efficiency
of the ram is probably not more than 50 per cent.
Removing Varnish from Old Oil Painting.— In
removing cracked varnish from an old oil painting,
gently rub the surface of the painting with the dry
fingers. By continual rubbing the varnish wiU come olt
in the form of fine dust. Experts. sometimes spend days
or weeks over a single canvas. Spirit of wine or turpen-
tine may be used to dissolve hard old varnish, but both
will attack the paint as well as the varnish it the action
is not stopped in time by applying water freely. A wea l!
solution of ammonia or reduced alcohol is also used to
sotcen the surface, which is then slowly scraped away.
Strengths of Metals.— From the following list, which
gives the average breaking stresses in tons per square
inch, the relative strengths of oast iron, cast steel, gun-
metal, and brass may be obtained. In tension : Oast
crucible steel, 45 tons ; mild steel, 35 tons j steel for
castings, 30 tons ; gun-metal, 12 tons ; brass, 11 tons ; and
cast iron, 74 tons. In compression : Cast crucible steel,
80 tons ; cast-iron, 45 tons ; gun-metal, about 12 tons ;
and brass, about 11 tons. In shear ; Oast crucible steej,
about 30 tons; steel for castings, about 20 tons; gun-_
metal, about 8 tons; and cast iron, about 5 tons.. The
sate stresses for live loads are as follows. In tension :
Oast crucible steel, 8 tons ; steel for castings, 5 tons ;
gun-metal, 2 tons ; brass, 14 tons ; and cast-iron, li tons.
In compression : Cast crucible steel, 8 tons ; steel for
castings, 5 tons ; gun-metal, 2 tons ; brass, 14 tons ; and
cast iron, 4 tons. In shear: Oast crucible steel, 5 tons;
steel for castings, 34 tons; gun-metal, 14 tona ; bras^,
1 ton ; and cast iron, 1 ton.
164
Cyclopaedia ot Mechanics.
Methods of Cleanlns; Garments.— It muat be first
ascertained whether the garment to be cleaned is
liable to shrink, and also whether its colour is fast.
Small paint or grease spots may be removed by-
rubbing with a rag on which a little benzine has
been poured. Grease marlis may often be removed
by putting a piece ot blotting-paper under a warm iron
and pressing. Trousers of a light woollen nature, If soiled
to any extent, are best washed in warm water, and dried
in the open air. They should not be scrubbed or wrung
out. Garments of a dark colour and all black cloths
should be cleaned with a solution of liquid ammonia,
about two teaspoonfuls of the latter to a pint of tepid
water; it the water is too hot, the ammonia will evaporate
quickly, and the cleaning power of the solution thus
ilecrease.' A brush should he usq '. and the garment
rubbed from top to bottom, not crosswise but with the
warp of the material. After the garment is cleaned it
should be ironed and pressed.
Rules for Window Area for Room. — The rules
for window area are as follows. Sir W. Chambers :
depth of room + height ^ ^j^^h ot window; height =
2 to 2i times width. Gwilt : 1 ft. super, of light in a
vei-tical wall to every 100 cub. ft. in room. B. Morris ;
square root contents of room = super, area of window ;
8ill2ft. 6in. to3ft. from floor; head as high as possible.
J. S. Adams : square root (height window^ -i- 2) = width,
or width = side of square whose diagonal is the height.
Sir Douglas Galton: 1ft. super, window space to every
lOOcubft. or 125cub.ft. contents ot room in dwelling-
houses f 1 ft. super, to 50cub. ft. or 55 cub. ft. in hospitals.
Umbrella-maker's Stock Knife.— Fig. 1 shows a side
view ot an umbrella-maker's stock knife, A being the
cutting edge of the blade, and B the handle. An
ordinary eye-bolt is put through the bench in a con-
venient position and secured by a nut underneath.
The hook (Fig. 1) fits into the eye of the bolt. A piece
ti
bismuth 3 parts ; while J. Richards recommends alu-
minium 2'o parts, zinc 25'25 parts, phosphorus '25
parts, and tin '72 parts. Other alloys for this purpose
are aluminium 1 part, tin 9 parts i or cadmium S
>arts, zinc 2 pai'ts, and tin 3 parts. Also phosphor
jin (in variable proportion) ; or tin 20 parts, and zinc
1 part; or tin 99 parts, and copper 1 part; or tin 90
parts, copper 9 parts, and bismuth 1 part. Any of
these can readily be fused with a copper bit, which, to
ensure success, should be of a wedge shape bent round
to, roughly, a quarter circle. > Its edge is then at right
angles to the aluminium, and, by liglitly moving the bit
backwards and forwards while in contact with the
aluminium and flowing solder, the impure film is re-
moved. The coated surface can then be soldered with
an ordinary shaped copper bit. Phosphor tin probably
owes its adhesiveness to the affinity of phosphorus for
oxygen, a molten alloy containing phosphorus placed on
aluminium tending to absorb oxygen from the impure
film as well as from the surrounding air. "When solder-
ing, everything should be perfectly clean, the soldering
being performed quickly, as if the surface Is not coated
at the first attempt the aluminium surface is injuriously
affected, and good soldering becomes almost impossible
unless the affected surf ace is removed by scraping or iiling.
Inlaying Stringing in Cabinet Work.— When inlay-
ing stringing round drawer fronts or on taper tsbble
legs the mode of procedure is as follows. From a bit
of broken bow-saw, or a bradawl filed to width, make
a steel cutter to the width of the stringing. The
cutter A in the illustration is secured by a screw B
in a saw kerf C. an ordinary gauge being used to hold
the cutter, which protrudes as much as the thickness of
the stringing. Satinwood or boxwood stringing can
generally be obtained from cabinet makers. Set the
gauge to the required margin round the drawer fronts,
or from the edge of the legs, and scratch the channels
for stringing. "The gauge is held as in ordinary gauging. .
To make a clean job, where the channels for stringing
■Fio 2
nmbrella-iuaker's Stock Euife.
of hard wood should be fitted to take the cutting edge
of the knife. Fig. 2 shows the shape of the knife handle.
This tool is used for cutting the ends of sticks to fit the
ferrules, which should always be shouldered on.
Black Fillings for Headstones.— The following is
a recipe for a bright non-staining black for monumental
work. Dissolve in a bottle by the aid of heat black
sealing wax in methylated spirit, and keep the bottle
near a fire for one day, shaking it at intervals of about
one hour. This mixture will »ot crack when it gets hard.
Thin it vrith methylated spirit and apply with a brush.
'To till lettering on monumental work, use equal parts
asphaltum and guttapercha, dissolved in a tin can. Hot
asphaltum used alone is too brittle, but the two together
make a first-rate filler. To flU lettering to resemble lead ,
make up some Parian cement with water, stain it with
lampblack and a dash ot blue, fill in the letters when
dry, and clean off the surface.
Recipes for Aluminium Solders. — The difficulty
in getting solder to adhere to aluminium is caused
by a metallic film (pi'obably an oxide) which forms
on the surface of the metal while heated, and which
prevents ordinary soft solders alloying to form a
strong joint. A flux might be used to render the
surface of the aluminium pure during the i-oldering
operation, or the fllra might be removed by mechanical
means, or a solder devised that would dissolve, or com-
bine with the film on the surface of the metal while
both solder and aluminium were heated. The com-
positiou of a really reliable flux for soft soldering has
not been made public, consequently either of the two
latter methods must iSe adopted: For working' with a
tinned copper bit the solder should me]t at a moderate
temperature, and should contain 6nly small pro-
portions of brittle metals, solders containing muoli
brittle metal usually showing decreased malleability
and ductility. Alloys of an easily fusible nature are re-
commended for soldering aluminium by the following
authorities. Frishmuth, of Philadelphia, says : tin
95 parts, and bismuth 5 parta ; or tiu 97 parts, and
Gauge for Inlaying Stringing in Cabinet Work.
cross the grain of the wood, cut two lines with a knife,
and then rout out the wood with a small chisel or with the
cutter. The various lengths of stringing may then be
fitted into their channels. Where the stringing inter-
sects at the corners it must be mitred. Next take
each length and put on the glue by running it against
the glue brush over the glue pot. Press the stringing
into the channel by the aid of the face or the back of the
hammer. When the work has had time to dry, say in
about twenty-four hours, the job may be cleaned up and
glasspapered.
Dyeing Leather for Gloves.— Leather is sometimes
dyed in the vat and sometimes by simply brushing
over with the dye liquid. For instance, a leather
may first be tanned and then transferred to a vat
containing pine and elder barks to give it a tan or
russet brown colour. Browns and yellows are ob-
tained by damping thfe leather and brushing over it a
decoction ot saffron, annatto, a mixture of brazilwood
and yellow berries, etc., also by using a solution of an
aniline dye, as picric acid, phosphine, Bismarck broivn,
or acid brown. Other suitable dyes are magenta, methyl
violet, Bussian green, brillia,nt green, methylene bJue,
crysoidine, nigrosine, etc. Blacks are usually obtained
by brushing over with a decoction of galls and, after
drying, a solution of copperas or pyrolignite ot iron.
Alter dyeing the leather and drying, it should be rubbeo
up with a waxed cloth to impart a dull polish. Many ot
the aniline dyes are best fixed, by an after' ti-eatment
with a decoction of nutgalla. Picric acid may also be
used for fixing purposes, but it yielda compound shades.
Black Stain for Wood.— To obtain a dense black stain
for wood, boll together in an old iron pot 1 gal. of strong
vinegar, 2 lb. of e.vtraot ot logwood, i lb. ot green
copperfcs, a oz. of China blue, a.nd 2oz. of crushed nut-
galls ; then add i pt. of acetate ot iron, mn.de by steeping
rusty nails or iron turnings in common vinegar. Aiiply
liberally with a brush. The wood must be perfectly Iree
from grease and glue, and should be handled as little as
pobsible.
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
165
Making Pressed or German Yeast. — Pressed or
co-called German yeast is made In a similar way
to ordinary brewer's yeast, but it is the yeast derived
from the fermentation of a mash which is afterwards
distilled for whiskey. The yeast is collected from the
surface of the fermented liquid hy a scraper, and is then
put through a Alter press which presses out the greater
part of the water, leaving a stiff, pasty mass which is cut
up into 71b., Mlb., or 281b. lumps and sewn up in bags.
Taking off Bevels for Rafters.— An explanation of
how bevels for rafters are taken off the drawing Und
put on the s^uff to be cut is here given. Set out for
the bevels as shown at Pig. 1; the bevel at A being
for the vertical cut, and that at B for the bevel to
be applied at the edge of the rafter. The bevels can
be set from the drawing as shown at Fig. 1. Pig. 2 shows
the bevel B (Fig. 1) applied to the top edge of the rafter,
and Pig. 3 shows bevel A (Pig. 1) applied to the side of it.
This will perhaps be more clearly understood from the
place must be rubbed with a rag wet with cold water,
otherwise a white mark will appear, which will not be
easily removed. Strong muriatic acid, or spirit of salt,
applied with a piece of rag, and afterwards well washfed
off with water, will remove stains from boards. To
remove stains from silver or plated articles without
injuring them, make a little chloride of lime into a paste
with water and rub the stains until they disappear, and
afterwards wash the articles with soap and water.
Stains can be taken out of coloured tablecovers by dis-
solving a teaspoonf ul of oxalic acid in a teacupful of hot
water, and rubbing the stained part well with the solu-
tion. To remove stains from white cloths, put a little
powdered salt of lemon on the part affected, damp it,
allow it to remain about ilve minutes, and wash it out
with soap and water, when the stain will disappear.
Engine for Pile Driving.— The illustration shows
the general arrangement of a smiall pile engine worked
by hand power ; lai-ger ones are on the same principle.
The boiler and winch will depend upon the money
available, but a vertical boiler with small winch
engine attached will probably be suitable. Obliaue
piles are driven by canting the pile-engine ; the blow of
course loses in- efficiency according to the amount of
Taking off Bevels for Eafters.
isometric view given at Fig. 4, which shows the appli-
cation of the bevels. The form of the out C (Pig. 1) is the
bevel for feet of rafters.
Brass-plating Solutions.— The following are brassing
-solutions. Water, 160 parts; copper cyanide, 2 parts;
zinc cyanide, 1 part ; and potassium cyanide, 15 parts.
Or water, 250 parts; copper sulphate, 1 part; zinc sul-
phate, 8 parts ; and potassium cyanide, 18 parts. "Watt's
solution is made by dissolving as much sheet brass as
possible in warm dilute nitric add, the fumes given off
being poisonous. Next add this solution to water in the
proportions of 2 oz. of brass per gallon of water, and add
-strong liquid ammonia until a deep blue colour results.
Add strong solution of potassium cyanide until a pale
jrellow colour is obtained. Filter this, and finally add
water so that the proportion is 1 oz. of brass to 1 gal.
•of the solution. This solution, which can be used hot or
-cold, should be kept some hours before use.
Removing Ink Stains from various Articles Ink
Btains may be removed from a mahogany table by
touching the part stained with a feather dipped in a
mixture of a few drops of spirit of nitre and a teaspoon-
lol of water. Immediately the ink stain disappears the
i '
Engine for File Dxiving.
cant. ' For moving the pile-engine about a job on shore,
it is usual to lay, down a pair of rails and to prise the
engine along them. For transportation by water, a barge
is the best means, but if by road a lorry, lurrie, or low
trolley is usual, the engine being carried erect, if there
are no bridges to pass under, and being made fast by
guy ropes from the top to the angles of the lorry.
Working Leaves in Wrought Iron.— The process of
cutting out and shaping leaves in wrought iron is briefly
thus. The pattern of the leaf required is traced from the
drawing gummed on to a suitable piece of sheet iron,
which for hammered work may be of the best quality
Lowmoor, though Swedish iron is prefei-able. The out-
line of the leaf is then carefully cut out with a steel
chisel, after which the leaf is heated all over to a uni-
form temperature and hammered into the required
shape on the beak iron of the anvil or the swage iron.
As the parts of the leaf are shaped they may.be cooled
by dipping in water, or water may be poured on, leaving
only the unshaped parts red hot. Hammers of various
sizesand with different shaped ends will be required, and
also flat-, square-, and round-nosed pincers. A very
useful tool is a thick cast-metal block, on the surface of
which have been sunk the shapes of the leaves that are
required. Into these moulds the red-hot metal may be
beaten and worked into shape, after which the leaves may
be re-heated and bent with the pincers or hammered
with round- or oval-faced hammers, so as to give a
different effect to each leaf.
166
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
Composition for Casting Ornaments in Belief,—
A composition in \phich to cast a panel (say) of birds,
modelled in low relief, may consist of Tib. of glue, 31b.
of resin, lipt. of linseed oil, and about 2ipt. of water.
Steep the ^lue in water and melt in the usual way ; then
melt the oil and resin separately, and pour into the glue.
Next add well-powdered whiting till the mass is of the
consistency of thick dough. Well knead the mixture till
the whole is smooth and plastic. Press the composition
into the mould, which should first be well oiled. To
extract the pressing from the mould, reverse the latter
on a damp board, to which the composition will adhere,
and so enable the mould to be pulled off. This composi-
tion sets extremely hard, and may be glued to any panel
desired. Another .suitable composition consists or fine
glue 3 parts, isinglass 1 part, dissolved in water till the
mixture, when cold, is like jelly. Gently heat this and
mix with finely sifted sawdust tlllthewholeis snf&ciently
thick to be workable. Press the composition into the
mould, place a weighted board over it, and set before the
fire to harden and dry.
Pressure on Retaining Wall,— The following is the
method employed in computing the pressure exerted
by earth on a retaining wall of any thickness, with
the earth at a given angle of repose. The earth
above the line of repose adheres to that below, and
the angle of repose is only reached after a long period
of exposure to the weather, so that there is no tend-
ency for the whole mass to move at once. The
bisection of the angle of repose with a vertical line gives
facing may be dispensed with, the wet print being merely
agueegeed down on the chalked glass and treated as
already described. Embossing is done by means of a
press, obtainable of most photographic dealers. The
raised portion is then filled in with wadding, the print
being attached only at its edges.
Applying Bromide Solution to Paper.— The method
of applying the bromide solution suggested by Captain
Abney is an excellent one, and consists of spraying it
with a sort of wash bottle made as follows. Fit, a cork
to a 1-in. bore test tube or a small wide-mouth bottle.
Take a length of glass tubing, and separate it into two
portions about Sin. longer than the extreme depth of
the bottle by gently heating in a spirit or gas flame, keep,
ing it revolving all the time until the glass softens, when
it may be pulled steadily apart as shown in Pig. 1. If the
tube is wetted or breathed on, it may crack. 'Warin
again in the same manner, and bend to the shape shown
in Pig. 2. Out away the closed portion from t he other
piece by scratching with a file and snapping off. Then
bend as shown in Pig. 3, melt the end A to soften off the
edges, and, whilst soft, squeeze flatter with the pliers,
pressing very gently. Now bore two holes straight and
parallel through the cork, a little smaller than the tub-
lug ; a rat-tail file can be used if a borer is not available.
Insert the tubes in the cork, and the cork in the test
tube. Strip off the extreme end or tip B, which will give
a tiny hole. It will then present the appearance shown
in Pig. 4. The part A should be put in the lips, and a.
gentle current of air forced through, when a fine spray
Pressure on Betaining Wall
Apparatus for Applying Bromide Solution to Paper.
the line of rupture, and the wedge of earth between the
line of rupture and the back of the wall is considered to
be the amount pressing on the wall, or where fracture
would originate if the wall yielded. Let A B C be this
wedge of earth, AB a vertical line at the back of the
wall, A C the line of rupture, and c g the centre of gravity
of the wedge. Draw a vertical line W through the centre
of gravity touching the line of rupture and equal in
length on any given scale to the weight of the wedge of
earth. At its base draw the horizontal line marked T,
which wiU be at one-third the height of the wall, and cut
it off to the length shown by a line from the upper
extremity of W parallel to the slope of the line of rupture.
Then T will equal the thrust on the wall by the earth at
the back.
Use for Broken Band-saws. — An advantageous
method of disposing of broken band-saws is here sug-
gested. Place the broken saws in a fire, and well heat
them. When cold, the pieces will be very soft, and will
be much better than hoop-iron for binding shafts in
pairs, and pick and shovel handles, etc., into bundles.
Enamelling and Embossing Photographs,— To pro-
duce the permanent enamel seen on photographs,
thoroughly clean a sheet of plate-glass and dust over it
a little French chalk, every trace of which should
afterwards be removed by careful polishing. Next coat
the glass with enamel collodion and allow it to set. The
wet print is then laid face down on the collodion surface
and well squeegeed to remove air bubbles, and after-
wards set up in a warm room to dry. When nearly
dry, a piece of waterproof backing paper is fastened
over the ,taack of the print, using stiff starch paste.
When thoroughly dry, a knife slipped round the edge
should be sufficient to cause the print to leave the glass
readily. The collodion film is used for the purpose of
supplying a glaze to matt or albumenised papers ; but
if P.O.P. (which is already glazed) is used, the collodion
will result. For coating the paper a trough will be neces-
sary ; or a dish may be used, set at an angle as shown in
Pig. 5, and supported by a block C. On a glass rod or a.
length of glass tubing, roll some lengths of chemically
pure paper to about 4 in. thick, and glue down. This,
will make a roller about IJin. thick, the thick part to be
shorter than the dish. Now wind upon it as tightly as
possible, coated side outwards, some Elves or Saxe paper
of suitable width, and fasten with a rubber band at the
extreme edges. Construct a tank of metal (see X, Fig. 5),
the pattern of which is shown In Fig. 6, and bend on the
dotted lines and solder together. The two ends of the
tubing are now placed through the cuts Z 'i, bringing the
paper well below the sides of the dish. Now fill the lower
tank with boiling water, and pour the melted emulsion
into the porcelain dish, which should be free from cracks.
Unwind the paper slowly, passing it through the emul-
sion. Withdrawing the paper rapidly gives a thicker
coating. The paper as coated should be drawn over
laths placed above the tank, and allowed to dry spon-
taneously in a well- ventilated room free from dust.
Chimney-cleaning Materials.- The recipes for the
compositions which, when placed on the fire, cause
the soot to be removed from the chimney, are trade
secrets. By one plan the fire is got into a bright con-
dition, then a very thin layer of small coal is put on. On
top of this is laid a whole stick Of sulphur ; this measures
about 7in. long by IJin. diameter, and is perhaps better
known as brimstone in the stick form. The stove is
then closed up and the damper opened full. This methoa
is of use witn closed stoves only ; it also answers to
extinguish a chimney fire. With open grates some fom
of blower must be employed to make the draught sum-
oiently strong, but this is a necessary condition also
with the packets of materials before referred to. ine
efRoaoy of the sulphur is said to be impi'oved by placing
with it one or two raw onions on the fire.
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
167
Removing Silver Stains from a Negatlve.-Busty
trown stains on photographic negatives are caused hy
dami), and are known as silver stains. If the stains are
old, it is, as a rule, impossible to remove them, but
either ot the following methods of treatment will make
them fainter. Soak the negative and immerse for a short
time in sulphocyanide of ammonium 1 dr., water loz.,
and ti-ansfer to nitric acid Idr., water 1 oz., without any
washing. Or try the following. Thiocarhamid 6 gr.,
citric acid lOgr., chrome alum 20gr., water 2oz. Allow
the negative to soak in this solution, and the stains will
probably he reduced. In either case< tiie removal ot the
stains will he greatly assisted by a little gentle friction
with a tnf t of wool.
Artificially seasoning Small Lumber. — A very
effective and simple apparatus for artificially season-
ing small and shoi-t lumber can be put up wherever
a small quantity ot steam— from the boiler or ex-
haust ot a steam engine, say —is available for use. The
material to be treated is placed, preferably on end, in a
large steam-box or barrel, and allowed to become thor-
oughly saturated with the steam. This will take from two
to ten hours,^ according to the kind and thickness of the
wood. No pressure is reguired, but the top of the barrel
should be closed with a lid. The apparatus should not be
kept inside a building on account ot the escaping steam.
A false bottom of wire netting or something similar
Is placed across the barrel at ]? B (see sketch) to keep
the material being treated away from the bottom proper
L^
FB
A tubular pneumatic action has a bellows at each ena
ot a connecting tube ; compressing one bellows distends
the other, which becomes the motive power to open the
pipe pallets. Trackers, squares, rollers, etc., are thus
rendered unnecessary. In electric action an electro-
magnet Is generally used to open the valve nearest the
finger or to compress the bellows In the tubular pneu-
matic action. In this case the key has only to make
contact and break it. One way in which this is done is
by a U-shaped wire staple in the underside ot the key,
which, when depressed, enters two small cells of mer-
cury into which the ends of the connecting wires are
led. This action is not generally used apart from the
pneumatic action, because it independent the electro-
magnets would require to be inside the wind-chest, and
this would be inconvenient when adjustment became
necessary.
Determining tbe Sizes of Gauge Boxes for Compo.
—The ftiUowing instructions are for determining the
areas of square gauge boxes of tour different sizes.
No. 1, to measure 1 yd. of sand, being given as 3 ft.
square and 3ft. deep; No. ?, to measure iyd. of sand
or cement; No. 3, to measure iyd. of cement: and
No. 4, to measure iyd. of cement. It is supposed that
all the boxes are to be of the same depth, and so it is
only necessary to find the lengths of the respective
sides. To do this, find the area in each case, and the
square root will give the length required. The area of
Apparatus for Artiflcially Seasoning Small Lumber.
Determining the Sizes of Gauge Boxes for Compo.
and allow the steam to become evenly distributed. After
it is taken out the wood is piled under cover in the
ordinary manner and allowed to dry ; this, in small thin
material, usually takes three weeks or a month. The
drying time might be considei-ably shortened by utilising
the space above the boiler as a drying loft. A temperature
of 120° to 180° P. (obtainable above most boilers) would get
the drying over in a day or two, but the material should
not be transferred to such a po-^ition direct from the
steambox ; let it have a tew days' ordinar . drying first.
Ihe apparatus is guite suitable for steam-bending pur-
poses, buttortreatingrims and sticks tor lawn-tennis and
lacrosse rackets a long horizontal box, as used by boat-
builders, should be made, having as small a capacity as
possible consistent with the work it will be required to
do. Ihe steam pipe should be introduced at about the
middle of Its length, and the material inserted from the
end. If no boiler from which steam could be drawn is
accessible, the cheaper plan would be to forward a parcel
to a, di-ying-kiln proprietor and have the drying done by
contract.
Pneumatic Key Actions for Fine Organs. — In
small organs the closer the connection between the
player's fingers and the pipe valves the better, be-
cause the staccato and legato touch can be more easily
made to respond exactly to the player's fingers; he can
if he wishes open and close the valves gradually, but
with pneumatic a,cti6ns the pallet is always made to
open and close as rapidly as possible. A pneumatic
action opens a small bellows instead of the pallet leading
to the pipes. The movable pent of the bellows is made to
worktne action, which remains nearly the same as before.
the first box being 9 ft. , the area of the i-yd. box will be
4'5 ft., the area of the i-yd. box will be 3 ft., and the area
of the 1-yd. box will be 2t ft. ; therefore, extracting the
square root in each case gives '''4"5 = 2'14 or practically
2 ft. liin. ; ^3 = l'7or practically Itt. 8Jin. ; ^2'^ =
I'S, or practically I ft. 6 in., which gives the length of the
sides in each case. To determine this by geometry, let
A B C D represent the area of the larger box, drawn to
scale. Now, on the side B C construct a semicircle, and
bisect B in E, and draw E V perpendicular to B C ; then
joining B r gives the side of a square halt the area of the
square A B C D. Next divide C D into three equal parts,
as shown, and on it construct a Femicircle and draw If K
perpendicular to CD; then joining DK and CK gives
sides ot squares one-third the area and two thirds the
area of the larger square. "The construction ot the
quarter area of A B C D is similarly shown at C L.
Diameter of Rivets for Boilers.— A list ot diameters
ot rivets to be used with boiler plates ot given thickness
is here presented. The diameter ot the rivet may equal
1'2 times the square root ot the thickness of the riveted
plate. On this basis the foUpwlng is a list such as is
required— ,^-in. plate, |J in. diameter ; J-in. plate,
I in. diameter ; I'l-in. plate, +J in. diameter ; i-in. plate,
I in. diameter; l-in. plate, il 'u. diameter; l-in. plate,
liVin. diameter; i-in. plate, liin. diameter; ancf 1-in.
plate, liin. diameter. The following has been given as
the practice of Lancashire boilermakers. Por |-in. and
jVin. plates, I in. diameter; for i-in. and i"„-in. plates,
tSin. diameter; for li-in. and J-in. plates, Jin. diameter;
and for }-in. and 1-in. plates, H in. diameter.
168
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
Relaxing Bird Skins. — For relaxing bird sliiiiB,
line the inside of a wooden box witii a 1 in. layer of
plaster-of-Paris, well mixed. When dry, the box is ready
lor use. Pour water inside sullioient to saturate the
plaster, and, after turning out the surplus water,
place the skins inside. Cover them with a damp
cloth and close the lid, which should fit well. Now place
the box in a damp shadji; place (such as a cellar) until
the sMns are relaxed ; this will be known by the feet,
wings, and tail being soft enough to spread out with
gentle handling. Another method Is to half fill a box
with silver sand and well damp it. Wrap each skin In a
piece of rag and cover the whole with more damped sand.
The rag will keep the feathers from actual contact with
the sand, but will allow the moisture to penetrate. The
average time lor small birds up to the size of a thrush
will be about twenty-four hours; for grouse size, about
two days ; for heron size, three days ; for eagle size, four
days. When the legs wi 11 bend a little, work them about
till they bend easily.
Scratch Plane for Working Beads and Mould-
ings.— Fig. 1 Is a perspective view of a scratch plane
lor working beads and small mouldings, and Fig. 2 is a
so. Should any sediment be thrown down,. indicating
the presence of impurities, the bath should be discarded.
Thoroughljr wash the prints, which must not be in an
acid condition. It is advisable to pass them through a
6-per-cent. solution of carbonate of soda (1 oz. of washing
soda in 20oz. of water), and again wash before toning.
It is difficult to tell when the prints are correctly toned
until experience is gained, but they should not be toned
longer than five minutes in winter and rather less in
summer. When toned, place in a lij-per-cent. solution of
common salt, which stops the toning. Thoroughly wash
and fix for twenty minutes in hypo 2oz., water Ipt., or a
lO-per-cent. solution. Finally wasn for two hours. In all
the operations the prints should be kept well separated,
hence it is advisable to tone only a few at a time and to
use two dishes of hypo and transfer from one to the
other. The same plan should be adopted in washing, if
unprovided with a washing tank. The above Is specially
recommended by the Britannia Co. for their Ilford
printing paper.
Sail Plan for Model Yacht.— Accompanying this sail
plan is a scale in feet and inches for a 10-ton model
yacht 59 in. long over all, water-line Win., beam 74 in.,
depth 12in., with a 26-lb. lead keel, and from the plan all
measm-ements required can be taken. The foresail
II n
Fig 3
Scratch Plane for Working Mouldings, etc.
Sail Plan for Model Yacht,
view of it upside down. For the stock, a piece of birch
or beech about 10 In. long is used, and a saw kerf A (Figs.
1 and 2) is cut nearly the whole length ; the cutter B, of
sheet or broken saw steel, is placed in this slot and kept
secure b.y the screws C. Fig. 3 shows the cutter shaped
for making a couple of beads D (Fig. 1). The cutter may
be made to the desired s-hape with a file, the edge of the
cutter being kept flat like a scraper. It is then finished
with an oilstone slip of the reverse shape— that is, round.
In working, the scratch is moved forward or backward,
and is held by the right hand at the right end, and by the
Ifcft hand at the left end of the job, the stock being kept
well against the work. Having scratched the mouldings,
next clean them up with sandpaper, wrapped about a
piece of pine, say Sin. long, 2in. wide, and J in. thick, the
edge being the reverse shape to the bead or hollow.
Fig. 4 shows a cutter for another pattern of beads.
How to Make a, Platinum Toning Bath.— When using
a chloro-platinite of potassium toning bath with Ilford
P.O. P., print scarcely so far as for treatment with ordinary
gold and sulphocyanide bath. Dissolve 15gr. of potas-
sium chlovo-platinlte In 1.5 dr. of distilled water; label
this "Stock platinum solution, I grain lu 1 dram." As it
is liable to change— the platinum lielng precipitated— if
exposed to light, it should be kept In a dull light or,
preferably, in the dark room. For toning one sheet of
paper, make up the following : Dissolve .50 gr. of chloride
of sodium (common salt) in lOoz. of distilled water and
add 100 gr. of alum, and finally 2 dr. (2gr.) of stock
platinum solution. The bath is ready for Immediate
use, but does not keep satisfactorily more than a day or
should have a light boom laced to its foot. Eig lightly,
and with no unnecessary gear.
Removing Dents from Brass Musical Instruments.
— To remove dents, with at blowpipe or soldering bit
carefully solder in the hollow a suitable brass plug.
When cold, take hold of the plug and pull the dent care-
fully out. Then unsolder the plug, and wipe oft the
melted solder with cotton waste or rag. With very fine
emery cloth remove every trace of solder. To remove
dirt, etc., use turpentine tipplied with a rag ; afterwards,
rottenstone and oil, or tripoli and oil. Finish off with
list and dry powdered lime.
Asphalt for Damp-proof Course.— Asphalt for a
damp-proof course may be prepared by boiling, for a
few miniites only, coal-tar (about 2i gal.) and pitch
(I cwt.) in an iron boiler, thinning with 2 gal. of
creosote oil. Brush the footings clean, sprinkle a
little sand on, and with a trowel make a little ridge of
mortar along each edge of the brickwork to prevent the
melted tar and pitch running off. Then pour on while
hot from a ladle or a bucket.
Particulars of Vulcanite.- Vulcanite in made by
heating indlarubber with about half its weight of sul-
phur, and is coloured by incorporating with it mineral
pigments— lampblack for black, antimony sulphide or
vermilion for red, zino white for white, etc. In making
plates on which artificial teeth are fixed, the vulcanite,
while hot, is pressed to shape in moulds, the teeth being
previously fixed in the moulds in the positions they are
to occupy.
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
169
Converting Boat's Sail into Waterproof Cover for
Boat.— Presiiming that a can vas sail is to be turned into a
boat cover, a wooden ridge should be fitted to support the
. cover, fore and aft resting ou the breast hoolc forward,
and the stern aft. The cover must then be made, it
possible, in ^uch a way that the seams will be athwart-
ships, i.e. at right angles with the ridge over which it
will be stretched, and secured by lacing through eyelet
holes worked (or clinched, it metal) in every seam through
the double part. For watei'proofing use ordinary
paint containing ochre, or one of the earth pigments in
preference. Lampblack is also good, but does not reflect
the sun's rays as do lighter colours. For the first coat
use equal parts of boiled and raw oil and a little turps,
and allow plenty of time to dry; omit raw oil in the last
coat, and omit the pigment in the first. If it is not
possible to make the cover with seams athwart, let them
bd fore and aft (not diagonally), and work a tabling for
the eyelet holes.
Staining Kid Gloves and Shoes Er own.— For
a light brown stain, use Bismarck brown or annatto ;
for a dark broWn, use acid brown. Make a strong
solution of these in water, add a small quantity of ox gall
to make them penetrate the leather better, and brush on.
Gloves should be fixed on a wooden hand and dried on it.
Boots that have been polished will not take the stain ;
they should first be thoroughly cleaned with turpentine.
Cage for Starling or Song Thrush. — The Cage
should be 2ft. long, 18iu. high, and llin. wide, and
provided with a false bottbm covered with zinc ; water
and the scrubbing brush can then be used at cleaning
time. There should always be plenty of sand on the
bot'jom. In the accompanying sketch, the ends of
the cage are of wire ; at one end a food box or hopper
the dye to prevent the skin sinking. Tajte great care
that the solutions are hot when used, and, during the
drying, frequently shake the skins and rub them to pre-
vent them drying hard. For a black, boil }lb. of cop-
peras, 2 oz. of sulphate of copper, and 1 lb. of cream' of
tartar in 1 ^1. of water. This is the fixing bath. The
dye is made by boiling 51b. of logwood in 1 gal. of water.
For a grey dye, boil 51b. of logwood in 1 gal. of' water;
for the fixingbath, boil2oz. of copperas in 1 gal. of water.
To make a brown dye, boil lib. of catechu in Igal. of
water; and for the fixing bath, boil 41b. of sulphate of
copper in Igal. of water. These proportions may be
varied according to the tint desired. The operations
may be repeated if the colour is not intense enough.
Experiment first upon a piece of skin.
Distilling I.avender Water.— In distilling lavender
water, a copper or glass still and a condenser will be
required. The lavender flowers should be placed in the
stilly covered with water, and then heated ; the water
distilling over will contain the essential oil of lavender,
and may be used as lavender water. The water may be
cleared by shaking it with a little fuller's-ea.f'thi.allowing
the latter to settle out, and 'then decanting from the
deposit. '
A Cheap Photographic Shutter.— The following
instructions are ou making a cheap photogravhic
shutter for a quarter-plate stand camera. In a piece
of- wood "(A, Fig. 2) cut a hole B to fit the lens. This
may be made to fit directly on to the lens tube with
the hood removed. Cut from thin, perfectly flat
metal a piece of the shape and size of Fig. 1, and
make in it small holes C, D, E, and a large opening F.
Cut and turn up a piece at 6 to form a^ hook for the
elastic band H. Fasten this to A by a pin through E, and
Cage for Starling or Thrush.
is placed, and at the other end is a similar box qontain-
ing the drinking vessel. These boxes should be made
{lartly 6i glass, so that their contents can be seen without
if ting them down. The door is in front. The position
of the three perches is also shown. If the ends are of
wood, both food and water vessels would be placed in
front, one on each side of the door. This form of cage is
better for keeping away draughts. In either case let
the top project well over the ends and sides, say about
liin. Give three coats of oil paint Outside, and lime-
wash the inside.
Brewing Ale.— If it is required to brew about 9 gal.
of ale, take 401b. of malt and 10 gal. of water and raise
nearly to the boil in a copper ; after about an hour, run
thi'ough a fine sieve into a large bowl. At the same
time boil lilb. of hops in about 4 gal. of water in an
enamelled or earthenware pan tor an hour, strain, and
add to the malt infusion. Allow the liquid to cool down
until it is hardly warm (i.e. to 70" F.), then take out about
a quart of the liquid and stir it with about a pint of fresh
brewer's yeast ; add the mixture to the liquid in the bowl,
stir well, cover, and allow to stand for twenty-four hours ;
then strain through a very fine hair-sieve, to remove the
yeast, and bottle up, leaving it for a week or two to
brighten and become brisk. Salt may be added after
boiling, say 4 oz. to 1 oz. Sugar is not needed unless very
strong ale is required, and no finings are necessary unless
the materials are bad or the brewing carelessly done.
Dyeing Sheepskins. — The following are instruc-
tions on dyeing sheepskins black, grey, and brown.
After the skins are dressed and softened they should
be placed in the hot dye, wool downwards, and allowed
to remain for an hour or two. They phould then be
washed in cold water, and hung up to dry till the
next day. They should then be put into the hot
fixing solution, allowed to remain an hour or two,
washed in cold water, and hung up to dry. As it is only
necessary to immerse the wool in the solutions, some
strips of wood can be placed along the bath containing
Fig. I
^
W iWi
\
V
/im
Fro. 2-
Fig. 3
A Cheap Photographic Shutter.
place a stop— a triangular piece of wood— at I and
through it a hook ot wire K. Now form the catch shown
in section in Fig. 3, and fasten firmly with a staple at L.
The lower part acts as a spring and keeps the point M
(Fig. 3) tight in the hole D. To set the shutter, pull it
round till the point M catches in D, as shown in Fig. 2.
To relea.se the shutter, press the spring catch. If the
spring is lightly pressed, the point M will be arrested by
the hole C, and the shutter will stop half-way for a time
exposure. For different exposures, 'di-3erent bauds must
be used to vary the strength of the pull.
Softening a Goat's Skin.— An Hungarian goat's skin
which has been cleaned, but has dried very stiff, may
be softened by the following method. Well damp the
skin on the flesh side and, when thoroughly soft,
stretch it in all directions; then hang it up to dry in
the shade. After an bour or so, take the skin down,
give it a good shaking, and well rub it (similarly
to washing clothes), then hang it up again, but by a
different part to which it was previously hanged.
After another hour or so, repeat the rubbing, shaking,
etc.; then hang it up again. The more thoroughly the
rubbing and shaking are done the softer the skin will
be. When nearly dry, hand-rub the skin till dry, and
it should be as soft as chamois leather.
Making Liquid Gum.— Liquid gum is often put up
for selling in penny bottles. For this purpose gum
arable, costing sixpence and upwards per pound, is
suitable. Gum dextrine may be used, but a large
quantity is required to yield a, good gum solution,
and, moreover, it is usually dark coloured. A good
gum may be made by dissolving lib. of gum in 21b.
of water; a poor gum by using 41b. of water. The
former would yield 460z. (or forty-six penny bottles),
and the latter 76oz. (or seventy-six penny bottles),
allowing for waste. The addition of a few drops of
carbolic acid prevents the gum becoming mouldy.
The gum should be covered with the water, and stirred
till dissolved, no heat being required.
170
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
Making Flat-bottomed Punt.— To tend the sides to
make them meet the stem- and stern-posts of a flat-
bottomed punt, 17 ft. long, and supposing the sides
to be 18 in. deep, boards of that width will suffice,
as the desired sheer and rocker will be gained by the
bending, more or less as the sides of the cehtre mould
are more or less inclined. Having shaped the two
f-ldes alilce, marls accurately the centre of each and
draw a line through these and square with the edge. To
this line screw the mould, Iteeping the edges of the
boards quite level. Get four pieces of wood 2 ft. long and
about 2 in. by 2 in. ; use two of thes^ at each end, placing
them outside the boards vertically ; lash the pro.ieoting
ends of these battens together across the punt. By
tightening at top or bottom, the desired shape can be
gained. A small taclile is handler than lashing, but In
either case it is well to keep a loop of stout rope round
the ends dm-ing the process (If at either end the boards
are to Toe drawn up close), to prevent personal accident,
should the battens slip oft or tackle or lashing break,
etc.
shed for Storing Cycles.— Fig. 1 shows the plan of
a shed for storing about twenty cycles. Pig. 2 is a cross
section, and Pig. 3 Is a portion of the front. A simple
almost as long as before. If plenty of soda sulphite is
used in the developer (that is, mixed with the pyro and
not with the soda, as often recommended), there should
be no fear of yellow stain.
Particulars of Potash.— There is, properly speaking,
only one kind of potash, and this is the oxide of the
metal potassium. The name potash was first applied
to the ashes formed by burning plants, this being
done in pots ; after purification by dissolving in
water, filtering, and evaporating to dryness, the pro-
duct is known as pearlash, and is an impure kind of
carbonate of potash. American potash is really a.
peai-lash, and is used with Vandyke brown for brown
stains. The name potash is often applied to caustic pot-
ash. There are several salts of potash used for staining
purposes; bichromate of- potash is used for staining-
mahogany darker, chromate of potash yieldsi a yellow
stain, permapganate of potash a brown stain, and ferro-
cyanide of potash (yellow priisslate) with an iron salt
yields a blue stain.
paloulatlns; Strength of Struts.-Gordon's formula,
is the best in a general way for calculating the area
of struts or pillars in iron or wood:— /■ = intensity of
pressure to crush short column of the material in
tons per sqmre inch ; a = constant deduced from
experiments on actual breaking weight of long
columns: h = least transverse dimension in inches:
I = length of piUar or strut in inches ; P = total pressure
on pillar in tons ; p = pressure per unit of sectional area
tons per square inch ; s = total sectional area in square
inches ; p —
1 +
«(l)
-, or P =
fS
1 +
IV
"(I)
Factor of
safety, say, from 6 tor short pillars to 10 for long pillars;
f = 3S for cast-iron, 16 wrought-iron, 26 mild steel, 2"o fir
timber, 3 oak timber ; a = tor timber ^ tor square or
rectangular sections, ^ tor circular sections merely
Shed for Storing Cycles.
arrangement for keeping the cycles in position by means
of two inclined pieces of wood is shown at (Pig. 2). An
alternate arrangement for hanging the cycles on two
hooks is also shown. To support the hooks, two pieced
of wood about Sin. by 3in., going the whole length,
must be fixed to the rafters, as shown at A and B
(Pig. 2). These would require supporting by two pairs
of uprights for the length of the shed, otherwise the
weight of the cycles would soon make the root sag.
Wood 3 in. by 3 in. will be found most serviceable for the
general framing, and J-in. matchboardlng tor the sides
and ends. The root may be buarded and felted, or
covered with corrugated iron.
Printing Qualities of Photographic Negative.—
Rapidity of printing is governed first by the density
of deposit on the i*late ; secondly, by the colour of
the deposit. This difference in the printing rapidity
of negatives exercises a great influence on the tone or
contrast of a finished print. A yellow negative gives a
much harder result, whilst it is impossible to get a rich
pui-ple tone from a thin bluish negative. A bluish
negative, or freedom from stain, should be aimed at.
bellow sialn is due to the oxidation of the pyro, and
may be removed immediately after fixing by placing tor
a tew minutes in a 6-per-cent. solution of hydrochloric
acid ; afterwards, as this has a tendency to cause frilling,
passing through the alum bath, Thils treatment is,
however, useless after the negative has once dried. In
this Oise thiocarbamid may be tried, or the negative
may be intensified with mercury and soda sulphite. The
negative will, however, with the latter treatment take
fl.attened at ends take i a in the formula, when roundd
one end and fixed the other take Vl, a, and rounded both
euds ia; a — tor wrought-iron or mild steel, Ts'ra foi' ^o^^
rectangle, ,^s for solid cylinder, ^^re for thin round tube
or pipe, T^,T!i for angle with equal sides, and 300 tor
rolled joist section where 8 = sum of flange areas and t>
= areaof web ; whenroundedor jointedat ends take ia:
a = for oast-iron, li for round hollow pilldrs ends flat
and fixed, iS,, for H-section, ,f^„ for cross {+) section. , It
will be found of service to get an approximate section
first, and then to calculate by the formulate ascertain
if it is strong enough. For this purpose a fir post may
he considered capable of sustaining safely 4 cwt. per
square inch, or tailing with 2 tons per square inch, and
an oak post 6 cwt. and 3 tonsrespectiveLy. A round cast-
iron'hollow column with a thickness of ,*i diameter miy
be safely loade l to 6 tons per square inch up to Vf
diameters long, i tons from 10 to 15, 3 tons from 15 to ^i,
2 tons from iO to 25, li tons from 25 to 3U, and J toh from
30 to 35.
Mixing Oxide Paint for BriokworU.— Ked oxide
for painting on outside brick walls should be mixed
with raw linseed oil and a, little patent driers^ see
that the walls are thoroughly dry before painting them.
Boiled linseed oil should not be used, as it tends to Be-
come brittle in time, and the moisture in the bripKs
would make it peel oft. It would perhaps be best first to
cover the brickwork with raw linseed oil only, so as to
get a grip and to stop the suction, then finish with tna
oxide paint.
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
171
Preventing Lamp Wicks from Charring.—
Stemp's patent wick is said to be praetically fire-
proof, and not to char. To produce this wick, to
BTery gallon of water add 2'lf oz. of boric acid and
3'22oz. of strong liquor ammonia. Dip the new wick in
the mixture, and dry. A little dye added will enable the
dipped wickb to be distingaished from the undipped. By
another method a piece of carbon is fixed on the top of the
wick. The cotton wick supplies the oil to the carbon, and
the latter is lighted as usual: and, obviously, cannot
char. FUe a small piece of carbon to fit the wick tube of
a flat-wick burner with as little shake as possible ; attach
a piece of clean cotton wick to the carbon, and try the
effect.
Centre for Circle-on-oircle Arch.— A circle-on-clrele
arch Is false construction, and should only be adopted
In exceptional oases. When it is a case of necessity, a
semicircular arch of 3 ft. span may be turned in a
7i-in. stone wall curved to a radius of 4ft. 2in. A
may be prepared by dissolvirig 6 oz. of washing soda in-
30 oz. of water. For use, take 1 oz. each of No. 1 and
No. 2 and add 3 oz. of water. This is sufficient for a whole
plate. When using the alum solution, fill the dish to
within about i in. of the brim ; this may be used till it
becomes discoloured (say for five or six plates). The
same quantity of tjxing solution will fix three or four
plates. It is not advisable to use it for a greater number,
because the hypo becomes charged with silver and does
not do its work so rapidly nor so well.
An Easily Made Kitchen Table.— The kitchen table
here illustrated is made without mortising. It has
detachable legs and a solid top, the latter being made-
from a yellow deal board 16ft. long and llin. wide, cut
into 4-ft. lengths, which, when tongued, planed, and
flued together, make a surface 4 ft. by 3 ft. 6 in. (see-
ig. 1). A floor board, 14 ft. by 6 in. wide and 1 in.
thick, will be required for the framework underneath.
The board is cut lengthwise into two pieces 4 in. and
Centre for Clrcle-on-clrcle Arch.
template A B C D (Fig. 1) should be set out on the plan
for the base of the centre, and the outside B C being a
semicircle the framing may be set out as in Fig. 2,
being flat on face like an ordinary centre; allowance
is made for the thickness of the laggings, which are
3ft. over all. The back A D will be the same heignt
(18 in.), but only 2ft. 6i in. wide, and therefore elliptical,
as in Fig. 3. The laggings, when nailed on, will form
a flowing surface upon which the voussoirs or bricks
may be laid. The supports for the centre would
be the usual ones, the overhang not being sufficient to
necessitate any exceptional course being adopted.
Keeping Qualities of Photographic Developer.—
PyrogaUic acid and soda carbonate solutions will not keep
many minutes ; decomposition sets in directly the two
are brought together. The pyro solution (No. 1) prepared
with nitric acid and a small quantity of water will
keep good for several months, but the acid should be
added flrst. Sulphite of soda may also be added to the
pyro as a preservative, as follows. Take 8 oz. of sulphite
of soda (a fresh sample should be used, as after slight
exposure to air it becomes sulphate and is useless) and
dissolve in 30 oz. of hot water to which has been added
twenty drops of nitric acid. The soda solution (No. 2)
An Easily aiade Kitchen Table.
2in. wide, for the sides B and the cross-pieces, or stays,.
C (Figs. 1 and 2) . The 4-in. piece is cut into two pieces
3 ft. 6iin. long, four pieces lliin. long, and four pieces
8 in. long. The 2-in. piece is cut into two pieces
34 in. long, and two pieces 4U in. long. A set of
•24-in. table legs, four table screws, 4 in. long, fitted
with washer and surew-plate, two, dozen lUn. and one
and a half-dozen 2-in. screws, are all that are necessary
in addition to the two drawers, which can be made
from a second-hand box, to fit the spaces left in the
frame, to complete the table. To put t.ie table together,
flrst rebate together the two side pieces B and one end
of each of the four end pieces B', as shown in Figs. 1
and 2. Then the other ends of the pieces B' are cut as sho wn
in Fig. 2, to fit the ends of the long cross-pieces C, which
form the bearings for' the runners of the , drawers ; 2 in.
of the projecting half is cut off to allow for the drawers.
Then fix together by glue and screws, and place the two
long cross-pieces in position, a.nd insert the two short
cross-pieces in the sides to the extent of about i in., as
shown in Fig. 3. The legs E, which are 2< in. square,
are secured by means of four table screws and the
8-in. pieces D, as shown in Fig. 1. The draw^ers are 14 in.
long by 114 in. wide, and run on pieces of wood 14 in.
long and lin. square.
172
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
Marbling a Stone Mantelpiece.— "Wash the mantel
with a mlxtui'e ot lime water and common wasliing
Boda, to remove any trace of grease or sraolte. Swill
off with clean water. For white marble, apply one
or two coats of quick-drying white paint. The darlc
Teins may be put in with sticks of willow charcoal,
or with thin black paint and a camel-hair brush, the
hai'shness of such veins beius tempered by brushing
over while still wet with a badger softener or clean soft
dusting brush. An alternative plan is to apply over the
veinings a very thin coat of white paint, having just
sufficient body to make the veins appear underneath. A
very pale varnish must be used. For black marble,
q uick-drying black must be applied for the groundwork ;
the veins are of a green and whitish-green tone ; and the
colours are blended together by passing the badger soft-
ener across. Ordinary oak varnish will do for the latter
class of work. For better-class work, the colours should be
worlied up thin and scumbled on with a piece of sponge ;
spotting. being done by taking up plenty of colour in a
brush and tapping it against a stick 1 the colours should
he nicely blended and all harshness avoided.
Making a Portable Book - rest. — The book- rest
here illustrated can be set at any angle desired;
when closed, it resembles a bottomless box, excepli
for the ledge E. The following pieces of wood will be
required. Two pieces (B,li), 12in. by 2in. by fin. ; three
pieces (o.CandD), 9in. by 2in, by Jin. ; one piece (E),
12; in. by 2 in. by fin.; one pipce, for the support (shown
dotted), 7in. by 2in. by Jin.; and one piece (A),12iin.
by 9iin. by !in.; these are all finished sizes. A brass
soil pipes the back sides are tinned with a copper bit,
and also corresponding parts on the pipes. The
astragals are then folded about three parts round the
pipe, and, 9 in. apart, and " sweated" on b.v means of
a blowpipe. If this is neatly done, no solder will be
visible. The tacks, if plain, should he cut out ot 8»lb.
sheet lead, about 9 in. square, the edges trued and
trimmed, one end soiled Sin. and shaved lin. wide;
corresponding spaces for a pair of tacks, prepared on the
soil pipe, between the astragals and soldered seams, are
then wiped or floated with metal and a plumber's
iron. Cast-lead tacks have an advantage, as the nail
holes are strengthened by having an extra thickness of
the metal round them.
Removing Old Paint from Venetian Bund Latbs.
—This is a cheap method ot removing old paint from
Venetian blind laths. Place 1 stone of well-burnt lime
in a large bucket and slake with hot water ; add 7 lb. of
common soda, and stir the whole together until the soda
Is dissolved. Lay this solvent over the laths about 1 in. '
thick, and allow it to remain about two hours ; the paint
can then be easily scraped off. Thoroughly wash off
with clean water and dry. Coat the laths with vinegar
before re-painting.
Determining Centre of Circular Arc— The accom-
panying illustration shows one method ot finding the
cantre ot a circular arc where it is possible to strike
arcs for intersections on one side only. A, B, and C
are any points on the curve. Then with any radius in
the compass, and with centres at A and C, strike arcs
that intersect at D. Similarly, with another radius.
book and sci-ew eye, three pairs of 1-in. hinges, and a
tew round-headed brass screws will also be requii-ed.
First cut the pieces B and to the shape shown (cutting
pieces out of B to receive the rack D), and dovetail
together. The rack D must be notched out aw shown to
receive the end of the suppo'rt, which is hinged about
2 in. from the top of A. The book-rest (A) is hinged to
the front piece B. The ornamental ledge is secured
to the front of A by means of glue and screws.
Weight and Covering Capacity of Granite
Macadam.— The weight will depend upon the specific
gravity of the granite, and the closeness with which
the material is packed together; as ordinarily thrown
together after breaking, the voids will be from 25 per
cent, to 33 per cent, of the whole, and the weight ot a
cubic yard will be from 27icwt. to 30cwt. A waggon
12 ft. 8 in. by 5 ft. « in. by 1 ft. 10 In. will contain 43 cub. yd.,
or from 6J tons to H tons. The probable weight may be
ascertained by filling a water-tight box with the macadam,
and pouring in measured quantities of water until all the
voi IS are full. The cubic contents of the water -;- cubic
contents of the box = percentage ot voids. The> weight
per cubic foot of the granite being known, it is easy to
•calculate the weight ot a cubic yard of macadam.
Soldering Astragals and Tacks on Lead Soil
Pipes. — For the astragals, a pattern ot the design is first
made in wood, and tr.jm this a print is made in damp,
loamy sand, in which molten lead is poured to form a
casting. It many are required, the wood pattern should
be sent to a foundry, and a ilask made in gun-metal,
from which any number can be cast. These do not
require so much cleaning up to make them look smart
as those cast in sand. For fixing them to the lead
Determining Centre of Ciicular Arc.
strike arcs that intersect at E. Similar intersecting
arcs at 1' and G may also be drawn, u-ing C and B as
the centres ; then a line .ioining E and D and produced, if
necessary, will cut the line Joining ]? and G produced, if
necessary, in H, the centre required.
Removing Oil Stains from Stone Step.— If the
stains are but surface ones, make a paste of fuller's
earth and paraffin oil, and laj' this In a thick coating
upon them; allow it to remain a short time, then,
wash off. Shouldthis treatment not remove the stains,
rub them with fine sharp sand and water, using a piece
of hard wood in the same way as a brush until the
stains disappear.
Shading M arqueterle Inlays. — To produce the
shading seen in Sheraton inlays, very fine sand is
heated in an iron pan placed upon the top of a stove,
the heat being slightly greate-.- than can be borne by
the flngiers, but not so hot as to char the veneirs.
Practice 1m required to prevent an abrupt edge, the
gradations ot tone being gained by holding one end
of the veneer in the sand longer than another part.
As the sand is generally hottest in the middle of^the
pan, the dark or nearly black tones are gained by
placing the veneer in the sand at that point. If the
veneer is smdll, it should be held with a pair ot pliers
or tweezers. The work must be done before the mar-
queterie is made up. The foregoing is an old-time
method, and is now being supplanted by pyrography or
poller work, which Is closely akin to etching, as it allows
the work to be touched up after the veneers are fixed
into position.
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
173
Depthing Watch Lever Escapement.— EBcapements
are "pitched" \>y putting the escape wheel and the
pallets in a "depth tool" and adjusting them until
correct, then transferring the depth to the watch
plates by means of the compass points of the tool, and
drilling the pivot holes at the points indicated. The
roller depth is pitched by placing the roller on a small
turning arbor in the depth tool with the lever. The
pallet depth is correct when the wheel teeth .inst fall
upon the locking faces of the pallets. If the teetli fall
upon the impulse planes, the depth is shallow. This
B ^ C
Depthing Watch Lever Escapement.
taken from another mask. Place the model, previously
rubbed all over with sweet oil, in the centre or a square
wooden box large enoiigh to allow 2 in. of plaster all rour. d
the model, and pour in the liquid i^laster until the box is
full. When the plaster has set, lift laitthe mould audtouch
it up if necessary by scraping with a sharp knife.
Determining Contents of Egg -ended Boiler.—
When determining the contents of a boiler egg-ended
as shown, it must be i-emembered that the boiler being
circular in cross-section, the contents consist of a
central cylindrical portion 26 ft. long, and two hemi-
spherical ends that together make one sphere 6 ft.
in diameter. The area or cross-section of the cylindrical
J_
Determining Contents of Egg-ended Boiler.
depth can be tested in the watch by holding the move-
ment in the left hand with the tip of the foreiiuger on
the balance. In the right hand hold a sharpened watch
peg, with which press gently on the 'scape-wheel teeth,
urging the wheel forward. With the forefinger of the left
hand, slowly lead the balance round until a tooth just
drops. Immediately let the balance go, and. If it has locked
groperly, the level' will be drawn sharply up to the
anking pin ; it it is too shallow, the lever will go back
and the watch will tick rapidly. This requires some
practice to test, but perhaps the above sketches will
be helpful. A shows a tooth locked, having just
dropped on to the pallet, and a correct depth. B shows a
shallow depth, the tooth just missing the corner of the
pallet and falling on to the impulse face instead. C
shows a deep depth, the tooth falling too far on the
locking face.
Heating a Small Greenhouse.— In heating a 10-ft. by
7-ft. span-roofed greenhouse, if an oil stove will not do,
recourse must be had to a small boiler and hot-water
pipes. Such an apparatus is made by nearly every boiler
maker. It consists of a boiler just let into the wall of
the house below the glass, the back of the boiler showing
inside the house. The accompanying sketch shows such
a boiler in section, and it will be seen that the flue pipe
connection, and both feeding and stoking doors, are all
outside the house, while the pipe connections are inside.
The pipe connections and joints are simply made with
rubber rings, and they terminate at the other extremity
Section of Greenhouse Boiler.
in a box-end, which acts as a supply cistern, support for
the pipes, and air vent.
Making a Fapier-mach^ Mask.— In making a papler-
raiche mask, tear into pieces about 3 in. square some good
porous brown paper and soak the pieces in cold water.
Then make sufficient good flour paste, mixing with it a
little hot glue. When the paste is cold, it should be thick
and tenacious. When the paper has been well soaked,
squeeze the water out of it, paste the paper on both
sides, and lay the pieces together in a heap to keep them
moist. Masks are usually made from a plaster-of-Paris
mould in the following manner. The mould is first lined
with pieces of oiled tissue paper to keep the papier-mlch6
from sticking to the plaster ; the pasted brown paper is
then m-essed into the mould piece by piece until the
deslre'd thickness of the mask is obtraned. When
partially dry the mask is lifted out, and when thoroughly
dry it is ready for painting. Any number of masks may
be made from the same mould. The model from which
the plaster mould is made is generally cut from a wooden
block, or It may be moulded in clay, or a cast may be
portion is found by squaring the diameter (that is, multi-
plying it by itselt) and then multiplying by ■7S5i. The
contents will then be found if the area be multiplied by
the length. Of course, all dimensions should be talien
in like units, that is, in inches or in feet. Thus, in the
example, the area of cross-section of the central portion
will be B X 6 X -TSM = 22-27 sq. ft., and the contents will
be 22'27 x 26 = 579 cub. ft. The contents of a sphere can
be determined by cubing the diameter (that is, multi-
plying the diameter by the diameter and- the product by
the diameter) and multiplying by -5236. Thus the con-
tents of a sphere 6 ft. in diameter will be 6 x 6 x 6 x •523(i
= 113 cub. ft., so that the total contents of the boiler will
be 579 -^ 113 = 692 cub. ft. Since 1 cub. ft. of water
contains 6'^ gal., the contents will equal 692 x 6'23 =
4,311 gal.
Distance of Stop from Lens.— The correct distance
at which a stop should be placed from a lens is that
which would give the maximum of covering power
with a minimum of distortion. If a cardboard stop
is placed close against the lens and moved gradually
from it the best position will readily be found, for
it will be seen that as the stop recedes from the lens
the sharpness spreads to the edges, but straight lines
coming near the margins are bent outwards in the
centre. . The accompanying diagram shows another
method of working out the correct position of the stop.
Construct a square A GO 1", the sides of which are equal
Distance of Stop from Lens.
to the focus of the lens. Draw the diagonal B and a line
H equal to the focus. At the end of this line draw iD E
equal in length to the diameter of the lens. If lines are
now drawn from 1? and G through E and D, the point
where they meet X is the position for the stop.
Imitation Earth for Cases of Stuffed Birds.—
Blocks of peat roughly cut to shape are fastened in
the case with glue and nails. The whole is then covered
with whiting made with thin glue instead of water. It
is coloured with oil Colours, and grasses, etc., are fixed.
Another and better jnethod is to form a light foundation
with strips of wood,. to which are attached cardboard
and brown paper, and the spaces filled with shavings,
small pieces of thin paper being pasted over all joints
and angles. By this means the groundwork can be built
to any shape or size, and there is less likelihood of
introducing insects. The groundwork should be left for
a day, then covered with glue and whiting. When dry,
it is covei'ed with thin glue and fine sand forcibly thrown
on. Lastly, it is coloured to taste by flooding on thip
paint.
174
Cyclopjedia of Mechanics
A Metliod of Soldering Alumlntum.— First pro-
cure a small piece of thin sheet aluminium, say about
1 in. square, and roll it into a little coil ; next proi'ure
ii wooden penholder and place the roll of aluminium
in the hollow end of the penholder, leaving about
one-balf out, and give the end that is out of the
holder a light blow or two to flatten it. Clean the
uluminium article at the place of the joint by
rubbing with fine emery cloth, or by scraping with a
knife ; heat the article to be soldered to the melting
point of the solder in any convenient way, say on the
top plate of a kitchen range, of over a Buusen burner
with a piece of sheet iron placed thereon. Then place it
on the table or work-bench on sheet asbestos to prevent
burning the table ; and when hot, sprinkle on the flux
and rub with the little aluminium tool, which tins the
surface very easily. While the article is still hot apply
*he solder, and guide the flow with the narrow edge of the
tool ; then remove the article and allow it to cool to pro-
duce a very strong and perfect joint. No soldering iron,
blow pipe, blow-lamp, or special apparatus Is required
by this method. Ilere is a recipe for a special hard
aluminium solder for cycle, or any special work.
Aluminium, 70 per cent.; tin, 20 per cent.; and silver,
10 per cent. This hard solder is worked with the same
process as that described above, but requires a little
higher temperature.
Re-seatln7 Chairs with Rusb or Cord Bottoms.—
First carefully remove the four thin battens which are
nailed on the edges otthe seat, and pull oft the old rush,
dust, etc. The sides of the seat frame are slightly sunk
below the corners, so that the work will be flush with
the latter when finished. The work is very simple,
ftud proceeds from one corner regularly round to others
Ke-seatiug Chairs with Eush or Cord Bottoms.
in succession, terminating in the centre, so that all
four sides are worked together, as will be explained
in the above Ulustration. A, B, C, I), are the sides
■of the seat frame. Have a good coil of cord on a
stick, and make the end fast to the leg E (right-hand
back corner), pass^ the coil up and otit over A. then up
and out over B, over C and up and out over A, then over
D and up and out over 0, etc. 'J his will be quite clear
•from the cord shown loose in the illustration. When
palled up snug and tight and as the work proceeds it
will have the appearance at each corner of that at the
•cornerr. Anyjoiningof thecordorrushes must, of course,
be done after a back turn, so that it will come under-
nenth. Stuffing can be pushed in between the upp -r
and lower layers of cord as the work proceeds, and the
•end which is first hitched to the leg can be knotted and
afterwards cut oJCC.
Ho\r to Work up Bromide Enlargements.— For
working up bromide enlargements the following articles
are required. A No. 2 or No. 3 sable brush, blue and
ivory black moist water-colours, a tuft of cotton wool,
a few paper stumps, some powdered blacklead '(the block
used for sharpening the retouching pencil upon answers
very well), a small piece of opal for the palette, and a
stick of ink eraser. Place a small quantity of ivory
black on the palette, mix well with a filtered solution
of gum arable in water, and add a trace of blue to match
the colour and surface of print, the Kurtace being usually
a little glossy. First carefully spot out all the large
1 atches and del'ects. Remove any black spots by scraping
with the retouchingknife.theedgeof which should be ex-
ceedingly keen, but slightly turned over. Proceed then
to model up the face- that is, to soften or brighten
the light and shade, toning down defects, heightening
the lights on certain good features, or those requiring
..greater prominence. The lightening is done by rub-
lilng with the eraser, or by scraping with the knife
and fining up with the brush and colour. The lights
generally require bringing up to a focus. Improving
the expression must be done very skilfully, or is better
left undone. Keep the paint on the pilette m 1st and
the brush sufBcieutly full, and work with long,_ sweep-
ing strokes across the muscles. The deepest shadovrs
in the dress, etc., generally require strengthening, but
outlining, etc., should be avoided. Never work without
a guide {i.e. a print from the negative before retouching).
The background should he kept subdued : any obtru-
sive lights majr be " hatched " out with the brush, or
rubbed out with powdered lead or chalk (or both
mixed) on a stump. Lastly, if the picture is a vignette,
it is often advisable to work in a cloudy efllect around
Ishe head, as the vignette, even when skilfully made,
\fith a light background, is apt to show too decided
a shape. To do this, take up some powdered lead
on a tuft of wool, and rub hard on a sheet of rough
paper. Having got it to work smoothly and free from
grit, rub all round the vignette until it softens off, so
that its shape could not be determined. Clouds may
then be scraped in with the eraser.
Boiler System for Steam Cooking. — The sketch
herewith shows a boot boiler, such as would go at
the back of a range fire. All the fittings are on it,
namely, safety valve (set to blow off at 51b. to 71b.),
automatic water inlet valve with stone float, water-
gauge, and the steam supply pipe that conveys the
steam to the hot plate or other utensil. The water-
siipply valve must be ted by a water service having a
wuter pressure in it exceeding the steam pressure named ;
that is, the cistern which the service comes from must
be at least 18 ft. to 20 ft. above the boiler, otherwise,
although the valve may open at the proper moment, no
water will enter if the steam is strong enough to hold it
Boot Boiler for Steam Cooking.
back. When the boiler has to be recessed out of sight
behind the range covings, recourse is had to a supply
cistern to carry the fittings. This cistern has a steam-
tight lid, and all the fittings are put on it as a rule,
though some still prefer to put the safety valve on the
boiler and bring it to the front by means of a short pipe.
Between the boiler and the cistern are two pipes, one
above and one below water level. The latter is the cold
supply, while the former is an equalising jiipe to prevent
the steam emptying the boiler by forcing the water
back into the cistern. The steam service is taken direct
to the hot plate, rising as far as it can, then (If neees-
eary) falling the rest of the way. Ther^ must not be
any dip which would harbour condense water. The
utensil must have a cock to discharge the condense
water as it collects. This cock is at the bottom oi the
utensil, while the steam supply is uuually taken in at
the top. Tnese goods and tne boilers do not as a rule
figure in makers' lists, as they are almost invariably
made to order to meet customers' requirements as to
measurements, etc.
Galvanising Iroa and Steel.— In the earlier processes
of galvanising iron and steel the zinc was depositeJ
upon the metal by electrolysis, but the hot-b:itn
process in most galvanising establishments has entirely
superseded the electro process. In the so-ealled gal-
vanising process, the iron is first immersed in hydro-
clilorio acid to render it perfectly clear and free from
scale. It is then immersed in molten zinc, the surface
of the molten metal being kept covered with powderM
sal-ammoniac, this salt possessing the property of dis-
Kolving the oxide from the surface of the molten zmc,
and also aiding the adhesion of the molten zinc to the
iron surface. It the iron has a slight coating of tin, and
is then coated with zluo, the zinc coating is said to
adhere more firmly and does not scale when the metal
is being worked.
Cyclopsedia of Mechanics.
175
simple Hot-urater Apparatus. — The dimensioned
sketch shows a simple hot-water apparatus, with
cylinder, to meet only a moderate demand lor hot
water to supply bath, lavatory, and two sinks, such as
exist in a moderately small house i a saddle boiler in
a 9-in. Are (boiler about Hi in. wide), with a 20-gal.
cyllndei-, should be large enough. The accompanying
sketch shows the other particulars. If a stopcock is put
are not localised by it. The smoke test is far prefer-
able, as by it defects ai-e more readily traced to their
position by the senses of sight and smell.
How to Change Plates In a Hand Camera.— One
of the most convenient methods of changing plates im
a hand camera is to have a double chamber. In the
top chamber B a magazine A moves backwards and
ijVtb
Simple Hot-water Apparatus.
•'\==?
r^
c^D
3
Arrangement for Changing Plates in a. Hand Camera.
in the cold-water service it must have a full-way through
it. The small draw-ofl below the cylinder is an empty-
ing service.
How to Build a Small Brick Kiln.— A brick oven
:ahont &ft. by 4ft. by 4ft., conforming to the sketches
below, may be built of ilre-brlcks, with walls 6 in. to
9 in. thick, puddled with fireclay, and covered either
with stone slabs or with a corrugated iron sheet. If
istone slabs are used, then two Openings must be
<!ut to serve as chimneys for the escape of steam and
liot gases. One end of the kiln should be left open
for charging purposes, and a temporary wall may be
built before, firing and removed again after the bricks
;are burnt. Iron itie-rods should be used to keep the
forwai'ds hy rack C and pinion D over au opening E
in tb,e floor 1', through which the plates may be
dropped for exposure in any order. The opening is
covered by a sliding piece K, palled out irdm the
side. The magazine consists of a grooved box made
in zinc, with a sliding lid oi- bottom 6. It is inserted
into the top chamber through<a light-tight door H; the
lid underneath, which is bolted to the floor at I, so that
as the magazine is racked forward towards the opening
the lid is pulled off. Btrips J are placed at the sides to
guide the plate and keep it in correct register. After
exposure the camera i^ turned upsidd down, and the
plate falls back into the magazine. Numbers corre-
sponding to the grooves, or plates, are placed alang one
side of the magazine, and may be read off through a little
^^
^^
■—.
,-_=-=_=-=_
— =-' -^
-^ 1 =-=-1
r-^
1 1 1 1 1 .1
1 1 1 II
=1
—
' r'- 1 ■ 1, ■ 1 ' 1 '.
—
1 1 11 ^ ' 1
1 1 1 1 1
Jill \-
\\ f , 1 1 ■
_
1 , 1 ,H ^^ — ^
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u
3
L-Js;^^
*^t 1
al
3.' 1 >
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H
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How to Build a Small Brick Kiln.
Iciln in shape. There are four fire-holes in the kiln,
t^wo on each side ; the firebars are fitted at the level of
the ground, the ash-pits being below the ground level,
■a.nd the ground must be excavated along each side of
the kiln so as to reach the ash-pits, 'ihe firebars are
placed at the level of the ground so as to get efficient
heat at the bottom of the kiln, and the bricks must be so
set iu the kiln-that they tend to carry the flames to the
■centre of the kiln as well as up the sides.
Pneumatic Test for Drains.— The pn°umatic test
for drains was introduced in the early 'eighties, and
-consists of plugging all the, drain bjtenings and filling
them, as well as the manholes and soil pipes, with air
under a slight pressure. The test is troublesome to
«.pply in a thorough manner, and defects and leakages
ruby slass window at the side. Focussing may be done
by opening the door L and pushing the screen M into
register. The only objection to this pattern is its hulk.
Lettering in Rsllef with Gold on W ire Blinds.—
The raised effect is obtained by gesso treatment, gener-
ally with the aid of stencil plates cut from millboards.
Alabastine is probably the safest material to use,
although the relief may be produced by a mixture of
plaster-of-Paris and weak size. Of course, the surface
must be rubbed down and prepared in the usual manner
with gold-size before gilding.
Powdering Brass Spelter.— To powder brass spelter,
either granulate by pouring the metal into a streaiuof
water running at high pressui-e, or pound In a mortar
auiokly %vhile the spelter is just under its melting point
176
Cyclopsedia of Mechanics.
Preparing Lavender Water.— In making lavender
water, the lavender flowers are placed in a still with
water, and heated. The water whinh distils over carries
with it tlie essential oil, which is then separated from
the water. To malse lavender water, the oil of lavender
is dissolved in spirit of wine in the proportion of ahout
i oz. to the pint. A large quantity of the flowers is
required, and unless the work is to done on a hig scale,
it will he better to buy the oil and dilute it as described
above.
How to Make a Small Wheelbarrow.— The
barrow here described is shown complete by Fig. 1,
Pig. 2 being a plan of the bottom frame. The
ash hnles II (Pig. 2) are 3ft. lin. long and IJin. deep
by 14 in. thick. The handles rise SJin. above the level
of the under side of the hales, leave not more than
4 in on the faces of the hale tops, or they will look
heavy. Dress out I in. on the face of the hales, and J in .
under the hales. The cross-pieces in the frame must be
of oak, with the edges dressed off underneath. Let the
hind piece tenons, gauged iiu. thick, come through the
hrtles for li iti. to suppoi:t the legs as shown by Pig. 2.
The hales and cross-pieces, when flnished, should be
pinned tight with jVin. wood pins. Then put on the legs,
splayed at the top ; they are li in. square, and stand 1 tt.
below the hales to suit a wheel 1ft. high. Fasten
the legs and hales with bolts 3 in. long, the heads
showine outside. Wot more than a i-in. shoulder must
be made on the legs, as the front board can be levelled
sideways only. Pour stays must be used for the legs,
two to go under the hales, as shown by Fig. 1, and
two under the hind cross-pieces. Then put in the
ants, cover some plates with a syrup cgmposed of sugar
and water, and place these plates in the infested places i
destroy any ants found upon them by dipping the plates
and contents into boiling water. 'Wrien they are some-
what thinned by this means, try one of the methods
given above; or place a mixture of sugar, beer, and
arsenic on plates. Ply papers might also be tried.
Making Sailor's Canvas Bag.— In commencing to
make a canvas bag as used by sailors, a double seam
is sewn down the side of the bag, and it is then a
canvas cylinder. To get the radius of the circle for
the canvas bottom, measure the width of the bag
while flat' on a table and add 2 in., and divide by 3.
Make a loop of twine to this size, stick a sail needle
into a piece of canvas, and with pencil and twine
describe a circle about 2 in. greater in diameter than
the bag. Now shorten the twine 1 in. and make
another circle, cut out the canvas bottom to the outer
circle, turn in Hn. of the edge of the bag and sew a
round seam with needle and twine, keeping the doubled
edge to the inner pencilled circle ; turn the bag inside
out, and ilat-seam the bottom edge to the side; this
makes a neater job, though the one seam alone will
suffice. Por securing the top of the bag, sew a leather
strip on the top edge of the canvas Just as braid is
put on cloth ; then to the side seam, just below the
leather, sew a strap to encircle the neck tightly and
,.'.i'"
A Small Wheelbarrow.
bottom board, of i-ln. red deal, as shown by Pig. 2. All
joints should be painted. The bottom board overhangs
the front cross-piece by i in. for a > dressing. Fit the
hides to the hales : the front may lean beyond the square
mark by3Jin. The sides being 9 in. deep byiiu. thick,
reduce the hind ends to 81 in. deep. The side front ends
are > edged. Eun a y\,-in. or 4-in. bead on the edge ; then
ttt the front board on top of the hales and bottom board.
Let the front board, of j-in. red deal or elm, rise in a
curve li in. above the sides. When fitted and dressed
paint the joints, and nail the sides to the front board with
U in. cut nails: then screw on the f-in. hoop iron, with
}-in. round-headed screws. The iron thatfastens the wheel
to the barrow hale is Jin. broad by i in. thick, and long
enough to go past the front cross-piece by 2 in. or 3 in.
The ash or oak axle for the wheel is 8iln. long by2iin.,
tuined down at the ends to IJ in. for a feiTule 1 in. long ;
I-in. round pins, driven in the axle ends, stand out 1 in.
to enter the eye of the iron screwed under the hales.
Theru are eight oak spokes i in. broad by J in. thick,
with four ash felloes 14 in. square and bevelled to suit a
|-in. by i-in. hoop, rounded on the insides. The four
dowels for felloe joints are i in. diameter. The wheel
and barrow inside are painted red, and the barrow out-
side is painted light green, lined witn lighter colour and
black.
Bidding a House of Ants.— In ridding a house of
arts, discover the nests, and on the mouths of these
drop some quicklime and wash it in with boiling
water. Or camphor may be dissolved in spirit of wine,
then mixed with water and poured upon the haunts.
Tobacco water has also been found eft'ectual. To drive
the ants out of the cupboards, camphor, tar, creosote, or
chloride of lime may be empldyed, but these substances
cannot be used in the pantry. The shelves and floor
should be scrubbed with carbolic soap. To catch the
fasten with a padlock, the strap being furnished at its
ends with hasp, etc., to take the padlock; the leather
edging cannot oe pulled under the strap. Another plan
is to sew a tabling or hem round the top edge, then «ew
canvas beckets about Gin. apart round the neck, and
through these pass the strap and look as before A piece
of brass chain is sometimes used in place of the strap,
the end links taking the lock. A strap with buckle can,
of course, be used if a lock Is not wanted.
Painting and Varnishing a Pony Cart— The gloss
on a pony cart is obtained by applying one or more
coats of varnish after the colour and lines are put on,
according to the quality of the work. For ordinary
work, the body is preijared bjr lead colour and filUng
up, and rubbing down with pumice-stone and water, then
giving a coat of light lead colour, which is faced down
very lightly to takeout the brush marks. Theworkisthen
ready for either two or three coats of ground colour, the
first coats being made to dry medium quick, the last
coat having a good portion of varnish added. Allow to
stand for a couple of days to harden, then flat down
with pumioe-powder, and a cloth pad, uging sufBoient
water to make it work freely. This will leave a gooo
surface for lining out on. After the lines are dry, the
first coat of varnish may be put on . Before doing this,
see that every part>ale of pumice-powder is washed off,
f reel y usin g a water-tool to clean out the corners ; then dry
off thoroughly. Varnish In a dry, clean place, free from
sudden draughts and kept to a temperature of 75° P. It
a second coat is to be put on, the first one should not be
too lull, but sufficient to form a good foundation for the
next one. After the work has been allowed to stand
three days, it is flatted down in the same manner as the
varnish colour, and another coat may be given to finish
the job, putting this on as heavy as possible without
getting runs or thick edges.
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
177
Balanced or Dancing Steps of Staircase.— The
term balanced or dancing steps is applied to a geo-
metrical staircase, where the nosings of the winders
are so placed as not to converge on the same point, but
each directed to a different point, so that the inner edge
Sin. by 6 in. or 10 in. by 7 in., and solder the angles.
Take the thread off two 1-in. No. 8 brass screws, to lorm
the pins A. Drill a hole in the top and in the bottom of
the frame J in. from the edge, and countersink these
holes on the inside to receive the heads of the screws.
Balanced or Dancing Steps.
of tread is wider than it otherwise would be, and the
steps are thus intermediate in shape between flyers and
winders. This allows of a better curve being given to
the Inclination of the handrail. In the sketch, the iirst
four and the last three ^teps are ordinary parallel flyers,
and the remainder are " balanced " or " dance," as
described.
Finding Circular Curve when Centre Is Inacces-
Blble.— Three points on the circumference of a circle
being known, ^nd the centre being inaccessible, the
curve is drawn by the following method. It it is for work-
shop use only that the curve is wanted, cut a triangular
template (Fig. J), two of whose sides touch the outer
points AC and meet on the inner point B. Then pins
being inserted at A and Cauda pencil or scriber at B,
the template may be shifted round to describe the curve.
If it is for work such as railway .curves, let ABO (Pig, 2)
A
;$^
^
Fig. a
Tell-tale Mirror.
Fix the latter with solder. Now cut In the piece of
silrer, plate, and bed it in the frame with red-lead
putty, making the. joint watertight. Place over the
back of this a piece of two-ply Willesden paper and
a piece of deal board. Cut in between the frame a
piece of zinc, and solder round the .loint, making all
level. Paint the frame black. To flx it on the window-
frame, get two small brass angle brackets and drill holes
in them, to receive the pins on the frame, and fix as
shown. Any angle required can be obtained, but it
must be tested when fixing. Fig. 1 is an elevation, and
Fig. 2 a section Of the mirror.
Finding Circular Curve when Centre is InaccasBible.
be the three given points. Measure the lengths A B, B 0,
and the angle ABC; then to find radius B r, we have first
Bed H- Bde = 180" - dBe. L tan. i (Bed - Bdel =
log. (UB - 4BC) - log. (4AB + JBC) + L cot. 5B_e.
whence by reference to mathematical tables (B e d - B d e)
■ui- J jii, „.3 (Bed-fBde)-(Bed-Bde)
IS obtained, and then Bde = ^--i^:-:i:^= — ^„-
and B e D = 180° - (B d e -1- d B e). Then d e = (JAB)
sm_dBe_ _._ jq ^g _ 1 {iAB) 4- Lsin. dBe - Lsin.
sin. Bed „„ ,
Bed. Prom this edf = 90° - Bde, and def = % -Bed;
dfe = ISO' -edf- def; .-.df^de
sin. def
■.log. df =
' sin. die'
log.de -I- Lsin. def - Lsin. d/e. BiitBdf = Bde + edf
= 90* ; .-. ^ (J A i&y + (d f)'= 'radius B /. Now £f d : d B : :
dB : dft, ord;i='-^^,'', and2(fft) -d7i = 2(B/) - dh =
SO, . .
dg. If more points are required, say point^i^jiom^As^
thenAi7 = yrAd)2-H(9d)2,gf = BA37=\/(90' " (V) '
and .-.ji = lif - if. Other points can be found in the
same way.
Tell-tale Mirror.— Instructions on making a "tell-
tale" mirror are here given. Get a piece of f-in. by
S-in. angle zinc for the frame, mitre together to size,
12
Repairing Cheap Brooches.- For soldering catches
and .ioints to cheap metal brooches that have been
silver-plated or gilt, ordinary tinman's solder is used.
Both catches and joints can be cheaply purchased, hard-
soldered on to small plates, square, oval, or crescent
shaped, to suit all kinds of brooches. Take one of these
and hold it with an old pair of soldering tweezers in the
flame of a spirit lamp, and give it a coating of solder
on its under side. First wet it with the flux (hydro-
chloric acid killed with zinc, as used by a tinman), and
then place a small portion of solder on it, and hold it
in the flame until it flows all over the plate. It can be
assisted to flow evenly by a copper wire, which is also
useful to apply the acid flux. Having " tinned " the
catch, clean (by scraping bright) the brooch,, and place
the catch in position. Direct a gentle blowpipe flame
to it until it is seen to settle down and the solder flows.
Then wash it immediately in warm water to remove the
acid and dry in sawdust, kept in a warm place. Use as
little solder as possible, and only clean the brooch
where the solder is required to run. Attention to these
points will ensure a neat job.
178
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
How to Make a Cheap Drilling Machine.—
Fig. 1 is an elevation of a drilling maonine complete.
Tlie two wrottght-iron upi'ights A should be li in. wide,
like the rest of the framework. Bend them first,
care being taken to get the feet at right angles, and then
cut them to length. Mark off the holes, two t', in. in
diameter for f-in. bolts for the cross-bars. In one up-
right an extra hole must be drilled 5 in. in diameter to
tstke the hand-wheel shaft. This should he about mid-
way between the ft-in. holes, though the exact position
depends on the diameter of the bevel wheels. Drill two
5',-in. holes in each foot for the holding-down bolts. The
cross-bars B and C have 4-iu. holes through the centre to
take the spindle F. The key-way in the latter can he cut
by a f\i-in . cross-out chisel, and afterwards cleaned out
by a small square file. Next obtain a pair of bevel wheels
of the same pitch, on6 wheel, if possible, having twice
the teeth in the other. The wheels should be drilled
i in., the key-way in the small wheel on the vertical
spindle being parallel, that in the wheel for hand-wheel
shaft E being slightly taper depth ways. One end of the
for a clock, first cafculate the number of beats per
minute that the pendulum Is required to make. To do
this, multiply together the number of teeth in the
centre wheel (that carries the minute hand), the' third
wheel, and the 'soaiie wheel. Also multiply together the
number of leaves in the third-wheel pinion and the
'scape-wheel pinion. Divide the product of the wheels
by the product of the pinions and multiply the result
by 2. Tnis gives the number of beats per hour. Divide
it by 60, and this will give the number per minute. The
length of a pendulum to beat 60 per minute (the seconds
fiendulum) may for convenience be taken as 40 in. The
, ength of a pendulum to beat any other number can be
found from it by simple propoi'tion, remembering that
the length will be inversely as the square of the number
of vibrations. Thus, for a pendulum to beat 100 per
minute : as 100' : 60* : : 40 in. to M'lin.
Setting Out Heavy Waggon Wheels.— In setting'
out the hind wheels of a heavy waggon to run in line
with the front ones, the heignt and dish of the wheels
— If-
FIG. 2
How to Make a Cheap Drilling Machine.
Setting Out Heavy Waggon Wheels,
horizontal shaft must have a Vn-in. key-way, and the
wheel should be knocked on and then keyed up by a small
key, preferably with a head. At the other end, the hand-
wheel, from 8 in. to 10 in. in diameter, is attached either
by a screw or by a square on the shaft. The wheel on
the spindle E must work easily when a small parallel key is
placed in the slot. The frame being bolted up, make the
upright stay D so that it will just go between the two
cross-bars ; drill a ■iVih. hole at each end, and put the
stay in position. Now with the spindle in position, with
the wheel on as in Pig. 1, and with the other wheel in gear
hut off the shaft E, the |-in. holes in D and A can be
marked olf , and also the holes in the cross-bars B and C.
Por the feed gear, a piece of brass or wrought iron may be
cut to shape (Pig. 2), and two j'^-in. holes and one i-ln.
hole should be drilled through it, the l-in. hoie being out
out afterwards. Bound the spindle is coiled some brass
wire, coils also being wound round the two studs which
are fastened to the top cross-bar by f-in. nuts. The two
studs are screwed throughout the lengths. The feed is
put on by a wing-nut on the centre stud, the springs
bringing the spindle back when the wing-nut is released.
A coat of black enamel over the fixtures will greatly
improve the appearance.
Determining the Lengths of Pendulum Rods.—
When it is reaulraa to ascertain the length of pendulum
must be known. To enable these to be worked out,
a sectional elevation is given of a 4-ft. 6-in. wheel
with li-in. dish, the dotted lines A A being the tyre,
and also showing the pitch out of the wheel, which
is more or less according to the dish. To work to the
wheels, put up a drawing of the hind wheel, mirk in the
bottom spoke B, and square up from the ground line. At
mark off the dish of the wheel : from the face of spoke
at D intersect the mark at C, making the outer line A,
which gives the correct position of the wheel. Prom the
centre of the stock at the back B draw the vertical line
F i f ro»n the same point draw the pitch line G, which is
parallel to A. At H mark in the height of half of the
front wheel, given in the sketch as lit. 9Jin. Measure
the distance atH from the vertical line F to the pitch line
G i this will show how much less the front wheel cuts
under in its height than the back one. Double this dis-
tance is the extra length required in the hind axle beo
compared to the front one.
Removing Dent from Brass Kettle.— To remove ft
dent from a brass kettle, insert the head of a small
round-faced hammer through the cover hole, and knock
the dent outwards ; then hold the face of the hammer up
against the bruised part, and go over the outside Ughtiy
with a flat-faced bright hammer until the metal is qmte
smooth.
Cyclopsedia of Mechanics.
179
Folding Iieaf and Supports for a Kitchen Table.—
Ttee sketch explains how to fix a folding leal 9 In. wide to
an ordinary kitchen table and how to hinge the supports
to the tahle top. Use the best white deal or pine both
for the flap and supports. The flap should be attached to
Repairing Cut in Canvas Roof.— On a close-boarded
root, if the slit is horizontal, cut a piece of canvas J in.
wider than the slit (say 34 in. square), then push the
point of a trowel or something similar Into the slit and
upwards to tree the canvas from the boards for a few
inches. Crive both patch and torn part a coat of thick
paint, and push the former about hallway under the upper
edge ot the silt. A tew taps of the hammer wlU make the
patch lie flat and close up to the corners j then nail the
edges down with copper tacks lin. apai-t, and paint again,
silt is vertical, make a horizontal cut across the
folding Leaf and Supports for a Kitchen Table.
the top by means of two orthree 2-ln. " back-flap hinges,"
as shown. The supports or brackets can_be made out of
board of the same thickness as the flap, and shaped as
shown, taking care to keep the grain ot the wooijiorl-
zontal, as iniiieated. ' The brackets can be flxed to the
legs by two 2-ln. butts. It will be noticed that the
illustration shows the right-band bracket opened out
and supporting the flap, while the left-hand one is shut
back ready tor the flap to be dropped.
Making Enamel Faints.— Enamel paints are made
by grinding the colours either with copal varnish or
with hard spirit varnish ; copal varnish yields the flnest
and most durable paints, but tor fb brittle film use
spirit varnish. The dry colours are, perhaps, the best for
grinding with the varniih, but the grinding must be
veVy thorough.
Folding Gaff for Salmon Fisblng.— A pocket tele-
scopic gaff for salmon fishing is shown by the accom-
panying sketches, in which A is the gaff extended
for use, B folded up, and C one ot the spring joints.
The joints are made similarly to the joint of a 2-ft.
rule, with the exception that a spring D is provided to
hold them when open and that sockets are on each end
into which the wooden portions of the handle are fitted.
top 3 In. long, forming a T. Paint and tack the vertical
portion and proceed as described above, making the
patch long enough to cover the lower end ot the slit.
Hot-water Towel Alrer.— The accompanying sketch
shows a hot-water towel airer with three rails, but of
course the number ot rails, the dlnSensions, and the
design ot the airer can be varied as desired. The airer
is made of 1-in. iron tube and fittings, and any threads
that are exposed must be soldered up solid before
painting. Some fill up the exposed threads with putty.
c
--- ^ 1 1)— L^=
=^-'^=)
Folding Gaff for Salmon Fishing.
Hot -water Towel Airer.
The handle should be ot lancewood or greenheart, the
top sockets fin. diameter, and those of the lower joint
^j in. diameter.
Making Oiled Fabrics.— Lay the material— silk or
■cambric— upon a board, and coat it on both sides with
boiled linseed oil, then hang up to dry. Large balloons
are made ot oiled cambric or cotton ; the joints are
made gas-proof with a coating of linseed oil. Allow the
joints to overlap, stitch them on both sides of the over-
lapping part, and apply a coat of boiled linseed oil over
the stitches.
but, needless to say, this often proves a failure. It will
be necessary for some ot the tubes to be connectors, and
the baeknuts are made by cutting short collars from a
socket and cleaning them off neatly. The ordinary
wrought fittings do not look nearly so well as the globe-
shaped mallealple fittings (elbows and tees). Connect
the alrer to a flow pipe wholly, neither connection being
put to a return pipe. The connecting pipes can he l-in. ;
even J-in. will do it the length is short. A stop-valve
can be used it desirable. The dotted lines in the sketch
Indicate that connections to the rail may be made above
or below the floor.
180
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics,
Refining Scrap Gold.— One method 1b to dissolve the
Bi'iap gold in a mixture of 1 part pure nitrlo acid, 3 parts
hydrochloric acid, and 1 part pure water made warm iu
a porcelain basin and placed in a good draught to carry
off the poisonous fumes. Drive oil excess acid by heat,
dissolve the resulting red salt iu pure water, and care-
tuUydeoant or filter to remove silver chloride. Add a
solution of protosulphate of iron until all gold is thrown
down as a brown powder. Decant off all iron and copper
solution. "Well wash the gold several times iu hot water,
and dissolve to form the gilding bath, or dry and fuse
with borax in a fireclay crucible. Another tnethod is to
melt scrap with twelve times its weight of pure lead on a
large bone ash cupel and keep up the heatan the open air
until all copper and other base metals have been oxi-
dised. Then fuse the button of gold with two and a halt
times its weight of pure silver, and dissolve out all silver
in warm uitrlo acid.
Design for Iron Roof. -The accompanying design for
a steel roof truss of 35-ft. span, with lantern lights,
shows elevation of one ti'uss in the cross-section through
roof, and the plan shows the arrangement of the hipped
the twelfth remain about two minutes. Toohtain twenty,
five copies, proceed as follows. Take the first ten or
twelve Impressions quickly, and directly they have been
smoothed lift them over the graph. Then allow each
succeeding paper to remain rather longer on the graph
than the one preceding. By writing with Judson's violet
dye, sixty perfectly legible copies can be obtained. Not
more than thirty copies can be expected from an original
wi'itten with Stephens' liquid ebony stain, and it is
well to limit the number to twenty-four or twenty-
five. Always write the. original on thick, emooth-
surtaced paper. Paper of a spongy texture must not be -
used. Keep a good supply of ink always in the pen
which should have a very fine point ; Perry &. Co.'s
ladies' pens, fine points, are recommended. Firm, thin
lines give best results. Put a sheet of clean paper on
the graph, and pass a flat stick over itto make a perfectly
smooth surface. Directly the writing loses its wet
appearance, place it face downwards on the graph; be
certain that every portion of the writing comes in
contact with the composition, and leave it so from ten
to fifteen minutes. This length of contact while trans-
ferring does not apply to gelatine graphs, into which the
vs\. ^
PART \
in
D
/
TRUSS 1-
U
J
PART
^
L
A
h
N
T
E
.
N
/
s
/
/
L
G
H
T
^
?(
^
TRUSS •
X
S
\
Design for Iron Roof.
ends. The truss is arranged in three bays of lift. 8 in.,
and the trusses will be that distance apart. At each hip
there will be two part trusses formed like one side of
main truss to meet the main truss at end of lantern.
Making and Uslne Graphs for Copying Written
Matter.— The ingredients (4 parts of whiting to 1 part of
pure glycerine) must be thoroughly mixed. Heduce the
whiting to a fine powder; mix half the required quantity
with all the glycerine, and beat uj) thoroughly. About
twelTe hours later, add the remaining powdered whiting.
Spread out the composition in a dish or tin. If the
glycerine comes to the surface after standing a short
time, sprinkle a little powdered whiting over it, roll up
the mass, thoroughly knead it, and again spread it out
smoothly. Repeat until the composition is firm, but not
absolutely dry. The copierwill be useless if the glycerin's
is repeatedly wiped away. For use at lengthy intervals,
keep the copier well covered; and if the top is too wet
for use, do not remove the moisture, but beat up the
whole of the composition, and spread it out evenly again.
If it is too dry, add a little glycerine. Graphs on which
the original writing is transfei-red cannot yield a number
of copies all equal in strength, as with each impression
the quantity of ink on the graph decreases. Therefore,
if twelve copies are required, let the first few sheets or
paper rest on the transferred writing about twenty
seconds ; gradually increase the time of contact, letting
ink rapidljr sinks, whereas iu the one under discussion
the ink is inclined to get to the surface. The ink will
not transfer so readily if dry and hard when placed on
the copier. Get ready the sheets of paper whereon the
impressions are to appear ; gently i-emove the original
from the graph ; take the first copy quicKly, and e.tainiue
it closely to discover faulty words caused by air bubbles
or depressions forming on the surface oi the graph.
Note the exact position of the fault on the composition,
proceed with the second copy, and, while the paper is on
the graph press gently on the defective parts with a
knife handle or other hard, smooth substance. This will
level the composition. When suliicient impressions have
been obtained, wash off the writing with a wet cloth
or sponge. Remove any excess of water with dean
white paper. Avoid using blotting-paper and like sub-
stances for this purpose. To gain experience tor taking
impressions of a larger size start w.th something of. a
postcard size. Put a strip of paper at one end ot the
graph as a guide tor placing the sheets of paper evenly
over the writing. Let one edge of a sheet lie level with
the guiding strip, and draw a hard wooden ruler or other
smooth piece of hardwood over the top ot the paper to
ensure every part touching the wi'iting^ with equal
pressure. The writing may be in two colours, ana
copied simultaneously, but it is more difBoult to tuns
the length of contact necessary than when coplea
separately.
Cyclopsedia of Mechanics.
181
Preparing Fulminate of Mercury.— The following
■direotionB tot preparlngt fulminate of mercury are taken
from Bloxatn'a "Chemistry, Inorganic and Organic."
" Dissolve 25 gr. of mercury in halt a measured ounce of
ordinary concentrated nitric acid (sp. gr. l'4!2) in a i-pt.
beaker and cover with a dial-glass i the solution may be
allowed to take place in the cold, or it may he accelerated
hy gentle heating. It contains mercuric nitrate, nitric
aeia, and nitrous acid. "When all the mercury is dis-
solved, remove the beaker to a distance from any flame
and pour into it, at arm's length, 5 dr. (measured) of
alcohol (sp. gr. 0"87). Very brisk action begins, and
the fulminate separates as a crystalline precipitate ;
dense white fumes, having the odours of nttrous ether
aod aldehj'de, pour over the sides of the beaker: they
■contain mei'cury compounds and hydrocyanic acid also,
and are very poisonous. When red fumes begin to
'appear abundantly, some water is poured in to stop the
action (which occupies only two or three minutes) , and
the fulminate is coUeoted on a filter, washed with water
as long as the washings taste acid, and dried by ex-
posure to air."
Ventilation of Photographer's Dark Room.— So
much depends on the situation and surroundings that it
is difficult to give particulars of a method of ventilating a
photographer's darkroom without seeing a sketch of the
room. The following plan, however, maybe tried. Cut an
opening near the bottom of the door and screw over this
opening on the inside a box with a partition, formed as.
shown in Fi". 1, and coated inside and out with a dead
black, made by mixing lampblack with negative varnish.
A similar opening and box may be made tor the top of
part of the work is done, the easier will be the next steps.
When no more can be done with the silver sand, rub
the specimen with a piece of second grit-stone, to remove
all scratches made by the sand, and then rub with a
piece of snakestoue or water-of-Ayr stone. The surface
should now be perfectly smooth, but minus a gloss or
brightness. To impart this, rub it well with a damp
piece of an old stocking on which has been sprinkled
a few grains of oxalic acid. The surface of the specimen
should now have a dull face s to finish, a little putty-
powder and a very little salt of sorrel are used in the
same way as the acid. Marble polishers use pollshing-
felt instead of the old stocking. Marble may be polished
in the same way, but some varieties will require spirit
of salt to be used with the putty-powder Instead of the
salt o£ soiTOl.
Shop-door Electric Alarm.— The shop-door alarm
for electric bells here described rings the bell during
the whole time the door is open. There are two separate
portions— the " contact springs " and the " separator '.'
or " insulator." The two springs are screwed, as shown
by Fig. 1, to a block of hardwood about 1 in. by 1 in.
by iin., well soaked in paraffin wax. The spTings
may be made from an old clock spring straightened
out, one end of each being filed as shown in Fig. 2,
and about i in. from this end a piece of platinum
foil may be soldered or riveted. The springs should
be bent as in Fig. 1, so that the platinum points
will be pressed well togetuer. A binding screw and an
ordinary brass screw, i in. or i'., in. long, should be
sufficient for each spring. The " separator " is a wedge-
shaped piece ot hardwood, with an extension tor
Fig. 2
Ventilation of Photographer's Dark Room.
FIG. 2-
Shop-door Electric Alarm.
the door. The air will enter by the bottom ventDator
and pass out by the top one. When the light outside the
dark room is strong, the opening may be fitted with two
partitions, set at an angle as shown in Pig. 2. If it is not
■convenient to cut holes in the door, the ventilator may
be formed in the jamb of the door, as in Pig. 3, covering
the edge at X with soft baize to ensure a light-tight join
when the door is closed. Pig. 4 shows a very usual
method of ventilating just below the eaves by over-
lapping boards.
Fixing Fringe on Mantelboards, etc.— So that deep
fringes may be made to hang straight on mantelboards,
«tc,, before fixing the fringe, tack strips of cardboard or
buckram, about 2 in. na^rrdwer than the fringe, on the
edge of the mantel. For a 6-in. fringe, back up with
say, a 4-iu. strip ot cardboard ; for quick curves, etc.,
kerf the cardboard with a knife.
Working Pressure of Model Locomotive Boiler.
—A small locomotive boiler with a barrel 5iin. long by
2Jin. diameter has its iron plate I'jin. thick. If the
tensUe strength of the material is 20 tons per square
inch, and the joints are single riveted, the bursting
2 X t's X 20 X 2,240 X JJ„
2i
pressure of the shell may be
_= 1,332 lb. per square inch ; so that as far as the shell
is concerned the working pressure may be 2001b. per
square inch. It copper were used for the barrel, the
working pressure with the same factor ot safety might
be 12J lb. per square inch.
Polishing Stalactites, etc.— In polishing stalactites
and similar stones no false gloss is put on, the surface of
the stalactite merely being made smooth. Having de-
cided which part of the stone to polish (it should be
the one which will exhibit the formation ot the stone),
all irregularities are rubbed out on an ordinary flagstone,
using silver sand and plenty of water; and when all
holes, etc., are well rubbed out, wash and dry the stone.
It can then be seen whether the surface is anything like
smooth i if not, continue the rubbing. The better this
screwing to the \ipper part of the door. It should be
weU soaked in meUed paraffin wax. The contact-spring
block is screwed to the lower edge of the door-frame,
just above the door ; and the insulator is fixed to tlje
door, near the top, so that when the door is closed the
springs are wedged apart. The alarm is next connected
up to the bell and battery, one wire from a binding
screw of the bell to a binding screw of the alarm,
another connecting the second terminal of the alarm
and one pole of the battery, and a third lead joining the
free terminals ot bell and battery. By the interposition
of a switch in the circuit, the door can be opened by the
occupants of the house or shop without the bell ringing.
Toughening Potters' and Modellers' Clay. —
Newly dug clay is generally wanting in tenacity, and
ware made from it is much more liable to crack than
if the clay had been " weathei'ed." Weathering, or
exposure to the weather, will toughen the clay. The
clay, when dug, is laid in heaps and occasionally turned
over. The water and oxygen of the atmosphere and the
influence of frost disintegrate, wash, and purify it,
thus greatly improving its quality. Clay is also tough-
ened by being well worked or kneadedi For modelling
purposes there is nothing like old clay— that is, clay that
has been repeatedly used ; and consequently, when a
mould has been made from a clay model, the clay is
thrown back into the bin, becoming tougher and more
ductile by this continual usage. Clay may also be
toughened as follows : Spread out a small lump of it
on a board: Mix together a tablespoonful of sulphuric
acid and linseed oil, and spot this here and there over
the exposed surface. Roll up the clay and well work
it together.
Dry Process of Cleaning Skins.— The skins may be
soaked in petroleum ether in a closed tank or pan for two
or three days, removed, wrung out, dried, brushed, and
combed: or they may be well brushed all over with a
mixture of bran and beuzoline, and, after drying, brushed
and combed. Another method is to brush the skins
with a solution of olive-oil soap in. methylated spirit,
followed by sponging with clean methylated spirit.
182
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
Hardening and Softening Copper.— The difference
between hard-rolled and special soft copper is caused
by the methods of annealing. Hard-rolled copper can
be rende^jed soft and ductile simply by placing it over
a Are or stove until well heated, and then gradually
allowing it to cool. Copper may be hardened by well
heating and then plunging it for a moment in cold
water, afterwards allowing it to steam dry. If kept
submerged until cold the metal will prove exceedingly
brittle. lu repoussiS work soft copper will crack when-
ever the tool is applied too forcibly ; these cracks may
be repaired by soldering from the back.
Building a Dutch Barn,— Fig. 1 Is an end elevation,
and Fig. 2 a little more than one-fourth of the side
elevation, of a Dutch barn that Is iO ft. long, ISff. wide,
and 16 ft. to eaves. Fig. 3 shows the form and con-
struction of the trusses. It wiU be noticed that purlins,
not rafters, are used, so that the boarding can be fixed
running down, as shown. The wet can be better kept
out by weathering the boards, as shown at Fig. i. Oak
will be best for the posts, which should go into the
along with it and float on the surface of the liquid.
After all the water has distilled over, the "break"
occurs, i.e. distillation slackens until the temperature
rises and the distillation proceeds again. The diftereiit
fractions are told by the smell, by gravity, and by the
temperature in the still at the time, a thermometer
being fixed in the still for this purpose. The first rup-
nings pass over below 110° C., and their specific
fravities are less than I'O. The light oil passes oveir
rom 110° to 120" C, and its gravity is about that of water
= I'O. Carbolic oil or middle oil passes over between 120"
and 140° 0., and its gravity is over I'D. Creosoteoil passes
over between 140" and 170° C. ; it is heavier than carbolic
oil. Anthracene oil passes over last. The residue is
pitch, which is soft or hard, according to how far the
distillation has been pushed. The different fractions ,
can be told by pouring a few drops of the oil into water ;
the first runnings float on the surface, the light oil will
float anywhere in the water, whereas the carbolic and
other oils sink ; this test will tell when to change the
receivers, but the temperature test is best. The first
runnings and light oil are rectified by distillation with
Fig. 4-
T
t'y
—
-'
-"■-~.
-v.-^^.
:•!': .
\g d"-
1
Design for a Dutch Barn.
ground about 4ft. or 5ft., and be well rammed in. Deal
will probably be good enough for all the other parts.
The boarding (lin. thick) to the ends and sides may be
grooved and tongued, or lapped similar to the roof. To
keep the structure rigid, it must be braced with 4-in. by
S-in. braces, as indicated by the dotted lines on the
boarding at Figs. 1 and 2.
Staining In Marqueterle.— Bed and blue lines as
seen on old Sheraton inlaid work are gained by in-
laying narrow stringing, stained before insertion. It
is not worth the expense to stain them with acids -if
only a small quantity is required, especially ' as good
results can be obtained by the use of aniline dy;es, which
should be mixed in hot vinegar. If the work is imitation
stained marqueterie, use aniline dyes dissolved in spirits,
with the addition of at least a quarter of its bulk of
polish or spirit varnish.
Distillation of Tar.— When coal-tar is heated In
the still, there is a large amount of frothing due
to the distillation of the ammoniaoal liquor; it is
therefore necessary to slake the lire to preveht
this; if any tar boils over, pour water on trie still
head. After a time the mass "bumps" vigorously
and then "rattles," owing to the escape of the water.
As the water distils over, the first runnings pass
"close" or "open" steam yielding— (1) Up to 103° C ,65. to
70 per cent, benzol; (2) up to 110"O.,30per cent. benzol;
and (3) up to 130° C, a benzol none of which distils at
100° but 60 per cent, passes over at 120° C, this being
usually put back with another charge ; and (4) above
136" 0. yields " solvent " naphtha. The 65 to 70 per cent^ '
benzol is again rectified into two fractions called m
per cent, benzol and 50 per cent, benzol respectively.
Cleaning Mosaic Floors.— For cleaning tile mosaic
floors, use muriatic acid (spirit of salts) diluted with
water (the requisite strength may be found by trial) , well
scrubbing the floor with an old brush, and washing ofl:
with dean water. For marble mosaic floors, use a
bleach consisting of, say, 71b. of American potash dis-
solved in a pailful of water, and made into a paste by
adding whiting, or, better still, newly slaked lime.
Apply this like whitewash with an old brush to the floor.
Let It remain on for a day or two, and then vfash off with
clean water. Bepeat the application until the stains
are removed. The hands must be protected when using
the bleach, as the potash is so caustic as to be dangerous
to fingers and nails. If any of the liquid gets on the
hands, they should be at once well washed in water
containing a few drops of vinegar or acid to neutralise
the alkali.
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics,
183
How to Make Cheap Paste.— For a cheap paste
that will not turn sour or go had, mix tosetber lib. of
cominon flour, ilh. of alum, and Iqt. -of water to
make a smooth cream ; boil 3 qt. of water In a pan, and
while boiling add the other ingredients in a thin stream,
stirring all the time. Continue boiling tor a lev* minutes,
then remove the pan from the fire. Oil of cloves may be
added as a preservative.
How to Slake a Mallcart.— Figs. 1 and 2 show a
useful mallcart. To make this, first get out the shafts
from apiece of stuff, 4ft. 4 in. by 8 in. by li in., preferably
of ash (Pig. 3) . Saw with the grain of the wood, following
the sween as nearly as possible. The finished shafts are
4ft. 4in. long, li in. deep on the straight part, and IJ in.
thick at the centre bolt hole, and tapering in thick-
ness to i in. at the front ends and 1 in. at the handles,
which are shaved up to fancy. The shafts are bolted
on so that, by taking out the centre bolt, the handles
can be raised to a height more convenient for an
adult, the bolt fastening through the next rail above.
For one side, seven pieces are required. The two up-
rights are 26 in. long, i in. thick, and about li In. wide,
with edges bevelled as shown, and five rails are liin.
wide and bare iiu. thick. The top rail is 26 in. and
bottom rail 31 in. long. The rails are fixed inside the
uprights with i-ln. bolts, and the two sides of the cart
to be polished should be covered with the French stain,
which, when dry, is a blue black, and then with plaster-
of-Paris mixed with water to the consistency of thick
cream. When nearly dry, rub off as much as possible,
leaving the surface clean, the grain only being filled
with the paste. Linseed oil is next applied with a piece
of old rag; ioz. of spirit black is then dissolved in 1
glU of button polish, and applied in the usual way with a
cotton-wool rubber. A little linseed oU must be used on
the rubber to make it work freely. When a good body
has been obtained, any parts which are ropy may be
levelled with a piece of old, fine glasspaper and a little
linseed oil. The wool rubber is then covered with a
piece of old linen and the final coat is given, using as
little oil as possible on the rubber. When a satisfactory
surface has been obtained, the linseed oil remaining in
the polish must be killed, otherwise the work will have a
dull appearance. Make a new rubber with cotton-wool
and a piece of clean linen, and damp the rubber slightly
with methylated spirit, and use the rubber as when
giving the final coat. If too much spirit is used, all the
polish will be taken off. If the above instructions have
been carefully carried out, a highly glossy finish will be
obtained.
Flat Colours Flashing or Patchy.— The cause of an
interior wall surface finished in flat colours drying
FiC. 3
How to Make a Mailcart.
are held together by the seats (with back) and the steps,
which are 4 in. wide and i in. thick. The peac boards are
9 in. wide and full f in. thick. For the seat back, the two
upright pieces, seen endways in Fig. 2, are 14 in. long,
l4 in. wide, and full i in. thick, and the two rails which
connect them together are oval in section, the top one
being 2i in. and the lower one IS in. wide, and both about
iin. thick at the centre. When together, the cart, out-
side the uprights, is 19 in. wide at top and 12iin. at
bottom. A pair of 22-in. rubber-tyred wheels with axle
will, of course, have to be purchased. The springs,
which fasten the wheels and axle to the body, and
which raise the steps 5 in. from the ground, can be
made of 1-in. iron about i in. thick, the ends being ilxed
with small coach screws either to blocks fixed inside the
lower rails, or under the seat boards as seen in Fig. 2.
In finishing, round off all the corners and edges wi^h
sandpaper ; black enamel the ironwork, and give the
wood two or three coats of good oak varnish. Almost
any kind of wood might be used, walnut and birch being
the most serviceable and deal the cheapest.
Black Polish for Shop Fittings, etc.— The method
of producing the glossy black polish generally seen on
jewellers' shop cases and on the frames of inirrors is as
follows. The parts to be polished must be cleaned up with
fine glasspaper, all unevenneases, such as marks of the
plane-iron or other tool, being carefully removed, as no
polish shows defects more clearly than black, especially
on flat surfaces. The ingredients required lor polish-
ing are French stain, linseed oil, plaster-of-Paris, spirit
black, button polish, and methylated spirit. The parts
bright in patches may be that the under colonr was
not quite dry in places; or perhaps the flatting was
not evenly distributed over the work; or the colour
may have commenced to set on one lap before there
was time to follow on; or, yet again, the brushes may
not have had all the Oil colour thoroughly washed out
before being put into the flatting colour. To ensure
perfect work, the under coats should be brought up well,
as the flatting is only for a final dead effect. Should the
walls be of large area, at least three men should be em-
ployed—two to lay on the colour without Intermission,
and one to follow immediately behind with the stippler,
doing the work without a break until the wall is finished.
The woodwork, being of smaller area, may or may not
be stippled. The room should be closed during the
operation, but opened afterwards, and the air allowed
to enter freely until the work is dry.
Wax and Varnish for Fish Hook Bindings.—
To make a material tor whipping fish hooks, melt
over a slow fire in an earthenware pot for ten
minutes i lb. of best white resin and i oz. of white wax ;
add i oz. of tallow or fresh lard, and simmer gently for a
quarter of an hour. Pour the mixture into a basin of
water, and work between the fingers till white and
pliable. After tying, the whippings bhould be varnished
with the following :— Crush a little sealing wax of the
desired colour and dissolve in methylated spirit ; or, if
transparency is desired, use shellac instead of the wax.
Apply with a camel-hair brush j give two or three thin
coats, taking care to allow the binding to dry well
between each coat.
184
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
Iilqutd Gold for Gliding without Battery.— Qold
is couverted from a solid to a liquid by dissolving
the metal in a mixture of nitric and hydrootilorlo
acids. This liquid will deposit metallic gold on baser
metals, and it forms the basis of nearly all Bildinp;
liquids. Added to a solution of caustic potash, car-
bonate of potash, and cyanide of potassium, it forms a
simple gilding solution, used at a boiling temperature.
Deprived of its excess acid by heat, then dissolved in
distilled water and mixed with a solution of carbonate
of potash at a boiling temperature, it also furnishes a
simple gilding liquid.
Repairing Pewter Articles.— Pewter vessels, etc.,
are repaired by soldering. Pewterers' solder is com-
posed of 2 parts of bismuth, 1 part of lead, and 1 part
of tin. When making the alloy, melt the lead iirst, then
add the tin and bismuth : sprinlile a little resin on the
surface of the molten alloy to prevent oxidation, well
stir it, and then pour the metal into an iron mould.
When using the alloy, first well clean the article where
it is to be soldered by scraping with a. sharp knife, then
rub a little tallow pver the cleansed part. Jffelt a small
knob of solder from the stick; place the knob on the
part to be soldered, and, with a fine jet from a blow-
pipe, blow gently upon the solder until it ilows over the
part to be repaired and adheres to the pewter j smooth
the edges of the patch of solder with a smooth file, and
finish off with a burnisher.
Sail Flan for Model Yacht.— For a model yacht of the
fln-keel type 3 ft. long, 8iin. beam, and IHin. deep with
Sail Flan for Model Yacht.
fin, the sail plan here given will probably be suitable if
the bulb on the fin is in the usual position. Tlie boat
will require about 7 lb. of lead.
Drawing a Pivot Hole in a Watch.— A pivot hole
is drawn in a Geneva or other kind of watch by pressing
a pivot broach against one side of the piyot hole only
and revolving it i this is continued until the original
round pivot nolo is drawn oval. Then broach it out
round and bush it with a watch "bouchon," and open
it out to fit the pivot once more.
Renovating Old Oak Furniture.— The following in-
structions are on renovating an old oak bureau or similar
piece of furniture. Place { pt. each of methylated spirit
and turps in a stone jar, and heat in a saucepan of
water to blood heat. Be careful that it does not take
fire. Brush the hot solution over the bureau and rub off
the softened varnish with coarse rag or canvas i repeat
as often as required till a perfectly clean surface is
gained. To fetch out the figure of the wood, wipe all
over with raw linseed oil, rub down with flue glasspaper
over the oil, then wipe off all dust. The work should
now present a clean, level surface, suited for finally
finishing by wax polishing, French polishing, or spirit
varnishing.
Painting Stone Mantelpiece to Represent Marble.
—These instructions are on painting two stone mantel-
pieces—one in imitation black marble, with gold lines,
the other to represent white marble. It the mantelpieces
are porous, coat with whiting and size, and thoroughly
rub down before painting. It the mantel is to be finished
black and gold, it should first be prepared black. Place
on a pallet a little Venetian red, ochre, white, and a
little lead colour. First dip the pencil or a feather
into the red, and imitate a few veins by scumbling the
colour on to the mantel. Follow with the ochre, occa-
sionally adding a little white to produce variety. Very
fine lines should break away from the larger ones in
imitation of the real stone, which should be studied to
get a good effect. Finally, the spaces between the velning
should be flUed in With the lead colour, using a iitch
for the purpose. When dry, give two coats of varnish.
White mai'ble must be done on a white ground whilst
the paint is still wet. Rub up on the pallet a little
blue-black with a little white, and lay ifi the veins aa
described for the black, but the whole must be softened
in with a hog-hair softener while wet. Use all the
colours rather thin.
Foundation for Chimney-stack.— The concrete for
the base of an iiO-ft. chimney-stack should be formed of
good Portland cement and ballast, or stone ohippings,
m proportion by measure of 1 cement to 2 sand or line
chippings, and 5 large gravel or broken stone. A block
of concrete, 13 ft. square by 5 ft. deep, would require
about 130 bushels of Portland cement. The materials for
the concrete should be mixed dry, about half a cubic
yard at a time, and then thorovighly i-e-mixed while
being watered through a rose, so as to moisten the
whole without washing out any cement. It should
then be wheeled to the trench and tipped in, spread
level, and gently beaten on top to consolidate it. Often
the building commences directly the concrete is all laid,
but it will be better to leave it for a week to harden.
Any part projecting above ground should be supported
by boards until well set.
Crah and Lobster Pot.— Herewith is an Illustration
of a crab and lobster pot, which consists of ai openwork
wicker basket, about 30 in. in diameter by 20 in. high, with
Crab and Lobster Pot.
a strong bottom. At the top is a funnel 6 in. deep by 8 in.
diameter on the oiitside, tapering to 6 in. on the inside.
Stones are lashed to the bottom, inside, to sink the trap,
and a strong line with cork floats, fixed at intervals to
denote the position, is attached to the side.
Making R>ngs from Raw Hides.— The treatment
of skms with alhm and salt, or "tawing," as it is
called, is more often resorted to than tanning for the
dressing of skins for making rugs. The skin should
be thrown across a bench, and the adhering flesh
and fatty tissue either cut or scraped away with a
sharp knife. The flesh side of the hide may next be
treated for a week or two with a bran mash, which, by a
process of fermentation, softens the inner integument,
and allows it to be rejnoved. This may prove useful in
softening the inner membrane of tough skins, and after-
wards allows it to be separated with the knife. The
object of this treatment is to remove all material that
may afterwards tend to putrefy. Next treat the skin
with a tepid bath of 7ilb. of alum and lb. of common
salt to 3 gal. of water. A portion of this solution should
be made slightly warm, and then well rubbed into the
skin with a brush. The skin should be allowed to remain
damp for a few days, then pinned down tightly stretched
on a board, and placed in the sunlight to dry. For tan-
ning skins, it matters very little what proportions of
material are used. Half fill a copper or earthenware
vessel with oak bark chips, and fill up with boiling
water; keep simmering lor a few hours, then stram.
Place the skin in the infusion as soon as it becomes
tepid, and allow it to remain for at least three weeks;
remove, shake well, peg on a board, and allow to dry.
The length of time required in tanning a skin depends
upon its thickness and upon the strength of the solu-
tion. With a strong solution the time is lessened; but
it is not advisable to use a strong infusion at first, or the
skin may be only superficially tanned. Treating as has
been described, three weeks is a fair time to give it.
Gyclopaedia of Mechanics.
185
Castlnga for Lead Toys.— For casting toys in lead,
the moulds are made of oast iron. The metal used for
these toys is an alloy composed Of bismuth 8 parts, lead
5 parts, and tin 3 pai-ts ; this melts at a low temperature
■(202' F.) and expands on cooling, and so Alls all the ilne
lines of the mould, giving a sharp, clean casting. The
mould should be bx-ushed over with blaoMead and
warmed before it is used.
Potters' Clay for China and Porcelain.— If the
objects to be thrown on the wheel are of ordinary
earthenware, the clay may be " ball " clay. This
clay la found in Dorsetshire, and is used in its natural
etate without further preparation. If the articles are
of fine china or porcelain, the clay is specially prepared.
Kaolin, or china clay, is found in Corawall, and is pro-
duced by the decomposition of a variety of granite called
pegmatite. In the manufacture of porcelain, this clav
may be mixed with calcined bones, flint, etc. These
materials are weighed and measured, and placed in large
vats iUled with water, in whioli they are thoroughly
stin-ed up and mixed together. The mixture is then run
into troughs and passed through fine sieves of lawn, and
af terwai'as left tiu the supei-fluous moisture has evapo-
rated. It is then "wedged," or repeatedly cut up, and
it is then ready for the thrower.
Setting a Lever Watch In Beat.— The easiest way
to tell whether a lever watch is in beat is to wedge the
fourth wheel to take off the power, and allow the balauce •
to come tq rest in its natural position. The lever should
then be exactly in the centre, between the banking pins
or studs. To set a Geneva lever in beat, turn the hair-
ally it is necessary to cause another line to cross the
triangle to check the measurements. The triangles are
plotted by the length of their sides and checked by the
crossing of the additional lines at the points indicated
in the field book. Outside each external line will be an
offset piece between the chain line and the boundary; this
18 plotted by co-ordinates— that is, distances, and offsets.
For example, the field book shows one of the lines thus ■■
2-40
meaning that it is line 3, and the approximate direction
is down to the right after leaving line 2. A station
occurs at the commencement of the line shown by a
circle with a dot in it, the same station having previously
occurred at 2-40 on line 2, and the bouadary is on the
left_ of the line at a distance of 7 links square to the
Cham. At 0'50— that is, 50 links along the chain line— the
boundary goes out to 19 links, at 1-20 (1 chain 20 liaks) it
comes in to twelve links, then goes out again to 15 links
Fia 2
Plotting a Survey.
•spring collet round upon the balance staff by inserting
the thin blade of a watch oiler or something similar in
the slit m the collet. Being but of beat would not cause
the watch to lose, but it might be caused by the hair-
spring having too much play between the curb pins.
Ii it cannot be tracecj to this cause, the hairspring must
be shortened by re-pmni'hg in the stud, and the watch
again set in beat.
Bending Copper Pipes.— The foUdwing is one of the
best methods of bending copper pipes of 1-in. and i-iu.
diameter. First carefully anneal the pipe by heating
it to a cherry-red. When the pipe is cold,~ tie brown
paper round and over one end, insert this end in sand,
and pour molten lead into the tube until it is quite
full. If a firmly fixed bench is available, cut a hole
in this a little larger than the tube, and chamfer the
sharp edge off around the hole. Remove the paper
at the end of the tube, and pass the tube through the
hole in the bench to where the bend is to occur. Grasp
firmly the top end of the tube, and pull it over ag.aiDst
the rounded shoulder at the top of the hole ; pass the
tube a little farther through the hole and again bend,
and repeat this operation until the desjred curve is
imparted to the tube. Should there be any bruises in
the throat of the bend, work these out with a round-
faced hammer, and then re-heat the tube until the lead
runs out and leaves the interior clear.
Plotting a Survey.— In explaining the method of
plotting a survey by the use of co-ordinates, it may be
stated that in the survey of a piece of land a system of
triangnlation must be laid out, the junctions of the lines
to be chained being marked by station poles. The lines
should approximate to the boundaries, and such addi-
tional lines taken as will form up the boundaries into a
series of triangles. Each triangle is theoretically perfect
when the length of the three sides is known, but practic-
at 1"80, at 2"30 comes in to 8 links, and at the end of the
line at 2'92 it comes in to 2 links. These distances and
oitsets plotted to scale are shown in the accompanying
Fig. 1 ; the small circles show stations, the large circle
with the number in it gives the number of the line, and
the arrow-head shows the direction, in which it was
measured. In practice the offset lines are usually
omitted, points being made in the right places and the
boundary sketched through. When the whole plan is
plotted the chain lines are put in red (crimson 1-iIie) and
the boundaries in black (Indian inli) and the pencil
lines rubbed off. Then equalising lines are drawn
through the boundaries and a new set of triangles laid
down on the plan, as in Fig. 2. The base and perpen-
dicular of each are measured by scale, and the calcula-
tion of area is made from the dimensions so found.'
Particulars of Diamond Drill.— In a diamond drill
a small diamond is used as the cutting agent. The drill
may be made of a bit of steel or a thin bra ss tube, into
the end of which a sharp splinter of diamond is fixed by
embedding in lead.
Sharpening Bandsaws.— When sharpening a band-
saw, each alternate tooth should be sharpened from
its own side. A screeching noise is sometimes caused
when working the saw by the teeth not being uniform
in length, by uneven set, by too much bevel, or by
excessive rake. Strip the points of the teeth by passing
over them a topping file, which will make the teeth
uniform in length. File up to a sharp point, and
shoot the file so as to give the face of the tooth but
little bevel and very little rake ; in fact, the front of
the teeth should be nearly upright. The teeth may
be set with a small hammer on the bevelled edge of a
small iron anvil. Secure the anvU in a vice, lay the
saw flat on the anvil, and strike every alternate tooth
from its own side.
186
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
Relaxing Birds' and Squirrels' Skins.— The follow-
ing is a method of relaxing birds' and squirrels' skins.
lialf flu an earthen vessel -with sand that is damp but
not actually wet. Wrap each skin in a clean rag and
place it on the damp sand j then cover with more damp
sand, cover the whole with a damp cloth, and place in a
shady place. In the course of, say, two or three days
remove the top sand and examine the skins. If the
feet and wings can be spread out by gently working
them, they are ready for stuffing. If a number of skins
are to be relaxed It might be advisable to procure a
special relaxing box. Birds and squirrels are much more
easily mounted fresh. Relaxed skins dry very quickly,
and many have a wooden and unnatural appearance
when stuffed.
How to Make a Prawn Trap.— The prawn trap
shown by Figs. 1 and 'i consists of an iron hoop fi-om
18 in. to 21 in. diameter with a shallow net attached.
in the liquid. When clean, wash again In clean water
and roll in a cloth to dry. Then hold in front of a Are-
and beat briskly with a folded towel. This method
shotild not be adopted with a valuable skin ; Instead,
after the washing, apply taenzoline, then plaster, ana
beat with feathers in preference to a towel. 'Without
this beating the bird would probably dry rough.
A Bath or Lavatory Mirror.- The frame for the bath-
room or lavatory glass here illustrated may be of birch or-
some hard wood. The moulding can be worked in two
lengths of 6 ft., IJ in. by I in., which will allow for joint-
ing, cutting, etc. A i-in. bead is run through the centre
on the face side ; this can be done by a beading plape-
with adjustable fence, or by a hand scratch tool^ A
rebate is worked on one edge M in. wide by f in. deep.
The cross rails are secured to the uprights by mortise-
and-tenou joints. The top spindle rail is not rebated,
but is left with a square edge all round. The shelf is 4 in.
thick by 4 in. wide, screwed to the under side of bottom
cross-piece. The tail-piece is made from J-in. stuff, sawn
to shape with a bow or compass saw and secured t»
the frame with a couple of nails at each side passing
through the. uprights. The spindles are IJin. Ions
Prawn Trap.
Across the net two strings are stretched (see Fig. 2) to
which the bait of fish offal is tied. The hoop is con-
nected by means of three cords to a line (see Fig. 1), and
on this line, when fishing from a boat, a large cork
float is attaciied to regulate the depth. When the trap
is thrown from a pier the float is not used. The traps
are pulled up occasionally, when the prawns may be
found clinging to the bait.
Cleaning Heads of Stuffed White Birds.— The
following instructions are on restoring the heads of
two stuifed albatrosses to their natural white colour.
The heads should flrst be well dusted with feathers.
The after treatment depends on the nature of the dirt.
If blood is present it may be removed by rubbing down
with flannel dipped in water containing a little salt ;
then rub with turpentine and afterwards with beiizoliue,
and while still thoroughly wet dust over plenty of
plaster-of-Paris to absorb the benzoline and with it
whatever dirt has been left. The following is au
American plan : Dissolve a piece of pipeclay the size of a
walnut in rather less than Ipt. of warm water; well
wash the bird with soap applied by a soft flannel dipped
A Bath or Lavatory MirTor.
exclusive of dowels, and the tips are IJin. long and If in.
in diameter, the dowels itting into holes bored in
the ends of the uprights and spindle rails. " The mirror
is 1ft. 2Jln. by 1ft. 44 in., a stock size with some of the
large dealers. The bevelled edge improves the appear-
ance. The frame can be stained and polished, or left in
the natural wood. A method of hanging is not shown, a»
ways will suggest themselves according to the position
the glass has to occupy.
Aperture of Stops in Photographic Lens.— The
figures of the following lens stops, fji, flfd, fl8, ffil'S, f/16.
//22, f/32, fl4g>, and ff61, represent fractions of the focal
length, or, roughly, the proportion which the diameter of
the stop bears to the distance between the stop and the
ground glass when a distant object is tocussed. To state- ,
the diameter, therefore, it is necessary to know the
focus of the lens. Focus an object its exact size, measure
the distance between the ob.iect and the ground glass
image and divide by four. This gives the equivalent
focus, and avoids the necessity of measuring from the
optical centre. IE one is substituted for f, calling it tin.,
etc., it is merely necessary to draw a line equal to the
focus and divide it into this number of equal parte to
obtain the diameter. This is not soientiflcally accurate,
as there is a slight condensation of light by the front
lens, but it is near enough for all practical purposes.
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
1ST
Injurious Gases from Gas Works. -In the manu-
facture o( sulphate ol! - ammonia, the gai liijuor,
containing sulphide, hyposulphite, cyanide, and other
compounds of ammonia, is heated first alone and
then with slaked lime in an automatic still, and those
compounds which are volatile, e.q. sulphide and cyan- ,
Ide, pass over along with the free ammonia through
a pipe and bell-shaped exit into a tank containing sul-
phuric acid. The ammonia is absorbed by the sulphuric
acid, leaving sulphuretted hydrogen <B,nd hydrocyanic
acid tree, and it is usual to connect the bell-shaped exit
to a purifier, in which the gases are absorbed j if this is
done there will be no escape of ihjurious gases.
Use of Zinc Dishes in Photography Enamelled
zinc dishes may be used for nxing, developing, or
hardening, but as the enamel coating is always liable
to have minute holes in it, the dishes should not be used
tor any solutions that may'be reduced by the bare metal.
Strong solutions of powerful alkalies will in time destroy
the enamel.
Development of Staircase Well. -When developing
a well lor a halt-space landing, first draw the plan o£
the well, as shown at Fig. 1 ; then through C di-aw
the tangent A B, of course parallel to D £. Then set
below the end of the crack. ■ Now obtain a tube with a
fine jet— a mouth blowpipe wUl do, or a glass tube di awix
to a fine point, or even the mouthpiece of a clay pipe.
Connect this to a piece of rubber tube and thus to a gas
bracket. Now light the ga-i, keeping the flame as small
as possible. Las'- the shade on a table with the crack
uppermost and place the fiame between the crack and
the ink mark ; hold it there a moment, then raise it, and
as the crack moves along, keep touching the glass care-
fully with the flame and lead the crack completely round
the ink mark. At the end of about five minutes it will be
possible to remove the cracked portion. To finish, care-
fully touch up the sharp edges of the shade with a piece-
of emery paper.
Making a Cheap Time and Instantaneous Shutter.
—An inexpensive time and instantaneous shutter suitable
for a magazine hand camera may be made of cardbo-ard
as follows. Cut a piece of stout pliable card— a good
photographic mount answers well— to the pattern shown
in Jj'ig. 1. Next cut a piece like Fig. 2, and attach at A
to the first piece on the underside with a stud or rivet
U. Bend under, flat, the two pieces B and (Pig. 1) , and
attach to the inner board, thus forming a support, anii
leaving a space for the shutter to work in. Now cut in
thin metal a piece like Fig. 3, and bend on the dotted li nes.
Force the points D and E through the card at E and G (Fig.
Development of Staircase Well.
oft lines P A and G B at 60° to D and, E respectively, as
shown; then the line AB, for all practical purposes, -
will be eoLUal to the semicii'cle FOG. From this the
development of the well— that is, the shape of the
veneer— can be set out as represented at Fig. 2, which
shows how the thin board would be marked out before
being bent over the cylinder.
Particulais of .Corundum.— Corundum is a simple
mineral, also called adamantine spar. Its specific
gi-avity varies from 3'975 to 4'161. It contains about
90, per cent, of alumina, a little silica, lime, magnesia,
and wateij It is insoluble in acid, infusible by the
blowpipe ilame, but fuses gradually when heated with
flux. It is generally found in ill-defined crystals,
or acute and obtuse hexahedral pyramids, and is
of a pale grey or greenish colour, also blue, red, and
brown. It ranks in hardness ne.\t to the diamond,
the sapphires being the blue variet.y a.nd the oriental
ruby being the red. It is found in India and in sands
of rivers and alluvial matter in Ceylon. Common corun-
dum is found in granitic rock in India, Mont St. Gothard,
.<ihd Piedmont. The granular variety, containing per-
oxide of Iron, is the emery of commerce, found in the
1 sle ol Naxos in rolled masses at the foot of primitive
mountains.
How to Cut a Cracked Glass Shade.— Suppose a
glass shade to be cracked at the bottom for about
liln. up, and that it is desired to cut off the cracked
portion without breaking the top part of the shade.
First make an ink mark round the shade a little
o
Ou
o
K FIG. I
FIG. 2
making a Cheap Time and Instantaneous Shutter.
2)', and turn these and the flaps H and I down flat, thus hold-
ing it firm. Fasten a piece of fine black cord to H and I,
and briug through the two opposite sides of framework,
and fasten outside a button or bead. By this means the
shutter may be pulled from side to side. Now fasten a
rubber band by a slip-knot through K (Fie. 1), and put
the other end of the loop over L. If the shutter is now
pulled over by the right-hand button it will need only a
slight pull of the left to cause it to spring across and
give an instantaneous exposure. Time exposures may
also be given.
Making Malt.— Malt might be made in small quantities
from barley, hut care is required. The barley is soaked in
water for from forty-eight to seventy-six Hours, according
to the time of the year. It is placed in heaps till it
becpmes dry to the touch, the temperature rising by
the growth of the barley ; after about ninety-six hours
the heai has risen to the full, and the acrospire or
young shoot is visible on splitting the grain. The
heaps are n ow spread flat on the floor and turned over
about twice each day, the temperature of the rooms-
being about (SO" F. The young shoot appears from the
barley in a few days and dries away after about twelve
days. The malt is now moved to the kilns and spread in
layers, the heat varying with the kind of malt required
—for pale malts 90" to 100* F., rising to 145° to 165° F. The-
heating in the kiln requires one or two days. In
mashing the malt with water, the water is previously
heated to 160° to 170° F. ; it is not necessary to keep that
temperature up for long, hut it may be allowed to fall
slowly; on no account should the temperature be allowed!
to go higher than stated above.
188
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
Fitting the Head of a £andau.— The accompany-
ing sketches show how the framework of a landau head
ia fitted up, and also a plan of the position of the
hoop-sticks when tixed In place. First get out the
top pillars A, A (Pig. 1), which are 2 in. thick hy the
widtn of the door pillar at the bottom or hinge end,
tapering to 21 in. wide at the top, and the cant rails B,
24 in. deep, straight on the inside, to come flush with the
pillars on the outside, sweeping out to the side sweep of
the body ; then out the top part of the body standing
pillar to a taper, to take the hinge C, so that it comea
Hush with the back of the pillar A, being careful to see
that the face of the pillar A is kept level with the inner
face of the door piUar at D, so that the glass frames will
for the body closing in ; the cant rati is boxed ont to lino
with the pillars, i in. deep. Run the quirks on the out-
side, cut the joint in the cant rail E, and let to the dov'e-
tail catches on the top to keep it in place. To prevent"'
it opening whilst fitting upthe other parts, tightly fit a slip
of wood In the glass course, fixing the two nalves of the
cant rail to it with screws. Having fixed on the pillars and
cant rails, for goodt and having seen that they line with
oneanother.flx on the two centre hoop-stloks P, P (Ele 3),
which are 3 in . wide by 1 in. thick, and are planed off at the '
ends so that they lit ilat on top of the cant rail. The front
one is kept over the .joint in the cant rail until it lines
with the male part of the dovetail catch, a clear space of
fin. being left between the two hoop-stioks to alldw room
«a
Fra. 2
Fio 3. ■
Fitting the Head of a Landau.
work freely. The hinges C having been turned to the
proper depth so that the knuckle joint comes fair in the
centre of the joint formed by the two pillars, fix them
in place, keeping the outer edge I in. in from the outside
of the pillar, screwing them on so that the joints line
straight across both ways. The top pillars are now fitted
to these hinges, temporarily at first j see that they are
perfectly square from both faces. Mark off the height of
thehead, which should be sufficient to give a clear dis-
tance of 3 ft. 6 in. from the top of the seat to underneath
the hoop-stick, and fit in the cant rail B. The cant ru.il
«hould not be cut until it is practically finished ; it is
attached to the pillars by two hinges, which are some-
times, let into the top part, and at other times on the
Inside of the rail, according to the make of fittings used ;
see that each corner woris square and true with the
pillar, or the head will never close properly. After the
pillars and cant rails have been cleaned off to the body,
the.y are boxed out for the glass course, marking the
pillars by the course already made in the doors (which is
Generally about li in. wide, tapering tovvards the top to
ull iin.) J it is taken out full Jin. deep, and should be a
trifle deeper than the course in the door pillar, to allow
for the cloth and lace trimming on the edge. To fit up
the narrow hoop-stioks <i (Jj'ig. 3), it is necessary to fit
around the top part a frame or scaffold, indicated by the
dotted lines H (Figs. 1, 2, and 3) ; the top ones are IJln;
deep by lin. thick, true to the side sweep of the bodyon
the inside edge, fixed to the cant rail by a screw, in line
with the top of the wide hoop-sticks already fixed. Atthe
corners, strips I (Figs. 1 and 2) are screwed on at the top,
being fixed to the back and front rails at the bottom (see
Figs. 1 and 2) , wheh the top line of the frame should have
a drop of lin. from a straight line, and a Sail out in
length of lin. beyond the square line, both back and
front. To keep the frame its proper width, twp lath?
K, K (Pig. 2) are tacked across at the back and iront,
afterwards testing for correctness with a wax line. The
slats L (Pig. 1) are now got out, the front and hin'd ones
being slightly curved at the top, full lin. thick by the
width of the hoop-sticks G (Fig. 3) at the top.tapering to
nearly the width of the slat-iron M (Fig. 1) at the bottom ;
they are very slightly swept on the outside, and In fitting
them up they have to rest against the framework at the
top and on to the slat-iron at the bottom i this gi^s a
twist to the two bearings, which Is worKed out a good bit
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
189
in rounding them up. At the top they are kept 4 in. below
the top edge of the frame, the hoop-stick making up,
when Jet on, the remainder. The slat-sticks are rounded
off at the bottom ehd about Uin. below the lust screw-
hole in the slat-iron, but should not be fixed tor good
until the whole is fitted up. In some cases it is necessary
to ta on a small corner block behind each pillar, to
carry the first narrow hoop-stick j in other cases a flap
is left on the fitting, to which they ar,e fixed. Having
got them all in place, hold a long lath ilat on the centre
OOP-sticks, press down each end, and see that it bears
fair on each stick ; should it not do so, alter the fixing on
-the slat-iron ^ither up or down, as may be required.
After it is correct, tack on two strips of webbing from
the centre hoop-sticks over the others on to the cross
■ rails of the body, keeping it tight and tacking to each
hoop-stick i take away the frame round tlie body, loosen
the screws in the strips in the cant rail, lower the head
to see that it works all rig'.c, when the pillars should be
as shown at N (Fig. 1). if all is correct, put it back in
its place, securely fix tne slats to the irons, put on the
fiUing-up pieces 0,(Fig. 1) ou top of tlie cant rail level
with the hoop-stitjk and fiu.sh with the end of the rail,
this and the top corners of the hoop-sticks being can-
vased about 7 in. each way, and the bottom of the slat
join the three together with a binding strip over
each .joint, making the ends square. VVhile this is
drying loin the three remaining cards in the same way,
the wide one beiui; in the centre. Then turn both parts
over, adjust evenly, aud join again, when thd whole will
appear as In Fig. 1, where the blacker line at D shows the
binding strips m view, the joints B, 0, E, r, having been
joined on the other side. Kext join the ends A, which is
done by holding them over a flat ruler while sticking
on the strip, 'i'hese strips act as light-tight hinges, so
that the whole will fold up flat, as shown in section
partly closed in Pig. 2. The letters at the joints in
Figs. 1 aud 2 correspond, and make this quite clear.
For the bottom, cut a piece of tin IHn. by 4 in. and
turn the edges up Jin.'fuU all round, snipping out the
corners. This will make a tray that will fit loosely
'inside. To make tlie top, cut a piece of tin to the shape
shown in Fig. 3, bend at tlie broken lines and cut at the
full lines, so that it appears as shown by Fig. i. The
edges projecting downward will be 3J in. apart, to fit
inside the lamp (see section. Pig. i). The flanges bent
up form light shades in one direction tor the ventUatibu
hole. A second piece of tin will shade in the other
direction, and this must be cut as shown in Pig. 5, and
bent along tlje dotted lines, and slightly curved as at 8.
□
Fio 1
Fiq. 4
Fig. S
Fig 3 Fio- 5
Lamp for Photographic Dark Room.
sticks 9 in . or 10 in. up, when it is ready for the trimmer.
It should be mentioned that the- whole of the hoop-sticks
and slats should be well rounded In to prevent the
cloth or leather from being chafed, and in cases where
a large front light has to be fitted the front hoop-stick is
much heavier than here given.
Preparation of Mercury Chlorides. — '^he two
chlorides of mercury are mercuric chloride (HgCls)
and mercurous chloride (HgCl or HgjCla). The first
is often called corrosive sublimate, and the second
calomel. To prepare mercurous chloride, dry mercuric
chloride, mercury, and a common salt solution are
rubbed In a mortar to a uniform mixture, which is sub-
limed, that is, evaparated by heat, and the calomel is
condensed fn steam or air. Another method is hy plac-
ing solution of mercurous nitrate in a dilute solution of
common salt; the mercuric chloride in the white pre-
cipitate resulting. It must be thoroughly washed in
water, and dried. Mercuric chloride is often produced
by the evaporation of a mixture of dry common salt and
mercuric sulphate in equal parts. Or metallic mercury
may be heated in chlorine gas ; or hot hydrochloric acid
maybe-used to dissolve mei'curic oxide (red precipitate),
when the required material crystallises out on cooling.
Lamp for Photographic Dark Boom.— To make the
lamp here Illustrated, cut two rectangular pieces of
cardboard Sin. by 4in. and four pieces 8 in. by Uin.
In one of the wider pieces cut out a piece tor the
window about 5in. by 2iin., and fit in a piece of
ruby glass, secured by lantern slide binding strips
stuck ou both sides. If ruby glass is not available,
um two thicknesses of orange paper over the space.
'hen lay this piece on the table (inside uppermost),
with one of the narrow cards on each side of it, and
Tl
This will slide over the first tin, arid the flanges of the lid
will meet at the corners, and, Ijelng 3} in. by 3i in., will
fit comfortably in the top. The tray bottom and lid
cover keep the card sides extended as shown in Pig. C
when pacljed up, the tray and cover will fit into each
other, and the sides fold up flat.
Preparing GeIatin^ for Casting Trusses.— Gelatine
suitable for casting trusses should be of ^ood quality,
costing Is. to Is. 6U. per lb. Soak the sheets in,a bucket of
cold water till soft, and then melt in a vessel surrounded
with water like an ordinary gluepot, adding suiflcient
water to make the mixture just thin enough to pour
easily ,and yet enter into all the small details of the
ornament. The gelatine must not be used too hot, or it
will stick to the mould, however well the latter may
be oiled. Allow the can to become sufficiently cool to be
handled without discomfort before using.
Injurious Gases from Blanure WTorks.T-The gases
evolved in the manufacture of artificial manure are
carbonic acid, sulphurous acid, sulphuretted hjrdrogen,
hydrochloric acid, and, according to some, arseniuretted
hydrogen and silicon fluoride, also sulphuric acid in'
the form of spray. These gases are certainly injurious,
and in small quantities will lead to bronchial and other
affections, and to poisoning if inhaled in large quan-
tities. The operation of dissolving is, however, carried
on in a closed mixer and pit in which a fan is placed, and
the gases are drawn through towers in which blocks of
wood loosel.y packed are arranged, and these blocks are
kept wetted by water sprayed from above ; by this
means the harmful gases are dissolved out before the air
is passed Into the chimney. In a. properly constructed
superphosphate works there will therefore be no
nuisance from the escape of gases.
190
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
Cleaning Gold Braid. — Gold braid only slightly
■discoloured may be cleaned by beating it with a, soft
brush dipped in line whiting, calcined magnesia, or
f iiller's-eai'th. If badly spotted and blotched, the stains
may be remoTed by carefully brushing with a brush
dipped in a warm solution o( potassium cyanide— 1 dr.
to 4 pt. of water— then in clean warm water. It the braid
Is ot poor quality, all attempts at cleaning will only
make its appearance worse.
Safety Valve on Hot-water Apparatus.— The posi-
tion in which the safet.v valve is on the primary return
Is generally considered as good as any., There is no
•doubt, however, that theoretically the ideal place for a
safety valve is directly in the boiler, which is the seat
of danger ; but this position is seldom available, and at
best the valve would be out of sight, and this is not
■desirable. The valve is therefore connected to the boiler
by a pipe that will not readily become stopped up. The
tlow pipe is the least desirable position, as in hard-water
districts the pipe is apt to choke with deposit. The return
iiipe is much less liable to choke. Perhaps the best way
is to connect to the boiler by an independent 1-in. pipe,
■screwing this through the top ot the boiler so that it
projects down about 1 in. inside. It is not likely to be
shelled over or stopped with lime deposit it done in
this way.
Size of Girder to Support a Floor.— Suppose a girder
Is req uired to support a floor 38 ft. by 30 ft., the girder to
run the 38-ft. wxy. A single girder ot 38tt. span down
the centre ot the room would require to be of steel,
composed ot a rolled joist 20in. by'Tiin. by 89 lb., with
two I2-in. by t-in. plates on each flange, making the
brown goods being grain side out. The shoes will not
need washing every time they are cleaned; but before
they are creamed— in fact, every time they are taken off
—they should be well dusted and polished with a soft
cloth. After the cream has been put on one shoe, lot it
set while the other is creamed ; then well polish with a
soft cloth. This treatment preserves the surface ot the
leather.
Making Emulsion of Cod Liver Oil.— Suppose that
one is mailing up an 8-oz. bottle of emulsion of cod liver
oil ; clean and dry the bottle, and weigh into it 20 gr. ot
gum tragacauth, moisten the gum with a very little
spirit of tviae, and allow it to stand tor about an hour,
ttien add loz. ot water and sha^e vigorously; this will
produce a thick emulsion. Now measure out 3oz. of
water and 4oz. ot cod liver oil, add a small portion of
the oil and again shake, add water and snake, and
so on, until the materials are thoroughly mixed and
emulsified. If it is intended to sweeten and flavour
this mixture besides adding hypophosphites, make a
syrup by dissolving 1 lb. ot white sugar in 2 lb. of water;
take 3 oz. ot this syrup in place ot the 3 oz of water, add
to it from 20 gr. to 50 gr. of each hypophosphite before
making into emulsion. The flavouring matter is oil of
bitter almonds ; it should be dissolved in a little spirit
of wine, a few drops of it being added at the last so that
there is just sufiioient to give a flavour and no more.
The emulsion can be made very quickly and thoroughly
by placing the materials in a ijiortar or basin and
employing an egg whisk.
Box for OH Colours.— Herewith is a sketch of a coloui
box suitable for either studio or sketching purposes.
"■y.?
Girder to Support a Floor.
Box for Oil Colours.
■whole girder 22Hn. by 12 in. by 1951b. per ft. The floor
may then be carried by ll-in. by 3-in. flr joists resting
on a 34-in. by 34-ln. by i-in. angle steel, riveted to web on
each side, as shown in the accompanying illustration.
Cleaning and Follslilng Brown Boots.— In cleaning
all boots and shoes it is best first to put them upon
trees ; it unprovided with these, to fill them— or the
forepart ot them— with soft paper so that they can
be the better rubbed. For browi) leather that is
stained by dirt in wear, all that is necessary, as a rule,
is to wash it with a very soft brush or sponge and a little
soap and water. If very bad, wash in the sime way with
(Uark's mahogany fiuid diluted well with water. Propert's
fluid is also very good, but wants a little more care in
using. Whichever isused, follow with an application of the
same maker's cream. To keep the boots light, use white
cream, unless any of the surface is worn, when it will need
brown cream to bring it to the colour of the remainder.
Sometimes dust accumulates on cream and mixes with
it because the cream has not been properly applied,
■or because too much has been used. If the boots are on
trees, the cream can be rubbed off with a dry cloth, but
it is very hard work ; and water, as above, will not hurt
the leather if used carefully. To use the cream, have a
very small portion on a piece of clean white flannel and
rub it on the leather vers; lightly over a wide surface as
quickly as possible. This is continued till all the boot or
shoe has been gone over. Then start afresh, and go over
it again and again in the same way, always working the
pad with a circular motion. After the first cleaning, the
front will need the most treatment, as that portion ot
the shoe gets more wear, and the bending of the toot
throws the cream out ot the pores ot the leather, these
The box, which is about 13 in. by 9 in. by IJin., is
divided into compartments to hold twenty-three colours,
oil, turpentine, dipper, and brushes. The palette is laid
inside the lid. The dotted lines underneath show how
the same sort of box may be made to hold two or three
prepared millboards.
Mountant for Glazed Prints.— There is always a
danger of losing the glaze when a water mountant is
used, but an alcoholic solution of gelatine does not so
affect them ; it is, however, difficult to apply a thoroughly
even coating. If the prints are backed with waterproof
paper, ordinary mountants may be used, and the print
mounted dry. Or rubber solution thinned down with
benzoline may be used.
Making Stone Flaying Marbles.— Ordinary stone
marbles are mostly made in Germany. The stone is
broken into pieces of the required size and thrown into
a mill, where, beneath a kind ot horizontal millBtoDe,
the angles are ground off and the pieces gradually
reduced to shape.
Glazing Photograpblo Prints.— To glaze prints, care-
fully clean the glass, dust it over with French chalk, and
rub well, finally polishing off every trace ot chalk. SoaK
the print in water, and bring it in contact with the
polished glass under water. Cover the print with a sheet
of blotting paper, and squeegee into close contact with a
flat squeegee, anil set up in a warm, well-ventilated room
to dry. When bone dry, the prints should spring on
spontaneously if one corner is lifted with a penknife.
If the prints will not leave the glass without tearing,
either the glass was improperly prepared or the prints
were not thoroughly dry.
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
191
Renovating Crimson Velvet of Chair-seat.— The
following is a metliod of raising the pile of a crimson
Telvet chair-Beat cover. First take off the velvet cover-
ing, as probably there will be an under-cover of calico
•or hesBian, and the stuffing will not be disturbed. Now
heat an ordinary flat-iron and cover it with several
■folds of wet cotton cloth. Fasten the iron by the
handle, face uppermost, in a vice, and as the steam rises
pass rapidly the 'wrong side of the velvet backwards
and forwards overthe face of the iron ; finish by brushing
up the nap with a soft brush. Another method is to flU
a clean tin can with boiling water, cork up, and lay it
on its side. Slowly pass the velvet over the can, and
as the steam comes through brush up the pile.
Estimating Load on Floors. -- Floors should be
estimated for according to the nature of the building
and the probable load. A croWd of persons is variously
estimated to weigh from 411b. to llT'-tlb. per square foot
of the surface covered. Probably a safe average would
be 1 cwt. per ft. super., considered as a live load. Dwelling
houses are usually designed for a dead load of IJcwt.
per toot super., chnrtehes and public buildings licwt.,
and warehouses 2i cwt. The weight of the structure
must be allowed for in addition to the above loads, and
this is most important to bear in mind in connection
■with fireproof floors.
Railway Carriage Mouldings The accompanying
Sgures show a few of the sections of mouldings com-
monly used in railway carriages, but very many others
«,re employed, especially on saloon interiors. Fig. 1
shows a coach round. Fig. 2 scotia. Fig. 3 couch
head, Fig. 4 ogee. Fig. 5 ovolo. Figs. 6 to 11 com-
<bination8 of rounds, jillets, and hollows. The round
plate the size of the stock, having a l-m. iron pin in
the centre long enough to pass up through the other
wheels, and fitted with a nut and thread at the top.
On the face of the rim of the bottom wheel are bolted
two cross-bearers about 4 ft. long, 4 in. wide by 4iu. deep,
parallel with each other, having strong castors fixed on
about 9 in. from each end. On the back of the top wheel
is fixed an iron plate similar in size to the bottom one,
■with a hole through the centre to take the bolt fixed to
the bottom wheel. The backs of the wheels are put
together and screwed down by the nut on top of the
bolt. On the rim of the top wheel are bolted two beirers
similar in size to those on the bottom wheel. The body,
when taken off the carria.ge, rests upon tiiese, when the
top wheel can be turned round to any desired position,
or the whole moved where required by the castors on the
bottom wheel.
A Tool-holder for a Slide-rest.— Figs. 1 and 2 show a
very handy American tool-holder for slide-rests, with a
tongue to fit into the T-slot in place of the regular tool
post. It can very easily be constructed to fit an
English slide-rest by leaving oif the tongue and having
it planed flat on the bottom. In commencing to make it,
the base of the iron casting beingplaned, the hole should
be bored with a boring bar between the centres of the
lathe with which the holder is to be used. A t-in. hole is
about right for a44-in. centre lathe. The slot A (figs. 1
and 2) is cut with a hack-saw, and clamping screws are
shown at B. The dotted lines at indicate the bolt hole
for fastening the holder to the slide-rest. Fig. 3 shows a
f-in. steel boring bar, which should have a total length
of about 10 in. A }-in. tapped hole carries a grub screw,
and a corner of the bar is filed oft. The hole for the
F
B —
■
E==
8^
-1
r
"1
..^
-/
k-
-y
—
io|
[
!
Fig. 2
Fig. 4 Fig. 7 Fig. 8
Rail'way Carnage Mouldings,
FIG, II
«hown by Fig. I is used on outside mouldings; Fig. 6
«howB an outside cornice moulding where the roof
boards overhang the side ; Pig. 10 a cornice moulding to
«se over the clolii when the roof boards are cleaned off
flush with the side; Fig. 9 shows an inside cornice
■moulding, and Figs.'7 and 8 are tor inside doors and
panelling. It will be noticed that the bead (Pig. 3)
■differs from that usually used in joinery in having a V
<[uirk.
Cement Joints to Drain-pipes.— For jointing drain-
giipes, cement mixed vrith a little sp.nd is used. W hen the
aand is clean and sharp, 1 part of sand to 4 parts of
<!ement may be safely used, without detracting too much
irom the strength of the joint. To make a good joint,
■tan-ed gaskin should be first well caulked into the joint
■with a flat caulking tool, so as to prevent the cement
mortar bulging up inside the pipe and forming a ridge.
The length of time such a joint should be allowed to
«tand before testing will depend on the settlnsj
•qualities of the cement, but with twenty-four hours'
jrest it should stand a head of 1 ft. of water. Two parte of
Portland cement mixed with 1 part of lime and 6 parts of
«and-give a mixture twice as strong as one made of 1 part
-of 1 iine to 2 parts of sand, while the cost is nearly the
same. Such a mixture, however, would be too porous for
jointing drains with. Pour parts of cement, 2 parts of
lime, and IJ parts of sand would make a suitable mixture.
Body-horse for Coach-painters' Use.— The kind of
■ hody-horse most generally used in painting the bodies
•of carriages consists of a pair of good stout second-
hand wheels, placed back to back and on top of each
■other, and four cross-bearers and castors. Procure a
pair of wheels about 3 ft. 6 in. high; with 2i-in. or 25-in.
apokes ; see that the tyres are tight, so that the spokes
will not work when the weight is put upon them. If
the stocks are fairly large on the back end, clean
them off true and flat ; plug up the centre quite
tight In each one. On the back of one fix an iron
Fla 3 ^ Fig. 4
Tool-holder for a Slide-rest.
cutter should be drilled, the cutter being of A-in. square
tool steel. Fig. 4 shows a split bush to hold a ^-in. bar ;
it has a milled end to facilitate remoVal. Several such
bushes should be made to accommodate a variety of
bars, and also one or more with the holes eccentric to
the centre of the bushing to hold small steel. By that
means it is easy to place the cutting point of the tool at
any height required.
Tempering Gun-lock Springs.— In tempering small
V-shaped springs for gun-locks, the springs must be made
red hot over a clear forge fire, and then plunged into
cold water and allowed to cool. They are warmed and
rubbed aE over with mutton suet, which is then blazed
oif over a clear fire and ■the springs allowed to cobl.
Be cai-eful not to overheat the steel.
Detecting Adulteration . of Milk. — A hydrometer
graduated for specific gravity (a urinometer is suit-
able), also a 6-in. by 1-in. tube with a graduation at Sin.
and other marks, will he required in testing mil-k.
Pour some milk intp the tube and float the hydrometer
in it J if the milk is pure the hydrometer will sink until
the mark 1032 is just visible at the surface of the milk ;
watered milk will have a gravity below 1030, and, if very
bad, 1020 to 1025 ; skimmed milk has a gravity from 1033
to 103.5. Bemoye the hydrometer, fill the tiibe to the 5-in.
mark, and leave it till the morning ; then read off the
number of divisions occupied by the cream. The di^vi-
sions may be one-tenths or one-twentieths of an inch;
if the former, then each division equals 2 per cent, of
cream ; if the latter, then each division equals I per cent,
of cream. A gpod milk will yield 8 to 12 per cent, of
cream or 3 to 4 per cent, of fat. The figures given above
hold true for the majority of milks, but a little latitude
must be allowed ; for instance, if the percentage of cream
is twelve, then the gravity may be below 1U30, and yet
the milk may be genuine, because the fat is lighter than
the other materials. A full chemical analysis is really
necessary for detecting slight adulteration.
192
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
Bluing Rifle Barrels.— Charcoal, crushed to dust, la
employed for blulns steel gun-barrels. Iron can be
blued as well as steel. The barrels must be very highly
Solished, and previous to being immersed in the charcoal
uat, which is made hot, must be rubbed with whiting to
remove all grease ; after removal from the charcoal they
are dusted with whiting. When being blued, and as
soon as the colour is deep enough, allow the barrels to
cool, after which oil them thoroughly.
Overhead Arrangement for Lathe. — The Illus-
trations show a simple and efficient way of setting up
an overhead shaft and fittings for driving revolving
cutters as A in Pigs. 1, 2, and ii. The uprignts B (Pigs.
1 and 2) may be of gas piping, the lower ends being
fixed to the table and the upper ends having a cross-bar
to carry the bearings of the overhead shaft, with drum D
(Figs 1, 2, and 3) ; a set of these supports is required at each
end of the lathe. The chief part, however, is the tlghten-
ius device. This consists of a pulley P (Pigs. 1, 2, and 3)
and hook with weight C (Pigs. 1 and 3). Pig. 3 shows the
arrangement clearly. The gut band or belt should hp
long enough to pass over the drum and pulleys. The
weight keeps the band tight in whatever position the
tools must run truly, they are fixed In the mandril and
there turned. The general shape of the tools is that of a
small disc more or less rounded on its edge, which Is the
cutting part, and which, tor fine lines, is nearly a knife
edge. Por sinking large shields the tools are more
rounded, and in some cases almost spherical. The
rounded tool cuts more rapidly than one with a-nearlv
flat edge, and is chiefly used for removing the bulk of
the material, while the flatter edge is used tor smoothlne
the surface. To allow the tool to be applied to sunken
flat surfaces without the stem interfering with its action
the edge is made conical. The tools are seldom larger
than i"; in. in diameter, and are sometimes as small as
Hsln., very small tools being made by wearing down on
rough work. To prepare the diamond dust it is mixed
with olive oil. A. small quantity is applied to the slowly
moving tool i this is then moistened with some uon-clo"-
gmg oil, such as sperm or neat'sfoot. Stones to be en-
graved are often mounted on a handle about, .5in. long
and Jin. in diameter, the cement being coated with seal-
ing-wax to prevent adhesion to the fingers. It the
stone is set, its setting is inserted in a notch in cork
or bamboo cane. The surface of a hard, polished
stone is roughened by rubbing on a soft steel plate
Fig. I
Blide-rest may happen to be. Fig. 2 shows a modification
with a spring E instead of the weight. The lower end of
this spring should be fixed to the carriage of the slide-rest.
The arrangement with the weight is easier to construct.
Engraving Desigos on Gems.— Seal engraving is the
art of sinking designs in intaglio on gems and hard stones.
"When the subjects are of an artistic kind the art is
termed " gem engraving,"' and when a design is carved
iu relief it is called " cameo cutting." Tcie tools and
processes are similar in all three branches. The tools
consist of small revolving wheels, the edges of which
are charged with diamond dust, moistened with neat's-
foot oil for hard stones, or with oil or water tor soft
stones, the polishing being eflfected with rottenstone
and water. The object is held on a " cement
stick," and is thus applied to the lower edge of a
wheel. The sapphire is cut slowly but smoothly;
the ruby is cut slowly, being apt to break off in small
pieces, leaving a rough edge ; carnellan and blood-
stone are of close structure, and may be out slowly.
The softer stones can be cut with greater rapidity, but
the effect is not so smooth as with harder stones, the
amethyst being as soft a stone as can be engraved
smoothly. When such soft substances as glass or marble
are engraved, the tools soon deteriorate, the diamond
dust embedding in the work and thus re-acting on the
tool. The tools have long conical stems for tltting into
the hollow mandril of a small foot-driven lathe-head.
They are of iron wire, softened to take up the abrasive
material easily, and around the stem of each tool is cast
a. tin or pewter plug that fits the lathe mandril. As the
charged with a minute quantity of diamond dust and
oil, or, if the stone is soft, on a leaden plate with
fine flour emery. The outline is then carefully sketched
in with a brass point or scriber, and the surface within
this outline is sunk. Por dotting out an outline
a small sharp-edged knife tool is used, a thicker tool witti
a rounded edge perfecting the outline ; a still thicker
tool is used for clearing out the material. The surface
is finished with a smaller and flatter tool. Curved lines
are more easily engraved than straight lines ; and colour
lines (or lines that show the stone surface between) are
engraved with a tool having two knife-edges. The front
edge cuts the required depth of line, while the second
faintly marks out a parallel line ; should the double-line
tool tend to " run over," i.e. to overlap any previously out
outline, finish the lines with a single imife-edge tool.
The work is watched during the cutting through a lens
mounted in an adjustilble stand directly over the tool,
■the work being brushed from time to time. The engraver,
however, depends much on the sense of feeling for
placing the work in respect to the tool, and upon hearing
for judging of the progress of the work. An impression
of the work is occasionally taken in a black wax made
by mixing fine charcoal powder with beeswax, and an
impression of the finished stone maybe taken by dusting
it with vermilion, cleaning its surface, and then pressing
into hot i-ed sealing-wax on a thin card or thick paper.
So that the engraver's hands may be perfectly steaay
and tree, he usually rests the palm of the left hand on tne
cap of the lathe headBtook,while the forefinger and thumD
embrace the revolving tool and grasp the ipper 6™S
the cement stick. The forefinger and thumb oJ the rignt
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
193
hand grasp the stick just below, and the right elbow is
supported on a small cushion on the bench. When the
engraving is finished, poUah is restored to the surface
by rottenstone and water on a pewter lap. The engraved
surfaces ol seals are not usually polished, but those of
gems are finished carefuUy with copper tools charged
with fine diamond dust. Boxwood tools with still finer
diamond dust follow, then the copper tools with rotten-
stone and water.
Bevels lor Hips to Semi-octagonal Iiantern Light.
— Piga 1 and 2 show the plan and elevation. The bevel
tor the bottom ends of the rafters will be the same as
their rake, as shown at E (Pig. 2). The bevel to apply to
the sides of the ratters at the top is obtained by drawing
of separation. Thus, with an 8-in. lens added to a 61ii.
lens at a distance of 2 in., ^ ^^ = *} = 4 in. If it is
desired in a fixed focus camera with lens of 5J-in. focus and
extension of 6in., set for 8ft., to include objects at 1ft.,
it will be necessary to find the focus to which the present
lens must be reduced. To do this, divide the distance
between the lens and a near object by the extension (or
the distance from the lens to the plate), which gives the
ratio or proportionate size of the image. Multiply the
whole distance by the ratio and divide the answer by the
ratio plus one squared. Thus 12 -^ 6 = 2, the ratio.
'^^(2^+^l)' ^ " *"• ^° ^""^ ^^^ ^""^"^ of the lens that
must be used to reduce the 5i-in. lens to 4 in., let a equal
the focus of the present lens, b equal the required focus,
and c equal the difference between the two foois then
~ - " = 14^ In order to prove that this will
give the focus desired, the first rule given above should
,. . , ., - J,. It will be noticed that
the distance of separation is ignored. This Is because
Fig I
Bevels for Hips to Semi-octagonal Lantern Light.
tromE (Pig. l),KIi parallel toB'N (Pig. 2), and then by
drawing the vertical line L M, giving the bevel as at r.
At Fig. 3 is shown the bevel applied for the bacliing of
the hips ; this is obtained by fixing on any point P in K B
and drawing an arc tangent to K L and meeting K B in E. ;
from P draw aline perpendicular to KB, meeting KO as
shown, and join O B, which will give the angle G required.
To get the true shape of one side, bisect A s in and draw
the straight line BCD, then with the compasses set to
radius A' B' set off A D. The joining of A D and D S gives
the shape required. From this development the bevel
tor the top of the hips is obtained by the angle CD S as
shown at H.
Use of Supplementary Lenses in Photography.
—■A convex lens added to another lens shortens its
focus, and a concave lens lengthens its focus. To find
the result of such a combination, multiply the two foci
and divide the answer by their sum minus th& distance
13
it is found convenient to use the lens inserted close
against the "front combination, where the separation Is
practically nil. The above focus need tot be exact;
14 in. would be sufficiently near. The supplementary
lenses should be preferably achromatic, but it does not
necessarily follow that they will form an aohjomatic
combination with the existing lens. Simple uncorrected
spectacle lenses of varying foci may be used. Por,
although in any case the achromatism is unset by the
addition of another lens, the difference is in most cases
of no great consequence practically, unless the altera-
tion exceeds about one-fourth of the focus. It is ad-
visable, however, to use a smaller stop A convenient
method is to slip the lens (which should be shanked
to fit with a pair of old scissors) into the hood and keep
it in correct position with a ring of metal sprung in.
But the most satisfactory method is to have the lenses
mounted in a sliding frame made to pass through the
tube against the diaphragm.
194
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
Sketch for 100-ft. Chimney, with Prices, etc The
Booompanying sketches show a 100-ft. chimney desiened
In accordance with the prinoivles laid down on p. 149.
!<4il9j,
.-B
C— -
— I
e
Fig. 4
[t
"""^^m
m
1
Wm,
.23'
Fio 6
W^^u
3»55^55S>S^5!5TO^y
Fig 2 '
■l*s
f'ig. 6
Design for lOO-ft. Chimney.
Assuming that it Is for flTe hollers, each 30ft. hy
7ft., and of about 50 hoi-se-power, the chimnej^ must
be sufiloiently large for 250 horse-power. The area in
. , 100 horse-power 100 x 250 „
square mohes = ^ height = "TiiT = ^'^ ' '^'^*
this corresponds to a circle 4ft. 8iln. or, say, 4ft. 9in.
diameter. If the firebrick be not carried up to the top,
the common brickwork will need to be 41 in. thicker &.
each length. In Lancashire and the North of England
generally the brickwork would be measured up and
given as: x superficial yards common brickwork, 9 in.
thick, the price being about 5s. ; x superficial yards extra
for circular work about 3 ft. radius, at about Is. 4d. i
X suijerfieial yards {face measure) building to batter of •
3 in. in 10 ft. at about 6d. i x superficial yaj'ds firebrick
lining, halt-brick thick, at about 4s. 6d. j x superficial
yards extra for circular work about 2 ft. 4iln. radius, at
about 2s. j X superficial yards (face measure) for building
to batter of 3 in. in 10 ft., at about 4d. ; x lineal feet build-
ing in stone baseoourse, at about Is. ; x lineal feet neck
mould, two courses deep, circular, at about 8d. ; x liheal
feet oversailing to chimney cap, sixteen courses deep, cir-
cular, at about Is. 6d. : x lineal feet setting stone coping
at about Is. Fair prices for labour only would be for
common brickwork, about 2s. 6d. per square yard, extra
for circular about 8d., per superficial yard of batter
about. 4d.; per superficial yard firebrick lining, about
Is. 6d. ; per superficial yard extra for circular work, about
8d. ; batter in firebrick lining, about 3d. ; per lineal loot
building in stone base, about 4d. ; per lineal foot neck-
mould, Id. ; OTersailing sixteen courses deep, about Is. j
stone coping. Id. In addition to these the master brick-
layer should add sums for labour to cover hoisting,
alteration of scaffold, etc. Fig. 1 shows half elevation.
Fig. 2 halt section. Fig. 3 plan at AB, Fig. 4 plan at CD.
Fig. 5 vertical section o£ fiue at G H, Fig. B plan at E P. In
Fig. 6, letter I indicates the flue from the boilers.
Particulars of Figments used In Slgn-palnting,
—The following notes may be regarded as supplying a
summing up of the characteristics and properties of the .
pigments used In sign-painting. Burnt sienna is a rich
transparent red-brown earth used for glazing over gold ,
leaf and shading. It works well on gold leaf when mixed
with a small quantity of ox-gall, and should be thinned
with copal varnish, not turpentine j gold size may be
used as a drier. 'It dries better than raw sienna, and
is very permanent, as it is not liable to change by the
action of light and oxygen, nor by damp and impure air.
Burnt umber is a burnt Italian ochre. It dries well in
oil, and is therefore often used as a drier. It is very
permanent, and is sometimes used instead of vandyke
brown. Emerald green, which is, perhaps, the sign-
writer's special green, is a copper green upon a terrene
base, very useful for brilliant work. It has not much
covering power, and is a bad drier in oil, and therefore
requires gold size or patent driers. It retains its colour
well. The tube colour is the best. Flake white is a very
pure white, not likely to discolour ; it is on this account
generally used as a finish over previous coats of white-
lead. Green lakes are powerful colours, but not per-
manent. They may be purchased In bulk ready ground
in oil, or in tubes. Indian red— peroxide of iron— makes
pleasant tints with white, is permanent, and possesses
great body. It may also.be used as a ground colour, or
as a shade tint with vermilion. For a quick-drying
ground colour it may be mixed with turpentine 4 parts,
varnish 1 part. Indigo possesses great body, and is a
good glazing colour. It is not yeiy durable, and is
injured by Impure air. Ivory black is made by placing
ivory dust in a covered crucible exposed to-a great heat.
An interior colour known as bone black is made by
treating bones in a similar way. Ivory black, the
deepest and purest of the blacks, being somewhat hard,
requires very careful grinding, and unless ground very
fine is useless. It is best ground in turpentine, and
diluted for use with turpentine, gold size, and a little
varnish. In drying it will become dull, so that it shoula
not be used unless it is afterwards to be varnished. If
thinned down too much with turpentine it will not
bind, so that when the varnish is applied it will rub-
oft on to the rest ot the work and spoil the whole. Ivor^
black, when purchased unground, resembles • d™PS,
and Is sometimes called " drop black," but bone black
is prepared in the same way. Lemon and orange ckromes,
when of best quality, are chromates of lead. They are
brilliant, have good body and covei-ingpower, and make
good tints when mixed with white. When used in oil
they must be protected by varnishing, especially ir
exposed to impure air, which in time will turn them
black. They make so-called gold colours, and must on
no account be intermixed with Prussian and some other
blues in making greens, as chromate of lead will destroy
these pigments. The yellow chromes are made In three
shades, known as Nos. 1, 2, and 3: the No. 4 shade is the
orange chrome, a deep rich colour. The shades are
varied by increasing the chromate for deep orange, ana
lessening it for the pale yellows; These colours are
injured by damp and impure air, sulphur i<""6s. J;°";
hydrogen ; but the oranue chrome is said to last oener
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
195
than orange oxide of lead. The chromes require skilful
handling. Prussian blue is a good working and staining
colour, and a quick drier. Baw sienna is rather an
Impure yellow, out has more body than the ochres and
is also more transparent. By burning it becomes burnt
sienna, which has the same properties. Baw irniier is
a good drying colour that does not injure colours with
which it is mixed. Ultramarine, when perfectly pure, is
most expensiTe, but the sign-writer generally uses French
ultramarine, an interior product, which will, however,
stand when protected with oils and Tarnish. It may be
deepened with vegetable black, and when mixed with
white makes a pure tint. Vandyke brown is a rich, deep,
transparent brown, and is a permanent colour good for
glazing and for " markings " on gold. It is a hog earth,
and not a very good drier. Vegetable black, which has
taken the place of lamp black, is a light powder, and
requii'es no grinding. Patent driers may be added, and
it may be used on unvarnished work. Venetian red is
cheap but permanent, and must be procured ready
ground in oil. It is useful as a ground colour. Ver-
milion can be had as a fine dry powder, free from grit,
and is a very brilliant colour in oil. The best quality
only is permanent, and that is a sulphuret of mercury.
Chinese red, or vermilion, is of a deep crimson tone, but
has bad covering power, and, unless well protected,
will soon fade under the action of light and impure air.
White lead— one of the most frequently used colours
and also one of the most faulty— is made by suspending
rolls of ordinary thin sheet lead over malt vinegar or
pyroligneous acid, in close vessels, the evaporation from
the acid being kept up by a steam bath underneath.
The lead is thus reduced to a white powder ready for
being ground with linseed oil into a paste. White
lead Improves by keeping, and for good woi'k should be
stocked for at least twelve months after purchase. Very
pale and old linseed oil should be used in the thinning,
otherwise it will probably soon discolour. It is, how-
ever, about the best pigment for preserving wood, etc.,
from the effects of the weather. Zinc white is an oxide
of zinc, but it does not possess so much covering power
as white lead. It, however, does not discolour, and is a
very pure pigment. Yellow oah/re is not a very bright
colour ; it is best purchased in tubes, otherwise it Is
not thoroughly ground. It is an earth found in most
countries, and is of all shades, from the warm yellow of
the Oxford ochre to the pale straw yellow of the French
earth; the latter is often used for "old gold" shades,
etc. The ochres are not liable to change through any
chemical actions, and may therefore be considered
permanent.
Combined Sbony Stain and Varnish. — A recipe
for a combined ebony stain and varnish is the follow-
ing. Take 4oz. of shellac, ^oz. of mastic, 4oz. of oil of
turpentine, 4oz. of gum sandarach, loz. of Venice tur-
pentine, 10 gr. of camphor, 20 oz. of methylated spirit,
and ioz. of spirit black (aniline dye). Crush the gums,
and put all together in a clean bottle; keep tightly
corked, and well agitate till dissolved. Carefully strain,
and apply with a camel-hair brush, and set aside in a not
room. Several coats may be given at intervals of half
an hour. A harder finish may be gained by the aid of a
japanner's stove, for which purpose it is best to buy the
varnish ready prepared,' as it has an oil varnish basis.
A temperature of about 300' P. causes it to liquefy, settle
into inequalities, and as the spirit flies off gives a hard,
vitrous sui:face, which on the best class goods is after-
wards smoothed down with finest-grade pumice powder,
and the final brightness imparted with rottenstone and
the hand.
Setting out an Elliptic Gothic Arch.— Figs. 1 and 2
show one method of setting out an elliptic Gothic
arch. Referring to Fig. 1, bisect the span AB by the
perpendicular line DOE, and make C B and C E each
equal to the given rise of the arch. Draw A F and B G
parallel to C D ; and draw D ]? and D G, making the angles
D p and D 6 each equal to halt the given vertical
angle. Take CH, equal to the difference between C D and
A p, and join A H. Divide A H and A P each into six or
more equal parts at the points 1, 2, 3, 4, 5. Through these
points, on the line A I-I, draw the lines E J, E K,E L, etc. ;
and through those on the line A J? draw the lines D J,
D K, D Ii, etc., cutting the former in the points J, K, L,
etc. ; a curve drawn through these points with a bender
will give half of the Gothic arch required. Eeterring to
Fig. 2, having constructed the arch, make A O equal to
A P, and draw D P pei-pendicular to D P. Make D ft equal
to A 0, and join O ft ; bisect O ft by a perpendicular line
meeting D P in P, and ijroduce P o to meet the curve in E.
Divide the curve A RD into equal parts, corresponding to
the number of arch stones or bricks J then O will lie the
eentre for drawing the joints to the portion AB, and P
the centre for drawing the joints to the iiortion BD.
Figs. 3 and 4 show other methods of setting out an
elliptic Gothic arch. A given rise is not required with
these methods, and the arch may be filled from the
centres. Referring to Fig. 3, set off on the span three
equal parts, and describe a square on the eentre
division and with tne cornel's of square . as centres
describe the curves as shown. Ful in from the
striking centres. In Fig. 4 the span C D is divided
E
A/
P^
'^^^\
( /\
fe-^
^"^T^M
Or
\r
/
j/ Rg,4 \
Setting out an Elliptic Gothic Arcb.
into four equal parts, and a square is described on tb«
two centre ones, the corners of the square being taken
as centres and the curves described from them, as before.
The arch may be filled in from the centre as shown.
196
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
Fumigating Oak Picture Frames.— When fumi-
gating oak picture frames, first remove the pictures,
glass, and gilt slips, then glasspaper the frames to free
them from glue, grease, etc., and so arrange them in a
box that the fumes will play freely round every part.
The ammonia, in liquid form, specific gravity "880, must
be poured into saucers or shallow dishes, tho box closed
up, and every crevice pasted over with brown paper to
prevent the fumes escaping ; i pt. is sufficient for a box
9ft. long, 6ft. high by 3ft. wide. The time of exposure
varies according to the tone desired, generally from
twelve to twenty-four hours. It possible, insert a pane
of glass through which the action of the fumes may be
watched. Wiping the frames over with strong coffee or
lime-water will produce a tone closely resembling fumed
work.
Oblique Mortlse-and-tenon Joints.— The accompany-
ing drawings show three ordinary forms of obUque
mortise-and-tehon joints. In each case they are first set
out ready for sawing and mortising; and then prepared
painful feeling, the wax is just right for poaring upon a
plastermodel,providlnglti8nottoocoldtorunfreely. If
the pattern be a ceiling flower, fixed on a plaster plate
ready for moulding, place it in water for about fifteen
.minutes; then take it out, and clear all superfluous
water from the surface. Put a fence or wall of clay
around it about I in. higher than the pattern, and
then pour the wax upon the lowest part until it rises
about I in. above the pattern. If the model is a fiat one,
that is all that is required. Eemove the wax from the
model when cold. This is easily done if the model
is placed in cold water. The mould is oiled with
sweet oil once only during a day's work. For fine white
plaster use Gallipoli oil: for new wax wash the mould
with clear water after oiling it ; for old wax dissolve a
very small quantity of soft-soap in warm water, and
with this wash the mould after oUing it. This will
prevent any discoloration of the first casts from the
mould. Holes and hollows will appear in the casts if
the plaster is too thick to run into all parts. It should,
when mixed, be no thicker than cream ; and a good plan
Fig 5
Oblique Mortise-and-tenon Joints.
for fixing together. The mortise shown by Pigs. 1 and 2
is rather difficult to make, owing to it going obliquely
through the wood. The joint shown by Pigs. 3 and i would
not be wedged, but fixed by gluing or pinning. Pigs. 5
and 6 show a haunohed joint which can be wedged.
Removing Tar Faint from Gravestone.- To remove
Saint containing tar from letters cut in a gravestone,
issolve American potash, mix with sawdust, and lay
it on the paint for twelve hours. Should this fail to
allow the bitumen to be washed off, it may be so far
softened by heat as to permit the superfluous black
to be scraped off ; and the letters can then be repainted.
To make a good job of removing blacks marks from the
level face of the stone, it will be necessary to grit the
stone all over.
How to Make Wax Moulds for Plaster Castings.
—A simple way of making wax moulds tor plaster cast-
ings is the following. Mix together 3 parts of resin and
1 of beeswax by the aid of heat. Stir occasionally, to
T)revent the resin settling at the bottom of the pan. To
ascertain whether the mixture Is ready for pouring, dip
the finger in cold water and then into the melted wax.
If it can be held there tor half a minute without any
is to sprinkle the mould over with water ; then brush the
plaster well into every part, and fill out to the thickness
required. Level the top edges, and place the mould in
water for twenty minutes ; then the casts can be taken
out.
Mahogany Stain and Varnish.— A common plan of
making the stain and varnish as sold at paint stores tor
imitation mahogany is strongly to impregnate burnt
sienna with Bismarck brown— an aniline dye. The dye
readily dissolves in water: the sienna gives it boay.
One pennyworth of each will make igal. of stain. Spirit
varnish varies in quality according to price; *02' "J
orange shellac, 2oz. of resin, and Ipt. of methylatett
spirit will make a fair quality varnish. A red tinge is
imparted by adding a small quantity of Bismarck brown.
Removing Sucker-valve of Lead Pump.-Po*
removing the sucker- valve of a lead pump a sucker-
rod is necessary. This has a tapering threaded point
which is passed down the barrel and screwed into
the lead olaok, which is then pulled off the sucker : the
harpoon end ot the rod is then passed through the latter,
and lifted out. By warming the tail end of the pumu
barrel the sucker can be lifted out much more easily.
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
197
staining and Polishing Millboard in Imitation of
Walnut.— Millboard may begiren the natural appearance
of walnut by the following procedure. Mix dry yellow
ochre in 1 part polish and 3 parts spirit ; apply several
coats till a solid groundwork is gained. If the boards
are very porous, the first coating may be glue size and
ochre. A brighter undercoat can be obtained by using
lemon or orange chrome instead of ochre. Smooth down
with worn glasspaper. Mix umber in polish and spirit ;
put in some figure ; for darker tones add yandyke brown,
or black and red. Thin out with spirit it too strong, or
to gain gradations of tone ; use a camel-hair brush.
Stipple in some heart or wavy portions. It is a good plan
to have at hand a badger softener or clean dusting
brush ; as the colours are laid on they may be blended
together, or at least any harsh appearance removed, by
brushing or stippling the colours whilst still wet with
the badger or dusting brush. Finally, smooth down
again lightly, then apply a coat of spirit varnish with a
trace of red stain (Bismarck) added. A second coat may
be applied after an Interval of half an hour. When dry,
smooth down with glasspaper or pumice, then French
polish or finish out with varnish.
Intersection of Moaldlngs.— The following is a
method of getting the section of mouldings meeting in
an obtuse angle whfen the mitre is square to one of
body; the joint at the bottom must be made as
shown, and iixed with four screws in each half-check
from the inside. Be careful to get the correct bevel,
and both sides alike. Before fixing together for good,
box out iin. for the bottom board and ^in. back
and front for the heel panels. The hind pump handle
is halved into the sham door B from the inside to the
same bevel as the rocker, with which it has to line, and
the front pump handle is put into the front rocker piece D
in a similar manner. The ends should be carved, and a
chamfer made on the outer edge of the rocker pieces and
the sham doors, and in some cases a quarter bead is run
along the bottom edge of the pump handle. If the
phaeton is to be painted, give all the joints a good coat
of white-lead mixed with linseed oil only ; if it is to be
finished in the natural wood, put it together with gold
size or a thick varnish. The rocker pieces and sham
doors are now secured to the well with No. 14 screws,
with the heads inside, keeping them flush with the inner
edge of the rockers, and when in place the pump handles
should line with one another and be just a trifle out of
the straight line on the top ; this is to allow for a little
rise. Lay the side down flat, outside uppermost, and
mitre in the bottom rocker piece D ; this is also fixed
from the inside, and a flne screw is inserted through
each mitre Into the side pieces. Two fllllng-up pieces are
required on the pump handles inside, bevelled from the
rocker to the pump handle to carry the edge plate ; these
may either be of steel round the well, or iron. Along
the pump handles as far as the curved. ends it is half
round. It in. wide, feather-edge j and it a rumble has to
be placed at the back, lugs should be welded into the
plate to take an iron stay to support the rumble. Four
Intersection of Mouldings.
them. First set out the obtuse angle OAD, and mitre
line A B ; then draw the section of the main moulding as
shown at E. Next draw line D H at right angles to A D j
then from S draw a number of ordinates parallel to A,
meeting A B as shown, and from where these meet A B
draw the second series meeting S E as shown. Then by
pricking off the distance of each ordinate from D H the
same as its corresponding ordinate from C (J, a number
of points will be obtained through which the section of
the moulding can be drawn as shpwn at r.
Lubricant for Cycle Chains.— A good, inexpensive,
and eaaUy prepared lubricant for cycle chains iS a
mixture oi plumbago and vaseline. Any good make of
blacklead will do, but specially prepared plumbago is
better. Crush the blacklead to a fine powder and mix
thoroughly with twice the bulk of go6d vaseline and a
little lubricating oil. As all these lubricants are very
"dry," they must be applied about every fifty or
hundred miles.
Making a Parisian Phaeton.— The accompanying
sketch shows an outline elevation of a double seat
Parisian phaeton. In making the body the following
parts will he required. For the rockers A six pieces of
birch, 3in. wide by #in. thick when finished; two sham
doors or pillars B, got out to pattern by li in. thick ;
two front and two hind pump handles C, IJin. deep
by IJ in. thick j and four rocker pieces D, IJ in. by li in. ;
all these parts should be of clean, close-grained English
ash, dressed up square and true. The rockers are
halved together at the bottom to form the well of the
Fia2
Maiang a Parisian tnaeton.
iViu- holes are drilled along the bottom part of the plate
to which the body steps are bolted. The plates are now
screwed on, No. 14 screws being used around the well,
and No. 12 screws along the pump handles. The two
sides are next fixed together, a stretcher being placed
across back and front to keep it the proper width ; the
bottom is first put in, then the front and back panels.
Next place two strap iron plates across the bottom, and
turn up each panel 3 in. The hind seat E, 1 ft. 6 in. wide,
is now got out and fitted on temporarily ; it comes flush
with the outside of the sham door at the front, and is
swept in towards the back about li in. each side; the
elbows are got out to the same sweep as the end of the
seat, al-e liin. wide by liin. deep when finished, and
should line with the sail out of the sham door ; they are
half-checked on to the sham door, and are supported at
the back by a square iron stay shaped as Fig. 2. The bolt
end at the top passes through the raised back G, which
is of 1-in. birch, swept edgeways in its length. Sin. wide,
and notched on to the elbows so that it is level at the
bottom, being flxed in place by the bolt end on the
corner iron and a small corner plate on top of the elbow
and inside the raised back. The spaces for the sticks or
iron rods should now be marked off. Measure tlie lengths
required,andmarkthe direction of eachdne on theoutside
with a short straightedge ; take apart, bore the holes for
the pins J in. deep, carve the ends on the elbows, put in
the pins, and fix down the elbows and raised backs for
good. The front seat H is made of 1-in. birch, 1 ft. 2 in.
wide, and sufficiently long to overhang the pump handle
liin. on each side, to which it is fixed by screws. The
dash-board I is made of i-in. birch, flxed to the front
edge of the seat, which is bevelled to the pitch, and by
two half-round irons on the front, with a strong foot at
the bottom. The side seat rail is made of i-in. round
ii'on, and has a 6-in. half-round fiap to fix it to the seat,
and a round boss to take a i-in. bolt through the dash at
the front.
198
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics,
Repairing Single-tube Cycle Tyre.— The method
of repairing punoturesis very similar for all Bingle-tube
tyres. First slightly enlarge the hole, inject solution,
and then force a rubber plug (previously solutloned)
into the hole. In some cases a number of specially
made rubber rings are used instead of a solid plug, and
the surplus projecting above the tyre Is removed vnth a
knife.
Fixing Wood Tester Head to Bedstead, — The
sketches show how to convert an ordinary iron bedstead
Into a lialf -tester. Fig. 1 is a side elevation of a tester head,
which might stand out from the wall, say, 20 in. or 22in.,
giving room for a curtain. Fig. 2is a plan of a tester head
showing a square frame in red deal, say 4 in. by lin.
The wall may be plugged and the back portion of the
frame fixed to It with screws and an iron bracket (see
Fig. 3) . On this framework a moulding, say 4 in. or 4i in.
deep, should be planted, and carefully mitred at the
corners. Screwed to the under part of the framework are
two fretwork brackets of 1-in. wood, one on each side, out
then squeeze and knead till of the right consistency,
Putting the bread into a piece of canvas before dipping
into the water tends to keep the paste clean. A littla
cotton-wool maybe worked In to prevent the paste being
washed off the nook.
Cleaning Brown Kid Gloves.— To clean brown kid
gloves, out 4oz. of white curd soap into small pieces, and
boil with an equal weight of water till a smooth paste ia
formed, adding water to make up loss by evaporation t
add 1 drachm each of strong ammonia and eau-del
javelle, stir well in, and allow to cool. The gloves should
be stretched on wooden hands and well rubbed with the
cleaning compound, then with a clean flannel, after
which they should be allowed to dry.
Scribing and Fitting Sasb Bars and Rails.— Thi
sketches show how the several parts of a top sash ai »
Fizlngr Wood Tester Head to Bedstead.
to shape as shown. Behind these brackets may be fixed a
small brass rod, as shown, from which the curtains can
hang. Or brass hooks may be used instead of the rod if
the latter Is considered too expensive. Fig. 4 shows the
front elevation of the tester head, with a fretwork orna-
ment in the centre of the top of the moulding. This will
improve the appearance of the bed , but can be dispensed
with. The top of the tester should be covered In with
canvas or thin boards.
Making Copper Pan for Frying Fish. — Copper
weighing 31b. to the square foot should be used in
making a pan, say, 12 in. by l2in. and 4 in. deep, for
frying iisli. The corners are usually brazed, but a
" dog-eared " corner properly finished, with the top
edges well up under the wire or flange, answers equally
well.
Roach and Trout Flsbing Pastes.— For egg' paste
for trout flshing, beat up an egg and add suifioient
flour to form a stiff dough ; then add a little cotton-wool
worked well In if for running water. To make a good
roach flshing paste, take a thick slice of fairly stale
white bread, cut oft the crust, and dip into clean water j
Scribing and Fitting Sash Bars and Bails.
formed with the mouldings scribed so as to fit together.
At A in the above drawings is shown the tenon
and mortise of top rail and stile, is a joint between
the bars, and D is a dovetailed joint between meet-
ing rail and stile. At E is shown the joints between
the bars, tenoned and scribed ready for fitting together.
If desired, these joints can be made more secure by
strengthening with dowels, as shown. The scribing
should be done with a scribing gouge.
Hardening and Tempering Bicycle Cones.— If the
bicycle bearings are of cast steel, they are hardened by
heating to a cherry-red and instantly plunging into cold
water or oil. They are then brightened with emery
cloth and, to temper them, are carefully heated until they
assume a medium straw colour. It left too light a colour
they will probably chip. When made of Bessemer or
mild steel and case-hardened, the cones do not require
tempering.
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
199
Waterproofing Waggon Covers, Hsctch Covers, and
Coal Bags,— Willesden waterproof canTas is often used
for waggon covers. Or Wo. 8 canrae may be dressed with
a eoat of raw oil 8 parts, and turps 1 part ; when dry,
paint with ochre pr one of the earth pigments mixed
as usual with holled oil, turps, and a little patent driers.
Hatch covers are made of a wider and cheaper canvas
called tarpaulin canvas, and are dressed with Stockholm
tar alone, which Is applied warm with a brush. Coal
hags are dressed with a mixture of Stoclsholm tar and
linseed oil, applied whUe warm.
A Combined Jewel Box and Scent Cabinet.—
Fig. 1 shows a cabinet constructed to contain jewellery
In the front and at the back scent bottles which
are fixed by contact with the lid. To lock the bottles,
they must fit their sockets. The doors or lids of the
cabinet are framed and glazed. Fig. 2 is a plan with the
lids removed to expose part of the interior. The back of
the box is joined to the front by a partition B, which is
detailed in Fig. 5. The framework is of {-in. stuff, 3^ in.
wide, the sides being mitred together. Before fitting the
parts together the grooves for the various partitions
should be made. The groove for the partition B (Figs. 2
and 3) should be 4Jin. from the front and iln. deep,
whilst for the pieces (Fig. 3) the grooves should be
are 2} in. wide, i in. thick, and 6i in. long. Pieces are cut
away at the bottom of these, and also at the back of the
side rails A (Fig. 2), similar to halving, so that these
pieces can be fixed by screws from the inside. Or they
may be dovetailed into the sides. The tops are curved
(see Fig. 4), and the top rail N (Fig. 1) maybe fixed at
the ends by t^vo tenons. The doors are mitred together,
the framework being 4in. wide and 4i in. long for the top
and bottom and 5iin. for the sides, whilst the thickness
isjin. The glass is let in in the usual manner. The
doors are hinged to the sides. Under the two back
pieces O O (Fig. 1) and near the centre are two small pins
in the partition B (Figs. 2 and 3) to give the doors rigidity
when locked from the front. The interior of the jewel
tray should be covered with ellk velvet, which in the
case of the bottom part, or under the tray, should
simply be fixed by means of a little thin glue. The
appearance of the top tray would be greatly improved if
the sides were padded with cotton wool or wadding. The
two larger compartments to the left of the top tray (see
Fig. 2) may each hold a watch, and a thin wedgei-shaped
piece with a hole in the centre should be glued in and
covered. Fig. 11 is a detail of the right-hand partition
P (Fig. 2). For removal of the top tray, fix two tabs or
strings to the sides. Walnut, when polished, looks well
as a wood for this cabinet.
Fig. 6
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FlQ. 10
A Combined Jewel Box and Scent Cabinet.
IJin. from the front, and only A in. deep. Pig. 3 Is a
plan with the top tray removed. The front F (Figs. 2 and
3) has two grooves A in. deep by A in., one for D (Kg. 3),
the other for Eljln. from the left-hand end. These
grooves run only H in. from the bottom. The bottom
must have a groove iln. wide for B, and another A in.
wide for the rails (see Fig. 4) ; at right angles are
grooves for D and B. The fixing screws for the base are
hidden by a moulding, (see Pig. 4). The partition D
(Figs. 3, 4, and 6) stands up iln., allowing Ain. for the
groove in the bottom. The left-hand cross rail C, with
Its ^-in. groove, is shown separately in Fig. 7. The right-
hand rail is without a groove (see Fig. 3). The top
tray, shown in Pig. 2, Is made from two pieces 8iin. long,
IJln. wide, and i^ln thick, and two similar pieces 4|in.
long. The bottom Is i In. thick, let In as shown in Fig. 4.
The back strip, with grooves Ain. deep and -fsia. wide.
Is shown separate! y in Pig. 8. The front (Fig. 9) is almost
Bimilar. The left-hand side of the tray should have a
A-in. groove for the rail G (Pig. 2). The partitions may
simply be nailed in from the bottom. Fig. 10 shows the
short rail G, with two grooves A in- wide, to take the
short rails H (Fig. 2). The cross rails P (Fig. 2) are 4i in.
long, 1} In. wide, and ^s.ln. thick. The top tray rests on
two Hills L Ii (Fig. 3) 4Jln. long and ^jln. square, nailed
to the Bides. . The two vertical pieces M (Figs. 1, 2, and 3)
Re-polishing Birch Chairs.- Commence by dis-
solving ilb. of common washing soda In Igal. of warm
water, and cleanse the chairs with this; swill ofiE with
clean water, and wipe gulte dry. Then apply with a
camel-hair brush several coats of spirit varnish made as
follows. Four ounces of best lemon shellac, 2 oz. of ben-
zoin, 2oz. of pale resin, and 1 pt. of methylated spirit ; dis-
solve by frequent shakings and gentle heat; carefully
strain through muslin. The varnish should be carefully
applied, and an interval of at least half an hour allowed
between each coat. Levelling the varnish on the most pro-
minent parts (the seat and the back) is done by means of a
polish rubber made fairly wet with polish glaze and spirit.
Making Cup Leathers 'tor Pumps.— Proper mould-
Ing appliances are necessary for making the cup leathers
of ordinary force and lift pumps. The iron or gun-
metal moulds are the shape and size of the outside,
and the stamp or core Is of the size of the Inside of
the cup leather. The leather is cut circular and then
soaked for a few hours in water or oil, accordingly as it is
dressed or prepared, and then pressed into the mould by
the stamp With considerable force. Temporary moulds
and stamps can be made by turning them out of solid
blocks of very hard wood, a lever being usedtor pressing
one Into the other, with the leather between them.
200
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
Fixing Slop Sinks.— A good slop sink should be made
to hold rather more than a pailful of slops, tor preventing
an overflow if a house-flannel should get over the outlet.
It should be made of impervious strong material, so as
not to be' easily broken by the fall of a scrubbing brush
or other hard object into it. There should not oe any
corners in which filth can accumulate. The sink should
have a flushing rim, and a flushing cistern attachment ;
the flushing pipe should be li in. or li in. in diameter. The
basin should have a trap close beneath it, with cross-
bai's for keeping out anything that would choke it. The
bars should be fixed, but easily removable for access to
the trap for any purpose. As the rush of water down the
waste-pipe violently expels the contained air, a ventila-
tion pipe, not less in size than the waste-pipe, should be
fixed. When fixed in private houses, the waste-pipes
should be disconnected from the drains, the same as
other sinks, but in hospitals and similar buildings they
should be treated as soil pipes. Slop sinks down which
hot water passes should not be connected to soil pipes.
Hospital slop sinks require to be specially constructed
with attached arrangements tor cleansing bed pans
with the least possible amount of handling.
Boiling Water In a 5 -gal. Tank. — Herewith
is a sketch of an apparatus that will boU 5 gal. of
water in a tank fixed 12 ft. from the Are. The tank
should be made with an open top and be covered
with a loose lid. If the tank is tightly closed at the
top, a hole must be made or a pipe inserted in the
covering for the escape of steam. In the illustration a
four-j)ipe coil is shown in the fire, but if hot water is not
required at a short notice two pipes will do— that is, the
middle bend in the coil may be omitted. If the fire is
moderately thick from front to back, the four-pipe coil
will probably boil the 5 gal. of water in thirty minutes.
A thin fire will be of little use in any case, as the com-
paratively cold coil will keep the fire dead. The pipes
may be J in. in diameter, but lin. will be better. The coil
logwood solution. Floors thns stained should be after,
wards brushed over with glue size, to prevent the varnisti
sinking in, and the nail-holes then filled up with putty
coloured to match, tHen given two or three coats of
spirit varnish, or a good quality oak varnish as used by
house painters. When it is desired to stain and varnish
a room in one day, a combined stain and varnish is
used. Dissolve 4oz. orange shellac in Int. methylated
spirits ; then add as much dry brown umber or vandyke
as will give the tone desired in at most two applica.
tions ; apply evenly with a large camel-hair brush.
It is well to bear in mind that vmere putty is used, it
must always be used after stain size or a first coat of
varnish j its oily nature prevents the stain, etc., striking
into the wood and causing a patchy appearance. Spirit
varnishes should be applied with camel-hair brushes,
oak or oil varnish with hog-hair brushes. So that the
Tarnished surface shall not be scratched, glue small
pieces of washleather or cloth on the legs of the chairs.
Solder for Brazing Musical Instruments. — An
easily fusible and smooth-flowing solder for brazing
musical instruments consists of 6 piirts of copper, 5 of
zino, and 3 of silver. The usual practice is to make the
solder at the firms where it is used. Cast a small ingot
of the alloy, and then roll this down to a suitable thick-
ness. Strips are then cut of a convenient size tor use
when soldering.
Testing Correctness of Watch Depth.— To test the
correctness of a watch depth, wedge the driven wheel
tightly so that it cannot turn, then try the shake of
the wheel teeth between the pinion leaves. It there is
no shake, or if this is scarcely perceptible, the depth is
too deep ; if there is a lot; it is too shallow. In a correct
depth the pitch circles of the wheel and pinion must roll
upon each other. In the above figure the wheel teeth
consist of radial lines to form the sides up to the pitch
circle i beyond that they curve to a dome-shaped point.
I
Apparatus tor Boiling Water in a 6-gal. Tank.
is only suitable for soft water. If the water is hard, a
small boiler must be used instead of a coil, as the latter
would quickly become choked with lime deposit. The
boiler should be provided with a man-lid so that the
deposit may be regularly removed. The tank can be
supplied with cold water by a tap over the top or by a
pipe connection in the side or bottom ; this pipe should
he fitted with a stopcock. It is essential that the pipes
should have a rise from the coil to the tank of not less
than lin. in 5 ft. The more the pipes rise the better.
Mixing and Applying Floor Stains.— The practice
of staining the margin left on the stairs at the side of
the carpet and round the outer edge of a room (Sirpeted
with an art square has, from a sanitary point ot view,
much to commend it. A rich brown tone harmonises
well with most carpets, but there is no apparent reason
why other colours, as mahoga^ny or pine, may not be
used. A perfect match is not aimed atj as a good con-
trast does equally as well. To remove any dirt or
gi-ease, the floor should be well cleansed with warm
water, in which has been dissolved a little common
washing soda, not soap or powder. When quite dry, the
floor is ready for the stain. Permanganate ot potash
will yield shades varying from light oak to dark walnut.
One pennyworth dissolved in 1 qt. ot water is about
the quantity for a living-room or bedroom of ordinary
size. When the stain is too light, apply a second coat, ,
or add more potash. Best results are gained by two
applications. Another simple plan is to use an ordinary
walnut stain, say Vandyke brown, mixed in a rather
strong solution of common washing soda— one teacupful
to 1 gal. of water ; apply with a brush and rub well in
with a rag, finishing off the long way of the boards.
Brush-marks or a patchy apjjearance are thus avoided.
If mahogany colour is desired, mix burnt sienna—
which may be bought at paint stores ground in water-
in equal parts of stale beer and water. For pine colour,
use raw sienna ; common malt vinegar is also useful to
mix them with. For a rosewood colour, take 2 oz. extract
of logwood, i lb. red Banders ; boil in 1 gal. of water tor an
hour. Ktrain through canvas or muslin, then add alum
1 oz. i apply hot. This imparts a reddish tone. To impart
a darker tone, brush over again with logwood stain only ;
2oz. extract to Iqt. If required still darker, or with
dark streaks, add 2 oz. ot blue or grefen copperas to the
■-#<
X
Testing Correctness of Watch Depth.
Similarly, the pinion leaves consist of radial lines up to
the pitch circle, and beyond that are finished off with a
semicircle. In a correct depth the pitch circles roll upon
each other, and the curved portions ot the wheel teeth
act upon the straight sides of the pinion leaves. ;
Refrigerating with Chemicals.- Chemicals may be
employed for refrigerating purposes, but the really
effective ones give a much lower teihperature than
Ireezing, and they are therefore not nearly so good as ice
for the purpose. Equal parts of water, nitrate ot ammonia,
and carbonate of soda will yield a temperature about 35'
below zero F. The cost of chemicals as refrigerators is,
however, a great drawback to their use. After using
them a solution is obtained which must be either evapo-
rated to recover the salts or thrown away.
Heating Warehouse by Steam.— It is assumed that
it is desired to heat by steam to 60° F. five workrooms,
each 90 ft. by 33 ft. by 10 ft. Two 2-in. pipes each side of
room would be equivalent to about 200 sup. ft. of heating
surface, and this should be satisfactory with steam at
low pressure. It the pressure exceeds 101b., less pipe
would do, proportionately to the increase in pressure.
With five rooms there would be 1,000 sup. ft. of radiation,
and with low-pressure steam the supply main from boiler
should be 3in. The return is usually taken in pipe one
size smaller, but a 2.in. pipe should be sufBcient in this
case. The size of trap cannot be given, but a trap made
to work with l,I00tt. to 1,200ft. radiation should be used.
The different makers' lists give the sizes. Expansion
joint^ will be required in the 90-f t. runs of pipe.
Making Patterns for Small Columns.— In making
a pattern for a small column, turn it to the required
section, allowing iin. per toot ot length for con-
traction, all flanges having good drawing qualities to
ensure clean castings. If the plinth is to be octagon^
or hexagonal, turn it to the largest diameter, divide, aria
cut it to the required number ot sides. If it is impossible
to make a core-box on account pf the core being too long
tor sand, a spindle must be used to turn the 0°,™',™°
a core-board, which is made of Mn. or 1-in. stuff wltn a
bevelled edge. It is fixed to the core-maker's spinaie-
bench and turned with a handle. The sand is appUea
to a spindle, which is kept for that purpose.
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
201
Disinfecting a Water-butt.— If soft water in a tiutt
smells, the latter should he emptied, turned on its open
end, supported on one side so as to leaTe an opening, and
some sulphur should he placed on an old saucer, fired
with a red-hot iron, and placed underneath the cask.
The fumes from the burning sulphur will disinfect the
cask. Before putting tile butt into use again, slake
some lime and give a thick coat oyer the inside ; from
time to time relime the butt.
Method of Setting out an Elliptic Arch.— In com-
mencing to set out and turn an elliptic arch, the ellipse
m'J it first be set out by drawing a line A B (see Pig. 1) eaual
to span of arch. Through centre of line raise a perpendicu-
lar C D equal to required height of arch (say i) . The foci of
the ellipse are found by taking c as centre and the
distance A D as radius, and describing an are to cut A B
atf'P. The semi-ellipse may then be drawn by taking
apiece of string equal in length to A Band fixing it by
pins, at P and f . Insert a pencU into the loop thus
formed and draw the curve as at Pig. 1, taking care to
keep the thread perfectly tight. To set out the stones
forming the arch, divide the curve of the ellipse into the
icquired number of equal part's (Pig. 2), and through
T^ ;
\ in
G._
A
\\ LAy
'--
\t
y^ -^
J
1
\/;f^--. \/
1
"f
'F
Setting out an Elliptic Arch.
each point draw lines from each of the foci, as at P.
Bisect the angle E P G. The line which bisects the angle
is a perpendicular to the curve. An arch constructed by
this method will require every brick or stone to be of
different shape in half the arch.
Straightening a Warped Oak Panel.— To straighten
a thin oak panel that has much twisted since the polish
was applied, place it face downwards, under pressure,
with several thicknesses of paper intervening to protect
the polish. If cramps are not available, on the work-
bench screw pieces of- wood which will well overlap the
corners. Slack out the screws. Give the back ol the
panel several coats of spirit varnish or polish. Apply
liberaUy with a brush, taking care that the polish does
not run over the edges and spread underneath. Whilst
still wet, apply pressure by tightening the screws, which
should be fairly strong.' Kepeat the operation if neces-
sary, and secure the panel in its place, when straight, by
nailing strips of wood around its outer edges.
Producing Blue Pbotograplia.— Blue prints may be
made by brushing over any fairly pure paper with equal
quantities of (a) citrate of iron and ammonia I part,
water 4 parts ; and (b) potassium ferricyanide 1 part,
water 4 parts ; these are printed in usual way. Or the
first solution may be used alone, and the second solution
applied as a developer after exposure. A blue-green
Image on a brownish ground is produced, but the brown
washes away in clean water, leaving the image fixed. It
IB advisable, however, to give the prints a citric acid
hath, 1 in 40. Paper for this ferro-prussiate process, as
it is called, may be obtained ready for use of any photo-
graphic dealer in packets each containing twenty-five
halt-plate pieces. Blue pictures may be made by the
carbon process, which is the most satisfactory and
permanent process to employ; the tissue (or sensitive
paper) may be obtained in any desired colour. The
paper, which appears to be almost black, is exposed
as usual, but does not print a visible image. It
may be timed by an actinometer or by another
negative of the same density printing on P.O.P.
It is next squeegeed into close contact with a paper
coated with insoluble gelatine and placed in hot
water. The parts unaffected by light dissolve away after
the top paper has been stripped off, leaving the image
in pigmented gelatine on a white or other ground. The
print then merely requires immersion in alum, and
slight washing to remove the bichromate.
Defective Striking Gear of Grandfather Clock.—
The incessant striking of a grandfather clock untU. the
motive power is exhausted may be due to one of these
causes. The rack hook B (see sketch) may stick; or
the rack taU being bent may come in front of the
Striking Work of Grandfather Clock.
hour snail, and thus allow the rack to fall too far for
the gathering pallet to touch it ; or the pin in tlie end of
the rack to catch the gathering pallet may be missing.
Powdering Soap.— The only means of powdering a
pure soap is to dry it as much as possible and then to
put it through a machine that will act like a rasp. For
small quantities, a sugar grater would serve the purpose.
Dry soaps are combined with soda ash, which renders
them much easier to powder.
Effect of Form of OriBce on Velocity of Efflux from a
Pipe. — it is required to know the effect of the form of the
orifice from wliich a liquid is; fiowing on the velocity of
the efSux. With an orifice of the same diameter as the pipe,
the liquid escapes at the same speed as that at which it
travels in the pipe. If the orifice Is contracted, the same
quantity has to pass through the smaller aperture, and
to do this the speed must Increase so that it issues with
greater force, and, it pointed vertically, would be driven
to a greater height. On the other hand, if the orifice is
increased as a trumpet, the speed of the issuing water
is lowered at the point where it enters the open air, and
the water will not rise to such a great height, but will be
broken into spray by the resistance of the air acting on
a larger surface. A trumpet-mouth orifice is used only
when i^ is desired that the issuing liquid shall spread,,
and a jet orifice is used when the water is to be forced a
considerable distance, as illustrated by some kinds of
fountains and also by the hose jets used for extinguishing
fires in buildings, etc.
202
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
Mailing Ammonia Soap, — A recipe for making
ammonia soap is the following. Take 100 parts o(
oil and fat, 10 parts of caustic potash, 8 parts of
caustic soda, and 5 parts of strong ammonia. The
amount of water and the strength of the lyes will
depend on the process employed; it will not be
satisfactory to maie the soap by the cold process and
boil it afterwards unless maKing simply a soap jelly.
For the cold process the lye is at 66° Twaddell, and
about 401b. ot water would be required, but for boiling
add more water ; the ammonia must be added after the
soap has cooled somewhat.
Effect of Bends in Pipes.— Liquids flow in straight
lines through straight pipes, those in the centre traTelling
at a higher speed than those in contact with and rubbing
against the insldes of the pipes. On turning a bend, the
straight lines deviate in proportion to the angle ot the
bend, and those on the outside ot the current cannot keep
their relatlTe positions unless they travel at a higher
speed. The lines thus become changed, and the friction
between themselves, and also their tendency to main-
tain a straight course Inside the pipe, causes a retarda-
tion in the velocity, so that a lesser quantity passes
thiBUgh.
Badly Fixed Cast-iron Gutter.— Cast-iron gutters
sometimes droop forward so much that water splashes
over. The cause has to be ascertained and remedied.
If the gutter is ot half-round pattern, it is probably
fixed with brackets, screwed on underneath the soffit,
and the front ot the gutter has fallen because the
brackets were originally too weak to support it, or they
have Bubsequently become too weak, owing to rust. The
brackets will then be found to have given way at A (Pig. 1) .
The remedy is to remove the brackets, and either to bend
them upwards until they assume the shape shown in
a similar tool must be used to turn round the tap out-
side. The new washer can be made ot sheet rubber, or
some yarn twisted into a ring, or a ring ot cardboard
soaked in water to make it soft. With the two latter red-
and white-lead (mixed to the consistency of very soft
putty) must be used. A leak at the bottom nut of a
boiler tap most probably indicates tha.t the plug is worn
and wants " re-griitding." Unscrew tho nut and take
out the plug. Then replace the plug, with a little flour
emery and oil smeared on it, and twist it round and
round evenly to grind the surfaces true to one another.
To make a successful job, however, the grinding should
be done in a lathe.
PreserTing Butter.— To ^)reserve fresh butter, well
press It and incorporate with it some salt; work out
most of the water by kneading, then press Into clean
jars, fasten parchment paper over them, and keep in a
cold cellar. Butter thus prepared will keep for several
months. Fresh butter, if properly prepared and free
from excess of water, will usually keep for a long time.
Preservatives are sometimes added, but they are more
or less harmful ; borax Is perhaps the least objectionable,
and is added in quantities of 2 grains to 5 grains per lb.
Warming Bird-room.- A number of canaries are kept
in an upper room, and it is assumed that a method ot
heating it during the winter months is required. The
accompanying illustration shows q, method of heating it
by a coil dropped in a fireplace. There is every probability
that one 2-ln. pipe round will suffice ; or, if the room be
small, a li-in. pipe may do, supposing that a temperature
of 55" will be sufficient when the temperature outside is
below freezing point. The coil in the fireplace (some-
where below) can be of 1-ln. pipe, and this size of pipe
will do from the coil to the room. Most probably a pair
of pipes in the fire will do as shown, but this depends on
P Fia3
FiQ. 2
\^
FlQ. *
Fixing Cast-iron Gutters.
Warming Bird-room.
Fig. 2 or to have new ones made according to this im-
proved shape. If the gutter Is ot ogee shape, and is fixed
by screwing on to a fascia board, the falling front may be
due to the back ot the gutter having been cast too much
on the bevel with the top, as shown in Fig. i. The
remedy is to fix a strip of wood along the fascia, for the
bottom edge of the gutter to rest against, as shown at B
(Fig. 3). If neither the brackets nor the shape oi the
gutter is at fault, it is possible that dry or wet rot in the
soffit or the fascia has lessened the holding power
of the screws. In such case the remedy is to fix new
boards.
Old Method of Casting Lead Water-pipes.—
At one time all small lead pipes up to 2 in. diameter
were cast in an appliance known as a " staffing and
burning machine." This consisted of an iron core,
or mandril, of the same size as the bore ot the
intended pipe, with one end attached to a flange or
base, and an outside iron mould, constructed in two
halves, and held together by clamps placed round the
core, with an annular space between equal to the thick-
ness ot the pipe. The mould and core being stood on
end, molten lead was poured into it; the mould
was then removed, the piece of pipe drawn upwards
nearly oft the core, the mould then replaced, and more
molten lead poured in, the pouring being continued
until the bottom end ot the pi-eviously made pine was
fused, and thus joined to the last one. An appliance of
the kind has been in use since 1639, probably before.
Kitchen Boiler Tap and Joint Leaking. — To
remedy a leak at a boiler joint, take out the tap and
put a new grummet or washer between the back nut
and the boiler. To move the nut. It must be held by a
large screw-hammer or spanner inside the boiler, while
the size of room and the pipe in it. The fire pipes
(scarcely a coil) should be in a sitting-room grate, not in
the kitchen range ; then the coil gets attention regularly
according to the weather, and there need be no stop-
cocks or controlling device. If the fire has small fuel put
on It at night, it will keep alight better than the kitchen
fire will. A small cistern wilfbe required for feeding the
apparatus, as shown. This can be replenished by hand.
There must also be a steam pipe on the highest point of
the piping in the room. All circulating pipes ascend
from the coil to this steam pipe at least liu. in ID ft. ; the
pipes must not run quite horizontally.
Polishing Limestone Fossils.- It the fossils are in
section or have a flat surface, rub them down with fine
sand and water on a smooth stone until the face is level.
Wash away the sand and rub them on a wet stone until
the scratches are all removed and the fossils appear
quite smooth, but dull. Now rub them on a smooth
piece ot wood or glass, using dry crocus or rouge, and,
when a dull polish is gained, finish on a piece ot felt
with dry putty powder. If the fossils are not flat the
rubbing must be done with cloths, using the materials
as above described.
Staining Matchboardlng to Imitate Pine.— To stain
matchboarding to imitate pine, procure some raw and
bui-nt sienna,, ground in water ; the former gives the
yellow tone ot pine. Mix as much of this as is requu-ed
in equal parts of stale beer and water. Apply wltha brush,
rub well in, and finish off in the direction ot the grain
with rag. When dry, it may be brushed over with
patent size to prevent the varnish sinking. After both
stain and size are dry, fill up nail holes, etc., with pujty
coloured to match. To finish, use ordinary spirit varnisn
or oil varnish.
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
203
How to Make a Balf-plate Printing Frame.— To
make a half-jlate printing Irame, first mitre four
pieces of i-ln. stuff (any well-seasoned wood will do),
two pieces 8fin. by IJin., and two pieces 6iin. by
liin., and join with a strip of veneer at the four
cornera Glue across two blocks A and B 8Un. by 1 in. by
lin. Two blocks lln. sguai'e should be sawn across
diagonally and glued flush into the four corners to form
stops tor the negative. The frame will now have a sight
of 6iln- by 41 in. and a rebate of 6f in. by 4Jin. Out of
J-in. stuff cut a piece 64 in. by 4} in. Plane it up flat and
balve it the short way of the stuff. On one side of each
Fig. t ~ Fig. 2' °
How to Make a Half-plate Printing Frame.
colours very thin, and apply them with a watering
pot. So long as the masses of light and shade and the
perspective are correct, and objects are not too distinct,
the painting need not be very carefully done. Paper
backgrounds may be purchased very cheaply, so that
unless some special design is required it is cheaper to
buy the ready-made article.
Measuring Liquid from Tank.— There are several
ways of measuring liquids from a tank. If the amount
of liquid is large, a wood, brass, or iron rule may be
placed either at the centre or at the side of the tank.
Measuring Lioiuid from Tank.
dab a piece of velveteen should be glued and the slabs
hinged together. The fold-over spring la the better
form, the print not being so liable to slip. "When
mitring is not possible, two pieces Gin. long may be
glued to A and S, thus leaving a space for gluing over
C and D (see Fig. 2). This may be further strengthened
by screws, but the frame will not bear so much rough
usage. It is essential that the frame should be free from
twist, or the negative will be broken.
Automatic Sewage i'ilter.— Automatic arrange-
ments for opening and shutting the valves of a sewage
filter are only to be trusted where a small quantity
of sewage is to be> dealt with. Fig. 1 illustrates s,
mode of flUing and emptying two filters automatically
by means of tippers connected by bell-cranks to the
trough which brings down the liquid to be filtered.
Filter A, on the right, is supposed to be filled up to
the level of the overflow, when the liquid, escaping
into the tipper, pulls down the bell-crank, and pushes
over the sewage trough to such a position that the
flow of sewage is diverted into filter B. At the same
If the quantity is small, then a sheet brass, copper, or
glass cylinder may be fixed to the tank by means of a
small pipe as shown. A stopcock should^be attached to
the pipe from the tank, so as to regulate the flow of
liquid into the measuring cylinder, and also a stopcock
at the lower end of the measuring cylinder so that the
liquid may be run off.
Removing Ink Stains.— To remove from parchment
or paper stains made with ordinary writing ink, apply
spirit of salts (hydrochloric acid) diluted with five or
six times its bulk of water. Solutions of either oxalic,
citric, or tartaric acids are said to produce the same
results ; but in any case the acid must be washed off with
clean water a minute or two after application. Ex-
periment on odd pieces of parchment or paper before
touching any valuable work, as some little skill is
required. To remove ink stains from imitation ivory,
wipe over several times with 1 oz- of oxalic acid dissolved
in i pt. of hot water. Should this be of no avail, rub
the surface with fine glasspaper till all marlis are re-
moved ; then repolish with putty powder and oil, applied
FIG. 3
FIG. I
Automatic Sewage Filter.
time the outlet valve of filter A is opened by means of
the wire attached to the top of the bell-crank. The
supply trough Is pivoted at one end, and is carried at
the other end on a roller, so as to move easily; the
arrangement is shown in Fig. 2. Instead of having a
movable trough, the arrangement shown in Fig. 3 may
be used, where a movable division can be turned over so
SB to divert the liquid into either channel as required.
Fig. 4 is a well-known form of tipper for discharging
alternately to the right or left, but with this both filters
would be worked at the same time, instead of alternately,
as in the first arrangement.
Painting Pbotographic Backgrounds.— Mix with
water to the consistency of ordinary paint, lampblack,
whiting, and a little ultramarine with size to bind the
ingredients. Endeavour to produce a good neutral
tint. To obtain a shaded effect, use a large brush and
work as quickly as possible, lightening the tint as the
work proceeds. If the shading is done while the work
Is wet the shadows blend well together, and all hard
Unes are prevented. Some workers hatch over the
background and afterwards put in clouds with a blunt
charcoal point. It has also been prcl^osed to mix the
with felt or cloth ; finish with dry powder and chamois
leather. A solution of i oz. of citric acid in 4 oz. of
water will remove all traces of writing ink from paper.
This does not touch printers' ink, which indeed cannot
be removed by the mere application of a bleaching
agent. To remove ink or ironmould stains from linen,
moisten the latter by holding it in steam, then apply
weak hydrochloric acid on a piece of stick. When the
stain is dissolved out, wash the article well to rerhove all
acid. To remove old ink stains from wood, rub the
stains with muriatic acid, allowing the acid to remain
for a few minutes; then sponge off with clean water.
Spirit of salts may be used to remove old ink stains
from wood ; great care is required, especially if the
stains are on a veneer. Another method is to apply
spirit of nitre with a feather, and when the ink has dis-
appeared to wash off with cold water. Another ; use salt
of lemons (blnoxalate of potassa) moistened with water.
Another ; put some powdered crystals of oxalic acid on
the ink stains, moisten with hot water, and rub them in.
The oxalic acid wUl dissolve most of the otherwise
insoluble ingredients of the ink, and the stain can be
washed out with water. If this is not effective, try a
solution of freshly made chloride of lime.
204
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
Upholstering a Chair Seat. — The foUowios are
Instructions on upholstering the seat of a crown-baok
parlour chair. These chairs are usually made with a
loose seat frame, fastened together with dowels and
upholstered on the top; the edges are not stitched,
the flocks being strung on the edges with twine, tms
heine tacked fast about every 4 in. to the top oi the
seat frame and then filled up with flocks. To make
these chairs into spring seats, put a stuffing rail, 2 m.
high, on the front and sides, web the bottom with four
lines of chau- webbing, stitch three chair springs to the
web in the form of a triangle, the odd spring at the back.
Cover the top over the springs with heesian and stitch
the springs fast in an upright position. Pick on a layer
of flocks and put on another cover of hessian ; commence
tacking in the centre of the chair front and work round
to the back. Stay-tack the back, blind-stitch the front
and Bides, then stitch up the edge to a fine point with
three rows of stitches. Pull out the stay-tacks, fill up
hollow places with stuffing, pull the cover down as taght
as possible, and secure i clean off the edges with a sharp
knife ; the stitching up makes no difference to the sweeps
and curves, these being allowed for in tacking on the
covers, letting out or taking up as may be necessary.
Distilling WhisUy.— The process of distilling whisky
Is very briefly as follows. A mash, made from malt and
barley or other material, is fermented with yeast, and
after skimming is run into stills to separate it from the
water and other products. Several forms of stills are used
for distilling whisky ; many of them are heated by open
in England, Is a basic carbonate of copper. These arB
all English ores, but Great Britain also imports copper
sand, a mixture of metallic copper and quartz j and
indigo copper, so named from its dark blue colour, from
Chill ; and blue malachite from Australia. The following
table shows the proportion of copper in the ores above
named -.-
Ore.
Eed copper ore
Copper glance
Indigo copper
Copper pyrites
Peacock ore
Compaeitim.
copper, oxygen
copper, sulphur
copper, sulphur
copper, iron, sulphur ...
copper, iron, sulphur ...
copper, iron, sulphur, an- )
parts of
pure ore.
89
SCI
97
32 to 35
56
25 to 40
Grey copper ore | tiinony, arsenic
Green malachite {<^°S^^-°l!ir- ""'"'""'I
Blue malachite {""aTdt'wSr-''^'''"'"'"} - '^
Retaining Wall for Sunk Roadway. — Probably
the best form of retaining wall in brick for a sunk
roadway 40 ft. wide and about 40 ft. below the level
of the land at each side would be a series of re-
lieving arches on piers in four tiers as shown in
Figs. 1 and 2. The front is filled In by a screen. wall,
giTlng the whole the appearance of a solid wall,
although really the length of the archways is such as to
prevent the mass of earth resting against it. To com-
pute the length of arch required, Bankine's formula
•■■■;
Apparatus for DistUling Whisky.
fires, imparting a smoky flavour to the spirit (like Scotch
whiskyj ; these are known as " pot " stills, and the whisky
is called "pot" still whisky. Other forms of stills are
heated by steam, the object being to distil off the spirit as
strong as possible and to keep the water in the still. The
sketch above shows a simple form of "pot" still. A Is
the still proper ; B is the flreplaoe for heating ; is the
connecting pipe to the worm D ; E is a large vessel or
condenser filled with cold water, into which cold water
runs continually and is syphoned away again ; and V is
the receiver for the distilled spirit. The spirit obtained
from the first still is usually weak, and is re-dlstilled twice ,
more water being removed each time j the product of
the third distillation is whisky, which is stored in vats
lor a long period to mature it and improve its flavour.
Particulars of Copper Ores.— Native copper— that
Is, pure copper— is found in veins dlssesmmated in
granite in Cornwall and North "Wales; but the most
abundant English ore of copper is copper pyrites or
yellow copper ore, which is a double sulphide con-
taining copper, iron, and sulphur, and is generally
associated with arsenical iron pyrites, tinstone,
quartz, fluorspar, and clay. A purer variety of
pyrites is peacock ore, or variegated copper ore, which is
found at St. Austell and Killaruey. Another abundant
ore is grey copper ore, which is a compound of the
sulphides of copper and iron with those of antimony and
arsenic ; but it often contains lead, zinc, and sufficient
silver to render the extraction of the latter a matter of
great importance. Copper glance is another important
Cornish ore ; it is a chemical compound of copper
and sulphur, and is generally free from other
metals. Bed copper ore consists of copper and oxygen,
and differs from the preceding ores in being free from
sulphur ; green malachite, which is not much found
• "sf la I Pia: 2
Retaining Wall for Sunk Roadway.
gives a sufficiently approximate result ; I = cotan. B
(h+ ■ ^ "l ! where I = the length, h the clear
\ (1 -t- sin. E)V
height of each tier, x the depth of the crown of an arch
below the surface, and B the angle of repose of earth,
which may be takeil at 45°. Calculating first the lowest
tier, cotan. E= cotan. 45° = 1; ?i = 10 ft. j a: = 30 ft.; and
sin. B = sin. 43" = -7071. .-. 1 = 1 (lO + p^,) = 20-2 ft.
In the second tier, a) will equal 20 ft. and l = 16'8ft. In
the third tier, ib = 10 ft. and I = 13-4 ft. In the top tier,
X is zero and 1 = 10 ft. Pig. 1 gives a vertical section or
the wall, and Pig. 2 an elevation, with the arches
indicated. Betaining walls of such a height as this are
exceedingly costly to erect, and unless the land at eacn
Bide is of great value, the cheapest method of dealing
with this case wUl-be -to buy a strip of land at each aide
of the road and cut away the earth until there is a slope
of 1 in li.
Colouring Bottom of Swimming Bath.— It is required
to colour the concrete bottom of a sea-water swimming
bath so that the bottom can be plainly seen by the
swimmer. A Portland cement known as " white cement
might be light enough in colour for the finishing coal
wiftiout any further mixture. Or limestone chippmgs,
pulverised very finely, may be mixed in the finishing
coat, and a skin can be made in this way which is
almost milk white. White enameUed bricks would make
a much better job, but expense may prevent their use.
In any case, occasional strips of colour, running ajlong
the length of the bath, should he formed in the bottom
by colourlug the cement with Venetian red or rea
ochre. This colouring is useful as a guide to sffimmerB
when swimming under water.
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
205
Paste for Attaching Cloth to Carriage Frames.—
This is a recipe for a paste for fastening cloth on the
frames of Carriages. It is known as coach trimmers'
paste. Mix rye fionr with cold water to a creamy thick-
ness, and add a good proportion of powdered resin ; then
boil very slowly, continually stirring until the mixture is '
fairly thick. When cold the paste should be firm enough
to cut with a knife, so that it can be spread on the cloth.
Making and Hanging a Baby's Swing. — The
sketch of a baby's swing here -giTen is almost
seK-explanatory. The seat of the swing la made from
beech, say 1 in. thick and 15 in. by 15 in., with a
hole J in. through each corner. Pour ropes are
passed through these holes, and stopped by knots
underneath. The other ends are spliced or tied, two to
each upper rope. Eight wooden spindles, bored from end
to end with l-in. holes to allow the lower ropes
to slide through, are passed on as shown. Eight cross-
bars, bored near.the ends with f-in. holes, and strung on
—four between the two sets of spindles and four above
them— will complete the swing. The cross-bars and
spindles must be of beech, oak, or other hard wood, or
they will be apt to split and lead to accident. The cross-
or hammer-blocked work is done with the scabbling or
spalllng hammer. Thus sciuared stones for the quoins
or face of a wall, merely left rough from the hammer,
would be termed hammer-faced ashlars ; the term ashlar
in such a case being taken to mean square blocks 12 in.
deep on face and upwards, squared stones under I'iiri.
deep being called shoddies. Scabbled or roughly picked
with a pick, such as in Pig. 2, sometimes called a scab-
bling pick, and weighing about 20 lb., which takes down
the excessive iiTegularltles on hammer-faced work.
Punched or puncheoned, or worked to a finer face with a -
blunt pick (Pig. 3) called a punch or puncheon. Picked,
or brought to a finer face with the pick shown in Pig. 2.
Close or finely picked, dabbed or daubbed, done with a fine-
pointed pick, or •(vlth a serrated pick, as in Pig. 4, leaving
a surface as smooth as the process will admit of. It is
usual to run a draught, or smooth surface, 1 In. or
more in breadth, round the margins of squared stones,
even when dressed only with the hammer or pick, in
order to ensure close-fitting joints. The stones are then
said to be hammer-faced or, as the case may be, with
draughted margins. These margins are wrought with
the axe as in single and fine axing. In single axed work
the inequalities left by the pick are reduced by an axe
weighing about 91b. (Pig. 5). Axed work shows the mark
of the tool in parallel lines, and is used in quoins, rebates,
cornices, etc. Pine axed is a more careful description of
Making and Hanging a Baby's Swing.
Tools for Dressing Granite.
bars can be 2in. by } in. by 15 in., and the spindles lin.
diameter and Sin. long. If the seat-guard is not con-
sidered deep enough, add four more spindles and four
more cross-bars. Knots can be made above the seat-
guard to keep the cross-pieces and spindles in place,
if desired; but that is not usual, as the child's
weight prevents slipping. The four lower ropes should
join the two upper.ones about 121n. above the top of the
seat-guard. Two places are found in the celling so that
when hooks are screwed in they will enter the wood of
the joists, and not merely hold by the plaster or the
lathing. By driving a knitting needle into the celling,
the position of the joists can be found without much
damage. The ropes must be hung by ipetal eyelets held
In spliced loops.
Facework on Granite.—" Granite is dressed," states
" Builders' Work and the Building Trades," " by means of
Ueavy picks and axes, after having been roughly shaped
With the scabbling hammer. Mouldings, rebates, etc., are
«nt by means of iron chisels, steeled at the cutting edges,
and used with a small hand hammer, called a mash
hammer (Pig. 1). Granite, grit, and other hard stones,
built into walla with their faces merely scabbled, are
said to be quarry-pitched, hammer-faced, or hammer-
blocked. Such work is called rock or rustic work, and is
mostly confined to foundations, plinths, and quoins,
where a bold massive appearance is aimed at. The fol-
lowing are the different kinds of work put on granite
In Aberdeen ; other hard stones are dressed in a some-
what similar manner. Hammer-faced, hammer-dressed.
single-axed work. Patent axed is the finest description
of surface-work before polishing, and is produced with a
hammer or axe the faces of which are formed of a
number of parallel thin steel blades bound together, so
as to allow of their being taken out and re-sharpened
(Fig. 6). Polished work is performed by rubbing, first
with fine sand and water under an iron rubber, then
with emery, and lastly with putty and fiannel. All
plain sm-faces and running mouldings can be done by
machinery, but carvings and broken surfaces have to be
done by hand. iHard stones, such as granite, show
oif to best advantage when polished : but if such a high
finish is considered too costly, it is better not to waste
money on too fine a face, which only destroys the
beauty of the grain, and produces a flat, monotonous
surface." In the accompanying illustrations Pig. 1 is a
mash hammer; Pig. 2, scabbling pick; Pig. 3, punch;
Pig. 4, serrated pick ; Pig. 5, axe for single-axed work ;
Pig. 6, axe for patent-axed work.
Making Birdlime.- Proper birdlime is made from the
inner bark of the holly, which is taken in the summer.
This is boiled with water for several hours until quite
soft ; the water is then drained off and the pulp placed
in a covered pit and left for several weeks to ferment.
It is then pounded in a mortar and kneaded with the
hands and kept under water till required. Spurious
birdlime may be made by boiling linseed oil until it
becomes sticky; this will take many hours. Another
preparation la composed of boiled linseed oil 3 oz., gum
thus or Venice turpentine 1 oz., and castor oil 1 oz.
206
Cyclopaeciia of Mechanics.
stickiness of Ollsklns.—The stickiness ot an oijskln
ooat which has been dressed with a mixture of boiled
oil, terebine, and oil varnish may be due to the use o(
interior materials, though it must be remembered that
mixtures do not always dry quickly. Boiled oil, oil
varnish, and terebine are rapid driers, and when ex-
oessivo amounts o£ driers are present the mixture
hardens rapidly on the surface and but slowly through-
out, the iilm remaining tacky for a long time. The
mixture should dry right through equally) and there-
tore not too rapidly. Boiled oil alone is a good
iireparation, but a little gold size may be added if de-
sired to make it dry more rapidly. The oil should be
applied In a thin coat, the oilskin hung up in a warm
place till quite dry, and a second coat applied and also
allowed to dry. As it is doubtful whether it is possible
to get rid of the stickiness, it is perhaps better to steep
the oilskin in benzoline for a time, dry it in the open
air, and treat it as above.
Making a Brush Rack.— In making the brush rack
shown in Fig. 1, a piece of oak, walnut, or mahogany
about i in. thick and a little lai-ger than the dimensions
shown may be used. In setting out, commence with the
middle line ; then draw in the outline j and, lastly, fill in
details. The small, curves can be worked by the brace
and bit. If preferred, the semicircle on top can be
worked separately and glued on. The opening in the
centre is for a mirror measuring 6J in. by 4i in. The
the stain disappears pour the solution away, and rinse
the engraving in clean water. Then dry, and ensure
smoothness by stretching the paper. To remove grease
stains, lay the engi-aving between several folds of clean
blotting-paper, and pass a hot Iron over it. Continually
change the paper and repeat the ironing. Several appli-
cations of benzine are also effective in removing grease
Damp and age stains may be removed in the following
manner. Lay the engraving In a flat dish— a sheet of
glass with wooden sloes dressed with paraffin wax will
answer very well— and pour over it a mixture of equal
parts of benzoin and concentrated solution of chloride
of lime and water. Let the engraving remain till the
stains disappear ; pour off the bleach, and well wash
with cold water as the engraving lies m the dish. On
no account attempt to take it out. After a dozen or so
changes of water, let it soak for an hour In fresh water ;
tip up the dish, and let the engraving dry on the glass!
Very slight friction with a camel-hair brush may be
applied to a particularly obstinate mark, but do not
finger the paper whUe it is wet.
Making a Wooden Washing Tray.— The pitch of the
sides of a wooden washing tray can be obtained as in
Fig. 1, a centre line being squared across the sides and
ends, and half the required length or widtli set off from
Design for a Brush Back.
gilt slip overlaps the hole about i in., and the moulding
overlaps the outside edge of the gilt slip about i in. (see
Fig. 2) . If this cannot be managed neatly, substitute a
piece ot plain moulding without a rebate. Large brass
hooks should be screwed in the positions shown by
the crosses. The hooks underneath the glass may hold
a small hat brush.
Removing Stains from Engravings. — Mere age
stains can be removed from engravings hy placing
the latter in a shallow tray (a tea-tray, for instance)
containing water, and exposing them to the rays of the
sun till bleached, when they should be allowed to dry
naturally. When dry they can be ironed with a hot iron
over several folds of linen to take out all creases, etc.
To remove yellow grease stains, lay a sheet of muslin
in a tea-tray, and on the sheet lay the,engraving. Take
the whole into the open air and with a soft wash-leather
pad well sponge the yellow stain with petroleum spirit
or spirit ot wme. Do not in any case attempt to do
this indoors or near artiflcial light, as the spirit is
highly inllammable. "When the stain has been removed,
lilt the muslin and engraving together from the dish to
a table, and Cover the face with blotting-paper, placing
over this a sheet of brown paper, and then a sheet of calico.
This done, turn the whole over, remove tlie muslin back,
replace with blotting paper, brown paper, and calico, and
submit the whole to gentle pressure until dry. Stains
caused by damp, etc., are removed by the following
method. Cover the engraving in a glazed earthen-
vare tray with clean rain-water till the paper is saturated i
then pour oit the water, and substitute a solution of
chloride of lime strained through muslin. The moment
nG.3
Making a Wooden Washing Tray.
it at both top and bottom. Then connect these marks
as shown. The ends should be trenched into the sides
for the full thickness, as shown in Figs. 2 and 3.
The grip should be at the extreme top of the ends and
should run quite across, so that two hands can take
hold if necessary. Iron nails and screws may be used ;
the heads simply require a little putty over them. Pit
the joints, make them tight, nail well, plane off the
edges all round so that the bottom fits well, and pnt
them all together without paper, paln-fc, or white lead.
Converting Dry Plate Negative into Positive.—
A negative may be converted into a positive Jay
bleaching in the ordinary mercuric chloride intensify-
ing solution, consisting of bichloride of mercury (or
corrosive sublimate, a dangerous poison) 100 gr., ohlorloe
of ammonium 20 gr., water 2oz., but the results are
not satisfactory. An old process, known as the ababas-
trine process, has also been used, but as it depends on
the action of chloride of mercury it cannot be considerea
successful. The formula, however, is as follows. Dis-
solve 40 gr. bichloride of mercury in 2 oz. water, and add
20,gr. sodium chloride (common salt) a.nd Idr. hydro-
chloric acid. Either of the above formulse may be used,
the negative being soaked until thdroughly bleaoheo,
then well washed and, when dry, coated with any
opaque black varnish. Unless the film is thoroughly
freed from hypo before bleaching, the negative willbe
stained, or it may not bleach at all, remaining a dirty
brown colour. The' staining or the refusal to bleaon
occurs because the chloride ot silver that is formed In
the film is immediately attacked by the unremovea
hypo, which is very weak.
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
20T
Making and Bending Flash Glass.— Sheet glass
jap to the thickness ot window glass is made by
blowing a mass of pasty glass into a large hollow
cylinder; the ends of the cylinder are then cut off,
a dividing line is marked across its surface, and
the' cylinder is placed in a reheating furnace, where
it opens and falls into a flat sheet. The bending of a
sheet of flat glass in-rolTes a partial reyersal of the above
process. A mufHe furnace must be provided, and a suffi-
cient number oi smooth hlocks of iron, one surface
being flat and the other surface curved to the required
shape of the glass. The glass that is to be bent must
be placed on the rounded surfaces of the iron blocks
whilst the furnace is cold. The fire is then lighted, and
the temperature gradually raised. When the muffle is
at a red heat the glass will bend and assume the shape
of the block on which it rests ; the fire miist then be
allowed to die down, the muiBe being kept closed, so
that the glass maybe properly annealed by slow cooling.
This is an expensive method, but no other form of
heating appliance would answer so well for small sheets
as a muffle furnace. The glass must not he engraved
before bending, otherwise there will be distortion,
especially near the central line.
Bllnd-stltcUng Hair Mattress.— lu blind-stitchlng
Fig. 1 shows the first operation of puttipg in the needle,
which must not be drawn out on the top, hut backed
out about Sin. farther on the front; note that the
needle is double-pointed for this purpose (see Pig. 2).
This will leave Inside the mattress a loop of twine (see
Fig. 3), which, when drawn tight, will secure all the hair
i pt. hoUed oil till dissolved, and, when this is nearly
cold, i dr. Venice turpentine is added. Thin this, if
necessary, with oil of turpentine. (8) A good renovating
medium is camphorated oil, rubbed on very lightly and
qnickly with a soft flannel rubber. (9) Mix together
equal parts of vinegar, sweet oil, and spirit of turpen-
tine. Apply this with a piece of soft flannel, and rub
down with a soft silk handkerchief. (10) Wash well with
soap, soda, and water; dry well, then revive with
raw linseed oil, vinegar, and paraffin oil in equal parts.
(11) Mix together cold *pt. of linseed oil, 2oz. of distilled
vinegar, i oz. of muriatic acid, 1 oz. of spirit of wine, IJ oz.
ot oil of almonds, i oz. of muriate of antimony, and i oz.
of spirit of hartshorn. Shake the mixture and pour a
little upon a clean rag, rub the furniture well, and finish
off with a piece ot clean, soft rag. The mixture must be
shaken each time the rag is replenished. (12) Thoroughly
mix together 1 pt. linseed oil, int. methylated spirit, Ipt.
white wine vinegar, and 2 oz. butter of antimony. Mix
well together, snake each time used, put a little on
wadding or flannel, and rub briskly. Wipe oft with
clean, soft rag.
Choosing and Fixing Spirit-level Tubes.— Spirit-
level tubes are drawn out In a blowpipe flame; the
tuhe, with care, does not cease to he a tube, though,
when twisted hot, or broken cold and placed tor a
moment In the flame. It is quickly sealed up. These
tubes are not quite straight, but the error is not great.
A tube like Fig. 1 would be quite useless, as the bubble
would divide into two portions, as shown, and no indica-
tion would be possible j but it the tube is turned over as
rig. a.
Tig. 3.
Fig. 3
Making Hair Mattress.
Choosing and Fixing Spirit-level Tubes.
contained in the loop or stitch up to the edge of the
mattress, thus forming the hard, square edge seen in
this class of work.
Recipes for Furniture Folisb Revivers. — Below
are given twelve recipes tor furniture polish revivers.
(1) Besides thoroughly cleansing the furniture this
reviver leaves a good polish, which is not easily soiled
by flnger-marks. Mix together spirit of wine 1 pt. ,
vinegar int., boiled linseed oil ipt., turps ipt. Mix the
spirit and vinegar first, shaking well till of a creamy
colour ; then add the other Ingredients, and mix all well
together, keeping it tightly corked. Apply with a clean
cloth which must be dry, rubbing well In, and polish,oit
with a dry flannel. (2) Thoroughly mix i pt. lime water,
ipt. linseed oil, and then add 4 pt. sweet oil, well mixed,
atterwards thinning with nearly ipt. ot turpentine.
Apply with wadding or soft rag, wipe off, and finish with
soft clean rag moistened (but not wet) with methylated
spirit. It the work is very dirty or sticky with wax, it
should first be well washed with weak soda and water.
(3) To i pt. cold-drawn linseed oil add i pt. spirit of
wine (meth.), 1 pt. good vinegar, and two pennyworth of
outter of antimony. Well shake this, and well rub in a
little with a soft cloth, repeating the rubbing at
intervals for one or two days, when a good polish will
be 'Obtained. (4) Warm 3pt. of turpentine, 12 oz. ot
Castile soap, 12 oz. of white wax, 4oz. of butter of
antimony, and 1 gUl ot vinegar over a slow fire. (5) Mis:
together i pt. of vinegar, 1 noggin of methylated spirit,
and a tablespoonful of raw linseed oil. Use on a piece of
soft rag. (6) Before using this, wash the furniture with
a solution ot ahout two tablespoontuls ot extract of soap
in a pail ot warm water. To polish, apply the following
mixture with a soft pad. Take J pt. each of linseed oil
and vinegar, boll them together, and, when cool, add
i pt. of methylated spirit. This method may be applied
to polished or painted furniture. (7) A varnished or
Frenohjolished surface may be cleaned with soap and a,
moist flannel, a moist flannel alone, or a rag wrung
almost dry after dipping in paraffin oil. The polish may
be revived by rubbing with the following polish. A piece
of gum sandarach as big as a walnut is simmered with
in Pig. 2, the bubble promptly comes to the centre. The
Illustrations are purposely exaggei'ated. A tube that is
quite straight for a portion of Its length, and curves off
towards oue end, is very unsatisfactory; It the tubes
could be uniformly larger towards the centre, as in Fig. 3,
no care would be necessary in mounting. It is desirable
that a tube, when set in place, should give similar Indlca- ,
tlons when reversed, as in Fig. 3, although the surface is
not level; this cannot happen unless the curvature of
the tube is uniform, and the tube is uniformly set in its
socket. Levels, as usually sold, are set on a tinfoil fllin,
which makes the bubble more easily seen ; in home-made
levels a substitute may be employed. Mix dry plaster-of-
Paris with a little powdered blue, or mix the plaster with
water and blue ink ; quickly set the convex side upwards,
so that the bubble reverses equally at a slight inclina-
tion. An adjustable Inclination is easily obtained by
resting the tube on two screws Inserted in the bench for
a portion ot their length. By this means, on reversing,
the bubble ought to occupy similar positions as regards
distance from the centre ; then, after adjusting the screws
until the bubble rests In the same place when reversed,
the centre can be marked. Of course, long before this
has been accomplished the plaster will have set; but
this does not matter, as the under side can be adjusted'
by shaving with a sharp trying plane ; treated thus, the
level Is more correct than it the tube were adjusted by
the fingers. If the tube has been deeply embedded, the
block containing it can be made parallel after the under
surface has been adjusted.
Renovating Upholstered Furniture.— The following
are instruction s on renovating leather-covered furniture.
Cut the strings that hold the buttons from under-
neath the seats ; these strings can be drawn out on the
top. The stuffing will now be loose and the bulged
edges knocked up square. Get the seat surface as even
as possible ; then re-button with covered buttons,
commencing near the edges. Tie these up as tightly
as possible, so as to make deep tufts. Now dissolve
1 oz. of bleached shellac in i pt. of spirit and give the
leather two thin, even coats, applied with a piece of
sponge.
208
Cyclopsedia of Mechanics.
steam Heating Laundry Drying Room,— Below are
brief particulars o£ the method of heating a laundry
drying room 20 ft. by 16 ft. by exhaust steam. A room
20 ft. by 16 ft. should have at least two 24-ln. pipes all
round, and three pipes would he desirable. A better
arrangement is to put two-thii'ds of this quantity of pipe
in rows across the room so as to get a well-distributed
heat. A drying room, to be effeotlTe, must have very
free ventilation. Heated air absorbs only a certain
amount of moisture. A constant change of air Is, there-
fore, absolutely necessary. A 2i-in. exhaust service will
be suitable, and, after passing through the drying room,
it should still be capable of heating water in a tanlc. It
will be desirable to fit a "separator" as near the
engine as convenient to remove the grease vapour
from the steam, otherwise it will in time collect in the
heating pipes. To run this exhaust service, take it to its
highest point immediately it leaves the engine— that is,
high enough to allow of a fall of 1 in. in 10 ft. ail the way
to its final outlet. This is to prevent the collection of
condensed water at any poiut. The heating pipes in the
drying room can be close down on the floor.
Ascertaining Strength of Timber.— The machines
used for testing the tensional, compressional, and
other strengths of timber and other materials are
very elaborate and very expensive, as the experiments
must be efBoiently carried out. In testing for tensile
strength, the piece of timber maj; be from iin. to
3 in. BCLuare, held between toothed jaws, or shouldered
and held between clips, but it is essential that
the stress should be direct, that is, in the true
axial line of the piece. The same sizes maybe used for
testing compressive strength, the ends being made
perfectly true and square, and not shouldered. Timber
PE.RCE.mACe.
15 iO Zi
OF nOISTURC
Ascertaining Strength of Timber.
is, however, more often tested for transverse strength,
and home experiments may be made which will give a
rough approximation. What is wanted is to find a value
for c in the formula W = °^ ., where TV is the brealting
Jj
load,c a co-efficient varying with the material and the
mode of loading and supporting, b the breadth in inches,
d' the depth in inches sijuared, and IJ the clear span in
feet. If the piece be simply supported at both ends and
loaded in the centre, c will be about 3i cwt. or 400 lb. for
fir or deal. Say a piece of straight yellow deal, Jin.
BCLuare and 3 ft. long, carefully prepared, and laid across
two s^ipports fixed level at a distance of 2iin. from each
other, and an empty galvanised iron bucket hung on the
centre of the beam. Then the bucket can be gently
filled with dry sand until the small timber beam craclis
and breaks. It can be arranged that the bucltet does
not fall tar, and then the bucket and sand can be care-
fully weighed. Suppose it to be 801b., then the calcula-
"75 x *7.5^
tion will be 80 = c x ^ '- j 80 = c x -2109 ; .-. c =
80 _ gj^y ggg xb. or ?|5 = say 3-1 cwt. If the timber con-
Jlu9 XLji
tains moisture from want of seasoning or otherwise, the
fibres will tend to slide on one another and yield with a
smaller load. The effect of this moisture may be shown
by plotting the results to a curve, as in the illustration
herewith, which is hypothetical only.
Underground Rain-water Tank.— Eain-water tanks
should be designed to suit their positions, and only a
general description of their positions and construction
can be given. The tank should be only a short distance
from a house or building, so as to shorten the
lengths of the drains leading to it, and should also
be near the place' where the pump necessary for raising
the water can be fixed. The selected site should not
be near any soil or sewage drains or an.y other place
where there would be risk of the water becoming
contaminated. After the excavation has been made
to the desired size and depth, the bottom should be
covered with Portland cement concrete from 9 in.
to 18 in. in depth, according to the size of the tank
and the nature of the soil in which it is being
built. The walls should be from 12in. to 181n. thick,
and made of concrete, or built with bricks in cement,
and rendered inside to make it watertight. Some
engineers puddle the outside with clay. The tank can
be arched over or covered with rolled-iron joists about
18 in. to 24 In. apart, and fiUed in between with Portland
cement concrete. An access manhole should be made in
a suitable position, and have a raised curb round it and
a flat stone or hinged oak cover. The overflow should be
made of ordinary drain pipes, and be arranged to dis-
charge into the open air in a field or other suitable
place, but not into any soil or sewage drain. A trap is
not required, but in some cases an iron grating on the
outlet end is necessary for keeping out rats or other
vermin.
Lacquering Brass.- Heat the article to be lacquered
on a hot plate or in an oven ; when it is hot enough,
which must be found by trial, apply the lacquer with a
camel-hair brush. It the right temperature has been
attained, there should be a slight hissing when the
lacquer is applied. Beheat the "aoquered article and
then allow to cool ; the lacquered surface must not,
while it is hot, be touched with the fingers.
Levelllngr Tbin Metal Plates.— A good method of
levelling thin metal plates, such as No. 20 wire gauge,
is the following. In the illustration the plate to be set
is " loose " at A B C D i to make it flat, the parts of the
sheet opposite tlie buckled edge must be stretched with
a setting hammer, used upon a large circular iron slab,
known as a setter. The dotted lines upon the diagram
Indicate the places at which the blows are to be delivered,
and a few additional blows along the centre alter the
Levelling Thin Metal Plates.
buckles are drawn out wUl stiffen the sheet. Buckling
in sheets of metal is due to impurities In the metal, to a
defect in the rollers, or to unequal annealing.
Estimating the Value of Standing Timber.—
In some localities the value of standing timber is
made out by a surveyor who has specialised in tiiis class
of work. His calculations are based on the apparent
cubical contents of the trees growing over a given area ;
and their exactness will necessarily depend on the
experience he has previously gained. But sight measure-
ment can seldom be relied upon. The only satisfactory
method of estimating, and the one most often followed,
is to measure the timber height and girth of each tree
on the plot separately. In such cases the trees are
numbered, and the survey is conducted as here in-
dicated :—
1898 Cutting. Trejfgame Hall Wooii. Woodmoor Section.
No. of
Tree.
Kind of
Tree.
Cubic Ft.
contained.
Price per Ft.
Value.
30
31
32
33
etc.
Ash
Larch
Elm
Oak
40
28
80
64
.. d.
2 6
2
2
3
£ s. d.
5
2 16
8
912
The first thing to ascertain is the price per foot each
kind will realise when delivered at the place of sale.
The price to be paid for the standing timber will then
be found after the following items have been deducted
—1, cost of survey; 2, cost of felling ; 3, cost of cartage,
or rail, to market ; i, construction of temporary roads,
or gaps through fences, and making same good ; 5, extras
to additional labour, etc., on account of difficult nature
of ground ; 6, profit. Firewood, if included, is to some
extent a recoup on the above, but it is usually sold under
separate agreement.
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
209
Gilding Liquid for Dipping Metals.-For a llauld
solution for gilding brass and bronze, dissolve ioz. of
gold chloride, m 5 qt. of distilled water ; then add
2} Id. of caustic potash, 5oz. of pearlash, and 2oz. of
cyanide of potassium, and stir until all is dissolved
Dip the articles in this solution whilst at a nearly boil-
ing temperature. The colour of the gilding will be
affected by the temperature of the solution, and it may
be necessary afterwards to work up the surface with
a brush. A solution tor gilding silver and German silver
may be made by dissolving 20 sralns of gold chloride In
1 pt. of distilled water, then adding gradually 1^ oz. of acid
carbonate of potassintn. Mix this with another solution
containing li oz. of acid carbonate of potassium in 1 qt. of
water, and boil the mixture until it turns green, when it
ia ready for use. Silver articles to be gilded in this solu-
tion must be attached to thin strips of zinc, (rilding by
this process may be made more permanent by first
thinly coating the articles with mercury in a solution of
nitrate of mercury.
Fixing Valley and Jack Rafters.— The accompany-
ing conventional sketch shows the best method of
fixing valley rafters and jack ratters on a roof. The
in order that no cutting may have to be done after
the bed is spread. Wash the sand through a fine sieve,
and gauge 2 parts of it to 1 part of Portland cement,
wet the steps if they are too dry, but do not wet the
treads, as they are almost impervious to moisture, and
the addition of water makes them too slippery. Having
spread the bed, hold a straightedge on the face of the
riser to keep the treads from slipping forward, and with
another straightedge tap the treads to their proper
level. This tapping will cause the cement to come up
between the heads and thus form a solid cross-joint,
which should not be more than •fg in. wide. Cover
with boards, which must be kept clear of the treads,
and in twelve hours' time wet the steps, and keep them
under water for four days. After this they will not
require further protection.
Setting Out Semi-elliptic Arch.— The semi-elliptic
arch, suitable for masonry construction, shown in the
accompanying illustration Is «et out in the following
manner. First draw the span A B and the rise CD, and
draw AX and DX parallel to CD and OA i-espectively.
Divide A X and AC each into three equal parts, make CZ
equal CD, and draw lines through the points, as shown,
Fixing Valley and Jack Rafters.
Setting Out Semi-elliptic Arcli,
valley rafters are notched over the wall-plate, and cut
between the ridges. The jack rafters are fixed to the
valley rafter and ridges.
How to Make an Effervescing Saline.- The simplest
kind of saline is made by mixing together 1 oz. of
tartaric acid and 1 oz. of bicarbonate of soda. If re-
quired sweetened, mix with 2 oz. of finely powdered
sugar. All the powders should be thoroughly dried
before mixing. Seidlitz powders are very useful salines.
The powder in the blue paper contains 2 drachms of
Kochelle salt and 2 scruples of bicarbonate of soda,
ihe powder in the white paper contains i drachm of
tartaric acid.
Repairing Worn Stone Steps.— In many instances the
worn parts of stone steps can be made good with silicon
treads. In executing such a job, the first thing is to centre
the step i if economy has to be practised, make the centre
where the stone is worn deepest, which will be near the
side on which the handrail, if there is one, is fastened.
If the cost is immaterial and a well-finished appearance
16 required, centre the step so that there is the same
width of margin on each side. The middle point can be
made the centre of a tread (the treads are 6 in. square)
or it may be at a joint, according to the number of treads.
(MX or seven treads are generally sufficient to replace the
worn part of one step. Cut out sufficient to take an
exact number of whole treads, and do not allow for a bed
deeper than i in. The treads should be tried in position
intersecting each other at T and N. Make the angle D N II
equal to the angle N D C, and produce D C to meet N H in II :
then H will be the first centre. Join Y N and bisect it,
cutting N H in M, which will be the second centre from
which the curve TN is struck. The curve A Y is obtained
in a similar manner, and the other side of the arch, being
symmetrical, is easily found.
Measuring Buildings In measuring up a newly
built house so as to enable complete drawings to be
made, commence with the ground plan and measure
carefully, as everything else must fit this plan. Take the
outside dimensions first, then the inside. Then measure
first floor, second floor, attics, and cellars. Next take
the height from floor to floor at the staircase for the
sections. For the elevations make sketches and count
the courses of brickwork for height, and the number of
bricks in length for intermediate points of width.
Details of windows, if muUioned, etc. may be measured
by opening the window and reaching out. The pitch of
roof must be obtained or .assumed, and the roof plan
may generally be drawn by repeating the plan of the
lower floor and noting where the ridges come. All
measurements should be marked on the sketches.
Draw out the ground plan first, and test everything else
by it. Any root spaces, etc., not accessible may be left
blank or details assumed ; the whole thing may be done
without a ladder with sufficient accuracy for the purpose.
Details of floors, stairs, cornices, etc., seen in the sec-
tions may be left imtil the last.
210
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
Hand Shears for Cutting Sheet - Iron. — Pig. 1
Is an elevation of a pair oJ elieara suitable for
cutting stout sheet metal. The top har is of iron
Sin. by lin. thick, on whieh the top knife, of best oast
steel 2 in. wide by 4 in. thick, is fixed, and hung at the
end of the supporting bracket by bolt and nut. The
supporting bracket is of wrought flat iron. Sin. wide by
IJin. thicJi. In the top of thi,s bracket is. fixed the
bottom knife of best cast steel, 2 in. wide by lin.
thlclc. The upper bar in which the upper knife is
fixed is moved by a long handle working from an out-
standing portion of the supporting bracket at A, con-
nected to the upper bar and knitewith sijuare connection.
very disgusting, Is the method usually adopted.
Much work may be avoided by gently boiling some o(
the bones in several changes of water untU the flesh
can be removed whilst hot with blunt pieces of wood.
If the bones are boiled, allowed to soak in cold water
for some days, and then exposed to sun and air, most
of the grease will have disappeared and the bones
will have become bleached. Dry soap, washing. powders,
or soda will greatly assist. Chloride of lime made into
a weak solution with water is commonly used for
bleaching bones. Do not exceed 1 oz. of chloride to
1 pt. of water, as if too strong the solution spoils the
bones. Or cover the bones with eaual quantities of
.., u ■ . .w J^^'^'^TtlnB
Hand Shears for Cutting
Sheet-Iron.
pinned to hoth rail and handle. The ironwork is bolted
to a wood block, dovetai ed into a '3-in. plank 11 in. wide.
The whole arrangement should be slightly on the slope.
This is done by setting the shears end of the machine
on a block of wood Sin. thick. Fig. 2 is a plan of
the ironwork in position, with the knives as they meet
each other. The wrought-iron supporting bracket is
affixed to the wood block by square-head bolts.
Determining Contents of Heaped Material,— The
contents of a heap of material, shaped as illustrated,
can be found approximately by multiplying the
length of the base by the width and by the per-
pendicular heiglit H of the mass, and then dividing
the final product by 2. If all of these measurements are
in feet, the result will be in cubic feet. To deter-
miue the height in feet, when the length of the
sloping side is given, square this length in feet and
subtract the square of half the width, also in feet.
Fia2
peroxide of hydrogen ana dilute ammonia in an earthen-
ware vessel. Finally wash in clean water. Expose to sun
and air to dry. To bleach naturally, wet the bones and
expose to sun and air, repeating as often as necessary.
During both the maceration and the boiling the con-
nections or ligaments will give way, so that it may be
advisable to tie or bind the bones with wires (copper
preferred) before beginning the work. After the bones
are cleaned they must be permanently joined by brass
or copper wires of sizes to suit the bones, holes being
drilled for the purpose.
Close-studding the Edges of Upholstered Chairs.
—For close-studding the edges of upholstered chairs,
procure a gauge to the shape of the accompanying
sketch. For ordinary f-iu. brass studs the points of the
gauge should be Jin. apart. In marking for studs, put
the last point of the gauge in the last hole made before
Deternuning Contents of Heaped Material.
Then extract the square root of the remainder. Ap-
plying this to a heap 23 ft. long by 12 ft. wide with a
sloping side of 9ft., the perpendicular height will be
6 = v^lo = 6'7ft., since the square of 9 is 81
12
y»i-
23 X 12 X 61 -^ 2 = 925 cub. ft. (say).
Cause of Blue Colour in Nickel. — When a thin
coat of nickel is deposited on iron and steel, the
underlying metal gives its tint to the deposited nickel
when polished. A slmihiv bluish tint is observable in
nickel deposited from an old solution contaminated
with base metals. In such cases the colour of the deposit
may be improved by adding to the solution common salt
(sodium chloride) at the rate of 1 oz. of salt to each
f> gal. of solution at first ; then note the results. If an
improvement is observable, add more salt; but it is not
advisable in any oai-e to add more than 8 oz. per 6 gal.
If the deposit is still bad, the solution is unfit for use.
Producing Skeletons of Animals.— For such ani-
mals as horses and dogs, first take away the skin and
the internal organs, and then with the knife remove
the greater part of the flesh. Next place the bones
In frequently changed water until the flesh has putre-
fied, and then either pick or wash it ofl^. This, though
Gauge for Marking Positions of Studs In Upholstery.
striking again, to ensure that the holes shall be at equal
distances apart. To save burring the stud heads, drive
in with a raw hide mallet.
Mahogany Stain.- Dragon's blood, used in making
mahogany stain, is generally sold as a red powder; it
readily dissolves in metliylated spirit, yielding a bright
red stain generally considered, if used alone, too fiery
for a good imitation mahogany. In conjunction with
other stains or mordants, as nitric acid and carbonate of
soda, it gives better results. A cheap mahogany stain
can be made by mixing burnt sienna (ground in water)
in stale beer or vinegar. Colour, such as di'agon's blood
or Bismarck brown, in the polish or varnish used after-
wards will give to this stain a richness of tone far
superior to lihat obtainable by dragon's blood alone.
Pneumatic Pedals for Piano. — In applying pneu-
matic action to the pedals of a piano, a bellows
about 4iin. long by IJin. wide, and opening about lin.,
will be needed for each pedal. The bellows is closed
by a spring underneath and opened by the downward
pressure of the pedal. It is connected with a distended
bellows of about the same size under the key; this
bellows, being emptied by the action of the pedal, acts
on the key by a tracker. The bellows are connected ay
a compo tube, and the key bellows are in two rows.
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
211
Hints on Photographic Backgrounds.— Generally
a medium tone background is "best for light dresses.
If it is too diirk, the tones in the dress will probably
be lost ; if too light, the figure may be lost in the back-
ground, but better gradition may result'. Of course,
much depends on the lighting ; with a flat front light
suitable for hard, thin faces with a bad outline, the
background will appear lighter, and with the light
behind the figure it will be darker. Photographers
usually have at least two graduated backgrounds, the
middle tint of one being equal to the lightest tint of the
other. The backgrounds should be in a neutral tint,
otherwise it is difficult to gauge their effect. A good
plan is to get a dull plaster cast and photograph
against sheets of paper of various tones.
How Vaseline is Made.— Vaseline cannot be made on
a small scale ; it is one of the products of the distillation
of natural American petroleum, and is a perfectly
homogeneous body, remaining as a jelly for an un-
limited period. An imitation of vaseline may be made
by dissolving Ipart of ijaraflin wax in 4 or 5 parts of pure
heavy mineral lubricating oil.
Striking out an Elliptic Arch.— The accompanying
diagram represents an easy way of striking out an
elliptic arch. First draw the span A B and the rise C D,
then the parallel line A E the same length as the rise.
Divide the rise CD into three equal parts, of which two-
thirds is the radius at A ]? G to strike the shoulder of the
arch. Then bisect E A, and from the point H obtained
filings, 200 parts of water, i part of indigo, and 3 parts of
sulphuric acid. (5) A blue-black ink, but one which
appears violet at the time of writing, is made by bruis-
ing elderberries, and setting them in a warm place for
three days to ferment ; strain, and add to each 6 pt.
of juice i oz. of sulphate of iron and i oz. of acetic acid.
Pinhole Photography. — The principles of pinhole
photography — or photographing without lenses — are
extremely simple. The discs of light thrown on
the ground when the sun's rays filter through
intervening foliage are natural examples of pinhole
photography, each of these discs being an image of
Che sun. If a small hole is made in a card and held in
front of a lamp, an inverted image of the lamp will be
thrown on any white surface facing the hole. The clear-
ness of this image increases as the size of the hole is
diminished and as the receiving surface is shielded from
extraneous light. The brilliancy of the image increases
with the enlargement of the hole and with its nearness
to the receiving surface. But the definition remains the
same. There being no focus, the pinhole camera gives
the maximiun depth of focus. If two holes are made
close together, two overlapping images result ; and if a
third hole is placed between the other two, the third
image may blur the other two beyond recognition. Pin-
hole photography, therefore, is only possible with a
small hole, and is applicable only to brightly illuminated
inanimate objects. Captain Abney's rule for determin-
ing the best diameter of the pinhole is to multiply
the square root of the distance between plate and
Striking Out an Elliptic Arch.
FIG. I Fig. 2
Pinhole Camera.
draw line to C ; then square off centre of E to Intersect
at J : then with J as centre and J f a6 radius describe the
crown of arch from F to 0.
Preventing Moths Attacking Clothes.— Try one of
the following remedies for preventing moths attacking
clothes, (a) Keep the clothes in a trunk made of cedar
wood, (b) Sprinkle some oil of birch on a piece of cloth
or flannel and place it in the box with the clothes, (c)
Sprinkle some Keating's insect powder on the clothes
before folding them up. (d) Place some albo-carbon
(obtainable from the ironmonger) in the clothes box.
To remove moths from clothing, it should be stoved ; or
the clothes may be taken out of doors and well shaken,
then well brushed and carefully examined inside and out.
Making Blue-black Writing Inks.— One method
of making blue-black ink ts to digest together 7 oz.
of bruised galls and ioz. of bruised cloves for about
a fortnight in 5 pt. of water. Filter and add
3oz. of sulphate of iron and 1 fluid dr. of sulphuric
acid. Well shake until the ingredients dissolve prop-
erly, and add 1 oz. of indigo paste, and again filter
if desirable. Galls for ink-making should always be
bought whole, as, if already bruised, it is impossible to
estimate their value. The best galls are known as
Aleppo i they have a warty sui'face, are blue or green,
and should be heavy and free from holes (showing
that they have been collected before the insect has
escaped). English galls are of no value. For use, the
galls are broken up into a coarse powder in an iron or
bell-metal mortar. (2) Dissolve in 12 oz. of water 7oz.
o( sulphate of iron and 20 drops of sulphuric acid;
in a similar bulk of water dissolve about loz. of tannin.
Dissolve in 1 oz. of alcohol— spirit of wine-24 gr. of
methyl blue. Add to the first solution the methyl and
alcohol, then add the tannin water, and shake. This
does not need to be kept to mature, as do the indigo
inks. (3) Eub 6 parts of Prussian blue with 1 part
of oxalic acid and a little water to a smooth paste
and dilute with water, (i) Work together 15 parts of
bruised galls, 5 parts of ferrous sulphate, 4 parts of iron
pinhole by "008. An ordinary camera may be used as
a pinhole camera by constructing a close-fitting front
with a sliding metal plate containing holes of different
diameters. Chapman Jones recommends the following
table, which is worked out according to Captain Abney's
rule.
Pinhole diameters in inches
Distance between plate and
hole for sharpest image
in inches
lei
33
16
S
-1.
4
The fractions may then take the place of the / ratio in
estimating exposure ; which, with a subject that would
require one second at f/lO, will be just as many minutes
as the plate is inches from the hole. Or estimate the ex-
posure for the / number and multiply by the square of
the distance. Thus, supposing the hole j". in. at lin. is
used and for the subject in hand the exposure for the
same plate under the same conditions at fjSi would be
ten seconds, then in this case the exposure will be 10 x i'
or 160 seconds. To make a pinhole camera, procui-e a card-
board box, whose lid and the box itself should each be 4 in.
deep ! cover the outer sides of the bottom of the box with
thin velvet so that the box will be completely enveloped
and will be light-tight when the lid is on. Cut in the
front of the box three openings A, B, C (Fig. 1) of the size
and shape shown. Now make another box with project-
ing sides (Fig. 2) to fit inside the first. Cut two pieces of
metal as D and E, and rivet to the two boxes as shown at
E. so that they move freely and independently. Glue on
strips of card F, G, H, and I to form stops, and attach the
cords J and K. d?he piece E has a second piece bent over it,
and between these is fixed a piece of tinfoil or extremely
thin copper L containing two holes J% in. and ^V in.
diameter, either of which may be pulled into position
when required. The plate is laid face up in the back
of the outer box and is held upright by the inner box
when the latter is pushed in. Pull the cord so that the
proper hole comes into position in the centre, and close
the shutter with the other cord. Stand up facing th*
view and open the shutter for the required exposure.
212
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
How to Make a Shutter for Taking Photographic
Doubles.— The aooompiiuj'ing sketch shows an arrange-
ment for doubling the same figure on one quarterplate.
Construct a framework A In Mn. wood, having holes
B', B-', B', B'. Into these fit the rods 0, C. The holes
should be slightly smaller than the rods, and the latter
should be cut down to form a shoulder, thus keeping
them in position. Cut two pieces of wire, each equal in
length to two sides of the frame, and sharpen the ends.
Bend these to the shape shown (D and D') and fix into the
two rods so that the two centres almost touch, thus
forming the framework of two door.s, made light-tight by
covering with thin velvet. These doors should fit
exactly, and are, of course, turned by the rods 0, 0,
which project about f In. beyond the frame. Fit into the
inner side of the framework a second frame about iiu.
by i in., against which the doors shut, mailing a light-
tight join. To the projections just mentioned are
fastened cog-wheels E and E'. Now take a stout knitting
needle, and wind around it some brown paper, sticking
It down with paste to form a paper tube. Measure half
the circumference of the cog-wheel, and cut the needle
down flat for this distance, leaving about an inch or so
to fit the tube (both may be made from one needle).
Notch the flattened part to fit the cog-wheel. The tubes
are next fixed through the camera front as shown in
section in Fig. 2, and the racks inserted. It will be seen
that, if air is forced through the tube, the rack is blown
out, carrying the wheel round with it. An extremely
thin rubber band r fastened from the inner side of the
door to the frame suffices to pull it back. To each of the
tubes projecting outside the camera it will be necessary
twelve hours in 3 pt. of water and simmer gently till
I qt. is left. When cold, decant and dissolve about
20 gr. of yellow chromate of potash in the solution
which must be well stirred the while. (5) For a chean
ink dissolve a threepenny packet of Judson's dye in a
small bottle with a little hot water, and add cold water
according to the strength of colour desired. When
required for use, pour a little into the inkpot, and
dilute with water as required. (6) To make black writ-
ing ink that will not be atfeeted by water after lyrlting
boil i oz. of lump borax with J pt. of clean water in a
clean covered pot. When the borax has dissolved, add
loz. of bleached shellac and stir till dissolved. Add
BufflciSTit vegetable hlack that has been thoroughly
mixed with water on a palette with a palette knife
till it is free from lumps and forms a thick paste
(7) Shellac dissolved in methylated spirit and covered
with aniline dye makes a bright waterproof ink, bat
this is rather difficult to use, except in cold weather, as
the spirit evaporates and leaves the ink on the pen too
thick to flow. It works all right it rapidly brushed on.
How to Make a Sheet Brass Table Iiamp.—
Fig. 1 shows the table lamp complete. For it, cut
two circles of sheet brass (No. 22 gauge), each 7* in. in
diameter. Hollow both together on a block until quite
smooth, so that each resembles a bowl. Turn up a small
edge on each with a jenny or bottom stake, so that one
will fit inside the other. Procure a No. 2 Elnks's Duplex
burner, or, better still, a comple-te central draught
burner. Measure the bed, and cut a hole J in. less in
diameter in the centre of the larger bowl ; turn up the
r-rf
FIG. t
A Shutter for Tsikme Photographic Doubles.
Hovr to Make a Sheet Brass Table Lamp.
to fit 6ft. of small tubing, connecting them at the end
with a Y-shaped double tap like Fig. 3. By opening one
door and keeping the other closed, one-half of the plate
may he exposed, the process being repeated for the
other half. The two images overlap or vignette into
each other, so that no join is shown, provided the doors
are not too far from the lens. The doors should be at a
distance from the lens of about half its focus. If too
near, too much of the plate will be exposed. For this
reason the exact dimensions cannot be given. The
position to be occupied is focussed with one door open
and one shut, alternately, the alternate door being
closed by turning the tap. The ball for operating the
shutter is placed on the floor, to be worked by the foot.
Reclves for Black Inks.— The following recipes are
for hlack writing inks. (1) The common ink sold at oil
shops at Id. per gill can be made very cheaply. Boil in
a copper 8 gal. of soft water, throw in 7 oz. of logwood
extract, and put out the fire to stop the boiling. Add
1 oz. of bichromate of potash and 80 grains of prus-
siate of potash, and after straining, bottle it. (2)
Bruise 6 oz. of best Aleppo galls, and boil iu 6 pt.
of water for several hours, adding more water to
supply the loss by evaporation. Strain whilst hot
through calico into a clean vessel. Add loz. of gum
arable, and boil till dissolved. Strain again whilst hot
into a stone bottle, and add i oz. of sulphate of iron,
previously dissolved in water. To preserve from going
mouldy, add 3 drops of creosote for each pint of ink.
The ink, to appear thoroughly black, must be kept for
some time before using. (3) A black aniline ink is pre-
pared by rubbinn 60 gr. of aniline black with 60 drops
of hydrochloric acid and 15 oz. of alcohol. Dilute with
3oz. of distilled water in which Joz. of gum has been
dissolved, (i) Digest i lb. of logwood chips for about
edges for Jin. so that the bed will fit tightly over,
and solder this on from the inside. Then fix the
hollow.s together, the edge of one inside the other,
and solder well round. This constitutes the oil vessel.
To make the stand, cut a circle of sheet brass 7 in.
diameter and hollow it not quite so deeply as the other
vessel. Swage it round, leaving it plaiu for Jin. from
the edge to produce a mould-like appearance and to
increase the strength. Cut another circle 4iin. diameter,
hollow it deeply, and file it perfectly plane,at the edges.
Cut a hole fin. less in diameter in the swaged circle,
which, when edged f'lin. all round, will allow the
smaller circle to fit tightly over it. Solder this well
from the inside. Now make a taper tube 4 in. Ions.
2J in. diameter at one end, and i; iu. diameter at the other.
This must be cut according to the pattern. Fig. 2. Bend
it round over a mandrel, and braze the joint with soft
brass spelter, using borax as a flux. File the joint
smooth, and raise three small rings with a hand swage,
starting J in. from the widest end ; see A (Fig. 1). Out a
hole, in diameter equal to the tube at its larger end,
out of the small hollow, which is now fixed to the
swaged hollow. Drop the tube in, beat over the pro-
truding Jin. to the inside of the small hollow, and solder
round from the inside. Then make a brass socket B
(Fig. 1) and solder it to the bottom of the oil vessel.
Now fix the stand on a flat surface, drop the oil vessel
over it so that its socket fits tightly over the tube of the
stand, square it, and then solder them together. Turn
the lamp upsHe down and solder a disc over the
larger end or the taper tube. Fill the bottom with sandi
and then solder a disc on to prevent it escaping, i'ne
lamp will then not readily be overturned. Kemove
solder from outside the joints with a smooth file, scrape
with a steel scraper or sharp pocket-knife, and polish
with emery iiud oil, finishing with bath brick and turps.
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
213
Recipes for Blue Writing Inks.— These are recipes
for blue Inks. (1) Place in a tumbler a teaspoontul
of soluble Prussian blue pigment, and add suflieient
pure water to dissolve all the blue and make it of the
proper consistency for use as ink. (2) Allow loz. of
powdered indigo to stand In 7oz. of oil of vitriol for
forty-eight hours. Stir occasionally, and then add 8oz.
of water, thus forming sulphate of indigo. A perman-
ent blue ink is made by dissolving 3oz. or 4oz. of this
sulphate in 1 gal. of water. (3) Dissolve 3 parts of Prus-
sian blue and 1 part of oxalic acid in 30 parts of water,
and add 1 part of gum arable. (i) Dissolve soluble
Paris blue (cornflower blue) in alcohol. (5) Dissolve
2 oz. of Chinese blue in 1 qt. of water and add 1 oz. of
oxalic acid, when the ink is at once ready for use.
Stephenson's Reversing Gear for Iiocomotlves.
—The adjoining illustration shows the Stephenson
reversing gear, y is the slide valve and C the crank-
shaft carrying two eccentrics E and E', with centres as
shown. A link L carries a die U connected to the valve
rod, which works in a guide S. The hand lever H can be
moved over the sector Q, and can be locked in any one
of the notches shown. This lever, by means of a
balancing system of links, etc., at K, 1I,d, etc., moves the
curved link L. To this link at centres P and P' are
connected the eccentrics E and E'. By altering the
position of the link either eccentric may be jmi in gear.
For Instance, as shown, the valve would receive motion
from E', but by moving the handle over to the other
side of the sector Q the die block would be at the lower
end of the link and E would be in gear. With the
handle at the centre of the sector, the diewoiild be atthe
consistent with th6 purpose for which the forgings are
rec[uired should be imparted to them— £>,iin., or a bare
iVln., may be taken as a good average. The distorted
outlines have to be corrected with an emery wheel or
with emery paper.
Cause of Thin Photographic Negative.— Thin-
ness 01- want of density in a negative may be
accounted for in two ways— by weak development owing
to insufficient proportion of the actual image maker, pyro
and metol, and by too early removal from the bath.
Thinness is also caused indirectly by over-exposure and
by insufficient potassium bromide. With a pyro-metol
developer, some time must elapse after the details
appear in order to obtain density, even though the
picture seems to be veiling over.
How to Make a Portable Photographic Dark Room.
—Here are instructions on making a portable triangular
dark room. Make three uprights 6 ft. long of IJ-lu.
stuff, and six cross battens 3 ft. 2 in. long. The top of the
dark room consists of a triangular piece of wood 3 ft. 6 in.
by 3 ft. 6 in. by 3 ft. 6 in. Recesses are out at the
corners to receive the uprights, and the cross battens,
which give stability, are fastened to the uprights on two
sides at suitable places, and in the third side, which forms
the door, one batten should be at the top and one at the
bottom. The developing table is shown in Pig 1, A being
the sink, which is a metal dish sunk in a recess ; the dish is
fitted with a pipe to carry off drippings to a bucket
below. The table should be coated with paraffin wax.
B shows a notch to take the upright, and c and D are
Stephenson's Reversing Gear for Locomotive.
centre of the link and the valve would receive no motion
from the eccentrics, the forward movement of one'being
pai-tly balanced by the backward movement of the other
eccentric. As the eccentrics are not exactly opposite,
the valve, in mid gear, opens to lead only. To reverse
the end, it is only necessary to put in gear the eccentric
that was previously not in gear.
Case-hardening Large Wrought-iron Work.— The
ordinary methods of case hardening are quite inade-
quate when large wrought-iron forgings of perhaps
irregular shape require to be treated. These are box-
hardened in the following manner. For the heaviest
work, cast-iron boxes of circular form with cast-iron
covers are used. They are of sizes suitable for the work
in hand, ranging between 1 ft. and 2 ft. 6 in. in dia-
meter. For small work, tubes of wrought iron or old
pulley bosses are used. The bottom of the box is
covered with a thick layer of the hardening material,
which may consist of bone dust, leather clippings, or
hoots, mixed with salt or charcoal powder. Care must
be taken to give the forgings good support among the
material, so that they shall not become distorted by
their own weight while at a red beat. When the box is
hlled with alternate layers of metal and of material,
the cover is put on, and luted with fireclay to make
It nearly air-tight. It is essential that air be excluded,
ihen it IS placed in a fire or, preferably, in a rever-
beratory furnace, for from ten to thirty-six hours. The
time during which the box is exposed to the heat of
the furnace mainly regulates the depth to which the
metal will be hardened. The chemical activity of the
nardeuing agents, however, influences the result. The
addition of powdered yellow prussiate of potash is often
an improvement. The forgings are turned out into cold
water, a,nd are thus hardened to a depth which ranges
from A in. to nearly tin. But in the sanie forgings the
depth of the hardening will not be quit^ uniform. For
light articles, of course, a mere film of surface hardening
is enough; for heavy work the steely casing should
penetrate to uearly }in. Since hardening distorts the
work, the minimum amount of penetration that Is
Fie. 2 C!
Details of Portable Photographic Dark Room.
wing screws that fasten the board to the other up-
rights. To facilitate packing into the smallest possible
compass, wing screws can also be used for the battens.
The room must be ventilated by cutting an opening in
the top piece. The opening should be triangular, 1 ft. by
1 ft. by 1 ft., and it should have raised aides like a chimney,
6 in. high. Over this chimney is fitted a cap which is so
made as to admit of the free passage of air while exclud-
ing light. The construction of the cap (Fig. 2) is sufficiently
explained by the illustration. The frame maj^ be covered
with two thicknesses of glazed lining, and a piece of ruby
fabric can be let in on one side to form a window. The
covering over the door side— which should overlap the
whole width to form a light trap— may be hung on rods
or suspended from hooks.
Blacking Letters on Headstones.— Black japan,
which can be obtained from most oil and colour stores,
will be found most suitable for lettering headstones.
Use a small sable-hair brush for the purpose. Drop
black, ground in turps and thinned with good carriage
varnish, may also be used for the purpose.
A Setting Board for Butterflies.— To make a setting
board for butterflies and moths, choose a piece of wood
about 1 in. thick ; groove it down the centre, and bevel it
oil towards the sides, so that at the edges the wood is
only Jin. thick. On these bevelled faces entomological
cork is glued, and a piece is also glued along the bottom
of the groove. Rub down with emery ijaper when dry.
The board may. If desired, be covered with white paper
or with white paint. The width of the board and of the
groove will depend upon the size of the insect for which
it is required. It is usual to have boards of various
widths, each long enough to take two or three specimens.
Bleaching Pulp Cane.— If it is required to bleach
pulp cane, either soak the material in a solution ol
chloride of lime, then dip in dilute hydrochloric acid,
and afterwards thoroughly steep in running water ; or
soak it in an acid solution of soda bisulphite, followed
by acid and water. It is advisable to experiment first
on a small scale.
214
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
straightening and Repollsblng a Mahogany
Table.— To straighten a round mahogany table that
is warped across the centre, first remove the top from
the pillar, turn it face downwards, and sponge several
times with clean water. Then apply heavy weights or
pressure at its highest points for several days, fre-
ijuently damping the unpolished part. Water should
not he allowed to remain on the polished portion. To
prevent the top going back again, glue and screw
several strengthening bars across. The table should
then be washed with common washing soda, a tea-
cupful to 1 gal. of water. Smooth down any roughness
with glasspaper, wipe over with raw linseed oil, and
clean off with rag. If the top cannot be French
polished, it may be improved in appearance by applying,
with a camel-hair brush, several coatsof spirit varnish
made as follows. Orange shellac 4oz., resin 2 oz., gum
benzoin 2oz., and methylated spirit Ipt. A rich red
tone is gained by adding one pennyworth of Bismarck
brown. Shake frequently till dissolved, and carefully
strain through muslin before using.
Design for a Divan Chair.— The framing for stuff-
over work such as divan chairs needs no elaborate finish,
the value and comfort of this class of work being in the
upholstering. The back legs are 3ft. 4in. long, made
from 2-in. square stuff ; the turned front legs are 10 in.
by 3in. : side rails and front and jsaok rails, 2-in. square
stuff; stuffing rails, li-in. stuff; arm scroll A, IJ-in. by
plate is then immersed In strong boiling lye water (soda
and water), and thoroughly washed with brushes; this
removes all dirt from the crevices. The plate is now
ready for polishing, which is done over a dolly running
at a very high speed, using crocus with a little rouge
The dolly is a number of circular sheets of calico about
12 In. in diameter, fastened together in the centre.
How to Re-halr a Violin Bow.— In commencing to
re-hair a violin bow, out off the old hair and remove
the mountings which held it in position, taking note
as to how they are fixed. The wedge H (Pigs. 1 and 2)
is picked out with the point of a penknife; the metal
hand G can be slipped off, and then the slide L will
come away. The wedge D (Fig. 1) is picked out, and the
knot of hair F will then come away. At the head of the
bow simply turn up the ends of hair, pick out the
wedge D (Fig. 3), and the knot of hair F will come away.
The small wedges will probably be suital le For use again.
The hair Is sold In bundles, each sufflcieuc for one bow,
at 6d. to Is. per bundle. There will probably be a knol)
of sealing-wax on one end as it comes fi*om the dealer's,
which, when broken off, will reveal the ends tied with
waxed silk, and cut prett.y close to the tieing. In order
to keep the ends from slipping out of this tieing, it is
usual to sear them, in a gas flame or on a red-hot wire,
taking particular care not to damage the silk tie, a1; the
same time cementing them together with a little resin.
If the wedges have been destroyed in removing them.
e^ (
H
G
FlQ. 1
A i
«^
FlQ. 2
Design for a Divan Chair.
Fig 3
How to Re-hair a Violin Bow.
2-in. stuff, mortised into the side rail ; width of back,
measured inside legs, 1ft. lOin. ; total width of froni; of
Beat, 2 ft. 3in. ; length of seat from front to back,
2 ft. 4 in. ; and length of arm board, not including scroll,
IS in. The back rails are tenoned into the back legs,
and the arm scroll into the seat rail. All other work is
jointed with dowels.
Painting Wire Blinds.— In painting wire blinds,
nse very thin colour, made with turps and a little gold
size; stipple the blind all over directly it is coated,
BO as to remove the superfluous colour. The space to
he gilded should be filled up with dry white-lead mixed
with gold size and turps. A little dry whiting dusted
on the gauze will prevent the gold leaf sticking.
Hardening Clock Pallets,— Harden each end of the
pallet separately : leave the middle soft and, if neces-
sary, bend It. There will then be no necessity for
tempering. Then tempering steel, it can be either
dipped or allowed to cool when the right colour is
reached. The result is the same.
Preparing Iron Wire for Tinning.— Immerse the
wire in raw spirit (hydrochloric acid) and let it re-
main till the black scale on the iron is dissolved off.
Then pickle the wire for a short time in killed spirit
(chloride of zinc), when it will be ready for passing
through the molten tin.
RepouBS^ Work.-In executing repoussiS work, first
cut out the brass, copper, or other material rather
larger than the pattern to be produced. The metal
must then be hammered flat, and ground and glazed
on the face side. It is then ready for the pattern to
he traced on it. The grinding may be done on a stone
or an emery wheel. After the pattern has been ham-
mered up, the plate is buffed on a hud', using finest
emer.y and crocus boiled together with mutton suet.
Thin material may be purchased in cakes and bars. The
carefully fit a little piece of wood so that it will secure
the hair in the box, as illustrated. The knot made on
the end of the hair is now placed in the box at the head
of the bow stick (Pig. 3), and fixed with the wooden wedge
so that the hair comes away from the box in the form of
a flat ribbon. The wedge is sometimes glued in, but this
is not altogether desirable. If the wedge is shaped
as illustrated, and properly fitted, it will hold quite
firmly without glue, and will save trouble when the
bow next requires repairing. The wedge must not fit
too tightly sideways, or it will be liable to split the
box. The hair must be combed through with a small
toothed comb, then, coiling it up near the head, steep
it for a few minutes in tepid water. Then comb again
till it is a straight, flat baud, all the hairs running
parallel throughout their entire length. The nut B
(Pig. 1) must now be set in the middle of its range of
motion. Holding the band of hair in the hand over
the opening in the nut, allowance must be made for
the knot to curl round the wedge in the box, the hair
tied with waxed silk, and the ends singed as before.
This allowance cannot be measured in any way, but
must be judged. Slip the metal band G along the hairs
to the top, and let it remain there. Take out the
screw entirely, thus allowing the Jiut B to come away
from the stick ; fix the knot of hair into the box in the
nut exactly as was done at the other end, and replace
the nut on the stick and try it for length. If it has been
judged correctly, the hair will be too slack when the nut
is at one end of its travel, too tight when at the other,
and just right when it is in the middle. If correct, give
it a final comb from head to nut, and replace the slide 1
(Pig. 1), which covers up the wedge box. Replace the
metal hoop G and insert the wooden wedge H so as to
flatten out the hair against the flat upper side of the
hoop, and the job is complete. Pig. I shows the nut.
Fig. 2 an inside end view of the nut mountings, ana
Fig. 3 the bow head.
Cyclopsedia of Mechanics.
215
"Culr-bouilU" Leather Work.— For "ouir-liouilU"
work untanned hide, not leather, is employed. The
former is boiled with water, when it eoftena and may
jasily be moulded ; tanned leather would not soften
Buffloiently, nor would it agglomerate when pressed.
For ordinary leather work calf, kid, or Russia leather
may be used ; the material is simply out to shape,
soaked in water, and moulded with special tools.
Filter Beds for Municipal Water Supply.— There
is no more satisfactory method of filtering what is
already practically pure water than by constructing
two or more filters of sand and using them for alter-
nate periods. Each filter (if t vo b^ the number) should
be large enough to do all the wjrk whilst the other
is resting or being cleansed. The rate at which sand
filters can be best worl<ed is .511 gal. per square yard
per day. The accompanying il'iistrations show two
filters each 9 yd. by 1 yd., which would be able to deal
with IS.OUO gal. of water every twenty-four hours. The
water flows in at A or A', passes downwards ttoough
the filter, and finds its way into the main pipe by
the outlet B or B'. An escape pipe is proyided at c
and C. To cleanse a filter by upwarJ flow the valye
lialf lard oil and hilt paraffin are suitable. Many oil-
stones are hardened through absorbing the linseed oil
used with the white-lead when fixed in the case or for
sharpening. The stone should be cemented in the case
with glue and red-lead, and the oil should always be
wiped oil after being used.
Recipes for Marking Inks.— Here is a recipe for a jet-
blacls marking ink. Dissolve 1 dr. of silver nitrate in a
little water, slowly add ammonia until the oxide which
first precipitates Is redissolved, mix with a little indigo
extract or sap green, and add strong gum water to make
1 oz. Write with a quill pen, and afterwards run a hot
iron over the writing. For an Indelible ink to be
applied with a stencil, dissolve asphaltum in coal-tar
naphtha or turpentine to form a syrupy solution. Apply
with a stiff stencil brush. The following is a very
fine indelible marking ink. Add caustic alkali to a
saturated solution of cuprous chloride until no further
precipitate forms ; allow to settle, draw oil the liqiuid,
and dissolve the oxide in the smallest quantity of
ammonia that will absorb it. Mix with about 6 per cent,
of gum dextrine.
Removing a Figure from a Group Photograpb.—
One of the figures in a group of two in a photograph
is sometimes required to be removed. It is done as fol-
lows. Mix up a neutral tint with ivorylblaok, ultramarine,
crimson lake, and sepia, and add plenty of gum— that is.
Y
a'.
1
Mi. 2
fO|.6'
>
1 i
H
Fig. a
/ /
Pig I.
IC
Vf
SMALL GRAVE!
'/
'..LARGECRAVGi
ORAFN
l/CONCRETC
FlQ. 3
Filter Beds for Municipal Water Supply.
V Is closed (say filter No. 2 is to be cleansed), the
escape at 0' is opened, the water is made to enter
filter No. 1 at A (Fig. 1) , it passes out through B, can-
not flow through the yalve v, so rises through" B',
thence through the sand, and out by 0'. This flow is
allowed to continue for half an hour, or as long as
may be found necessary for cleansing the filter ; when
the water passing through C is clear, the valve V is
opened, and C is closed. Fig. 2 shows a longitudinal sec-
tion through the filter. Fig. 3 shows the thicknesses
of the layers of sand and gravel in the filter. When
there are only two filters, the town supply has to be
interrupted during this process of washing ; with three
or more filters, the pipes can be so arranged that no
interruption takes place.
Treatment of Hard Oilstone.- If a Washita stone
has got very hard on the surface and will not sharpen,
first lace down the stone well by sprinkling sharp
sand and water on a thick piece of glass, a smooth
flagstone or slab of slate, or an iron plate, and rubbing
the hard surface on the sand until a new face has been
obtained. Dry sand on a piece of board or a sheet
of emery paper will answer the purpose, but wet sand
makes the best job. Boiling the stone in soda water
will soften it to some extent. The proper oil should
be used, so as not to let the stone get hard. Vaseline or
gum arable soaked in warm water till it dissolves,
ytlpple out all the light parts, such as the hands, the
face, the lights on the dress, etc., till it matches the
middle tints of the background. Then treat the shadows
with Chinese white in alike manner, till the two match
as nearly as possible. All this should be done by mak-
ing fine dots close together with the point of the brush.
The paint should not be too wet, but wet enough to work
easily. Of course, if the photograph is a silver print, the
figure could be painted right out by brushing it over
with a strong solution of cyanide of potassium or per-
sulphate of ammonia, but the former is the neater plan,
and is more under control. Moreover, should it be
desired at any time to restore the figure, the paint can
be wa.shed off again.
Removing Vaseline Spots from Brown Boots.—
To remove a spot of vaseline from a light brown boot,
apply a thick solution of white guttapercha, or pure
rubber, in bisulphide of carbon. It is the same thing as
patching cement, only that it needs to be much thicker.
A small bottle of cement evaporated, and the residue
added to a bottle newly opened, will answer the purpose.
Paint all over and just beyond the stain, and when all
the spirit has passed off rub off the guttapercha with a
clean rag ; if not successful, repeat. The guttapercha
that has been rubbed off can be used again.
216
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
Fretting a Banjo.— In fretting a banjo, first the
position 01 the hridge must be marlied off 9 in. below the
base ot the handle. Measure the distance between that
point and the piece ot ebony or ivory glued in at the top
of the handle, and divide this distance into eighteen
parts; then the position of the first fret, measuring
from the ebony just mentioned, will be ec[ual to the
length of one of these divisions. Prom the point thus
determined, again measure the distance to the bridge,
subdivide it by eighteen, and mark off for the next tret
below the first. The total number ot frets is sixteen,
and the place of each must be found as described, by
subdividing the space between the bridge and successive
frets, so tiiat every division Is proportionally less in
length as progress is made. Purchase a set of sixteen
fret wires or, if preferred, a single length to be out as re-
quired. Saw the necessary grooves in the handle with a
thin tenon saw, taking great care to set them squarely
across the fingerboard, and then insert the fret wires.
They should fit tightly, and be raised slightly above
the plane ot the handle.
Child's Wheelbarrow.— Pigs. 1, 2, and 3 show the
construction and dimensions of a child's wheelbarrow.
The sizes can be enlarged or diminished to suit indi-
vidual taste. Deal boards Jin. thick will be most suit-
able for the Bides and ends. The wood for the wheel
should be 1 in. or IJ in. thick, and mortised with a square
chair and well brushed along the parting thus made
blowing away the dust and whiting at the same time'
To brighten up the colours, benzoline should be applied
by means of a clothes brush, which should be passed
lightly in the way of the fur, not against the fur (3)
Heat in an oven a mixture of equal parts of flour and
powdered salt, and while hot thoroughly rub it into the
fur. When the whole has been dressed, shake and brush
out the mixture as described above. (4) To wash the
skin, out up a bar of soap and dissolve it in about 2 gal
of boiling water. Place the skin upon a table and wet
the whole fur with the solution. A gentle rubbing with
the hands will loosen most of the dirt. Now dilute
about 2 qt. of the solution with 2 gal. ot warm water, and
continue the washing, the skin still lying upon the table
When the skin is quite jlean, remove the soap with
plenty of clean water. Th.n dry it by means ot a clean
sponge, followed by clean cloths. In this way little ot the
actual skin will become wet. Now hang it in the shade
and frequently take it down and shake it well, hanging it
by a different part each time. Any part that appears to
be getting hard should be well rub bed between the hands.
Machine for Grinding Moulding Cutters.— The illus-
tration represents a simple and Inexpensive machine
for grinding moulding cutters. The frame P is of wood,
and fastened to the fioor. At B, B are two small bear-
ings, in which a small spindle runs. In the centre at t
Child's WheelbaxrOTT.
machine for Grinding moulding Cutters.
hole for the spindle, shown at Fig. 2 j the hole should be
about liin. square. The ends and sides should be housed
together as shown at JPig. 3.
Simple Collotype Process.— In the process ot collo-
type printing on parchment, as employed in the
photo autocopyist process, a sheet of parchment, coated
with gelatine and sensitised with bichromate of potash,
is exposed behind a reversed negative, the result
being that a brownish image is produced in the bichro-
mate salt. The reverse side ot the parchment is then
exposed in order to bind it and the film together, and
the whole is washed for twenty-tour hours to free it from
the bichromate. It is next stretched on a frame and
covered with glycerine and ammonia, wliich cause it to
swell and become tacky in the parts on which the light
has acted least. On passing an inked roller over the
picture the shadows take up the ink, but the lights or
absorbent parts reject it. Thinner in k is applied to give
the half tones. A tracing paper ma&k is then laid over
the film, and the printing paper, which must have a
good surface, is laid on it and covered with a sheet of
felt, and the whole placed in a copying press and well
squeezed. After considerable practice 100 copies per
hour can be made.
Cleaning a Tiger's Skin.— The following are methods
ot cleaning a tiger's skin. (1) Moibten bran with hot
water and well rub it into the fur with a piece of clean
flannel ; then with fresh dry bran, well rubbed in with
a clean dry flannel. (2) Bub damp whiting (not wet) well
into the fur .'o that it goes down to the actual skin.
Leave it till next day, well rub the dry whiting, and
remove by shaking and brushing with an ordinary clothes
brush. The skin should be placed over the back of a
are two small pulleys, which should revolve at about 700
revolutions per minute. At one end ot the spindle is a
fine square-taced emery wheel E ; at the other end there
are three emery wheels— one square-taced, one round,
and one bevelled. Over the wheels are water cans C, C,
with taps, and the water coming from these is caught in
the troughs T, T. With these wheels moulding cutters
may be ground and wetted up. It will be an advantage i
to have a portable rest, or one fixed to the frame of the
machine, on which to rest the iron whilst being ground.
The iron should be held at an angle of 25° to the face of
the cutter for soft wood, and ot 40° for hard wood.
Removing Mulberry Stains from Boat Sail.—
To remove mulberry stains from a boat sail, make a
strong solution ot chloride ot lime (bleaching powder),
dip the stained parts of the sail in it, and allow to
remain tor a tew minutes. If the stains disappear,
wash at once with water only ; but if not, then dip m
dilute hydrochloric acid (1 part strong acid to 9 parts
water), and aftcjrwards thoroughly wash in runnmg
water for an hour to remove the excess ot acid.
Cooling Shed having Corrugated Iron Koof.--
To cool a shed having a corrugated iron span roof,
line the under side of the latter with a material whioS
resists the passage ol: heat through it. Hair felt m
sheets Jin. thick is commonly used. Silicate cotton
is better, but not so easy of application. Still turtber
to cool the interior a regular curreut ot air is neces-
sary, and this can only be obtained by an active
chimney or a mechanical air propeller. A change ot air
and the escape of vitiated air can be obtained by having
an opening at each end of the shed, one near the ground
and one near the roof
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics,
217
Manufacture of Sodium.— Sodium Is made by the
Castner process. The materials used are caustic soda
and a specially prepared carbide of iron, which is
formed by reducing oxide of iron by producer gas,
mixing the finely divided iron with pitch, and heating
it in closed cylinders.^ The regenerative furnace con-
tains five e^g-shaped retorts each 3 ft. high, and
each retort is supported upon a hydraulic lift, by
which the retort may be lowered to a cool chamber
for cleaning purposes. When the retort is iu position it
is forced against the cover, which carries a wide pipe for
shooting the charge into the retort ; this pipe passes up
through the furnace, and is closed while the distillation
is proceeding. A lateral pipe passes from the retort to a
receiver outside the furnace, partly filled with mineral
oil, in which the metallic sodium solidifies as fast as it
distils. The plant formerly used consisted of a horizontal
cylindrical retort, about Bft. 6 iu. long, connected to the
condenser by a straight iron pipe. The materials used
are carbonate of soda and finely divided carbon.
Size of Rolled Joists for an Assembly-room Floor.
—It is assumed that an as-embly-room is to be built
over three small shops and th!.t it is proposed to
put in rolled- steel .ioists and fill in with concrete.
For a clear span of 17 ft. 7 in. the least possible depth
of steel joists for an assembly-room floor is 9 in., but a
10-in. by 4S-in. by 30-lh. or 10-in. by 5-in. by 29-lb. section
would be much better. These joists may be placed 6 ft.
apart, and it would be an advantage if 35-in. by 15-in.
by 6-lb. joists were placed transversely every 6 ft. between
the others, connected by angle brackets and carried by
2-in. by 2-in. by i-in. steel angles riveted to web of main
girder ioist. The concrete should be the best Portland
semeut to S sea-beach gravel, and 6 in. thick. The
the glue is not allowed to become too thick. The state of
the composition should be tested by placing a little ot
it on a piece of paper; it, when cool, it is firm to the
touch— that is, rubber-like rather than doughy— it n
fit to be poured into the mould, which should have
been previously warmed and oiled. The core of the
roller, before being placed in position in the mould,
must be perfectly clean and dry, or the compoi-ition will
not cling to it. The composition must be poured in at
one side of the mould, so that the air may escape at the
other side. After the mould has been filled, it should be
allowed to remain in a cool place for at least twelve
hours, when the roller may be drawn.
Burnishing and Mounting Bromide Print.— "When
burnishing bromide prints, thoroughly clean a sheet
of patent plate glass and dust over it finely powdered
French chalk, rubbing it well in all directions: then
polish off all the chalk. Some workers prefer to pass the
prints through the alum bath after fixing with slight
washing before final washing. They are perhaps less
likel.y to stick. If the prints are backed with water-
proof paper, this difficulty is removed for a time. Mount
the prints dry ; as they lie fiat owing to their thickness,
run a 4-in. strip of mountant around the edges only. For
this an alcoholic solution of gelatine or rubber solution
may be used. It is not advisable to enamel bromide
prints, as their character is thereby destroyed.
Setting Ont Curved Walls and Kerblng. — For
setting out curved walls and kerblng a good eye
is required in addition to mechanical aid. Small
cutves on the ground may be struck of required I'adius
with a scriber and reel of brass wire, or more roughly
with a tape line and pointed stick. A wooden template
will be found useful in adjusting the work. For large
WOOD BLOCK FLOOR
3/2x|iAx6lJ.B.
R.S.J
; 2 X 2 A K4
,. -10 A 5 ^ 29 LB. R.S.J. ^-;
Size of Rolled Joists for an Assembly-room Fioor.
OFFSET - HALF
Setting Out Curved Walls and Kerbing.
centring should remain undisturbed for three weeks
after the concrete is put in, and in the meantime there
should be no trafiio over it.
Dressing for Fishing Lines.— This is a recipe for a
dressing for silk fishing lines. Melt in an iron pot over a
slow fire 6 pai'ts of solid paraffin and 1 part of best resin,
stirring well together. When partially cooled, dip the
line in and draw it out through a piece of sponge or linen
to remove superfluous dressing, and lay it on the floor
in large coils to dry. The line may then be stretched
and polished with a piece of wet linen and a little very
flne pumice dust. Another dressing may be made of
equal parts of gold size and boiled linseed oil ; or copal
varnish may be used instead of the gold size. Soak the
line in the mixture, then stretch it between two posts
or nails for a few days to dry, first wiping off any excess
of dressing with a piece of sponge or rag. If gold size is
used the line will be ready sooner than if copal is used.
Another dres,sing is made by melting over a water bath
2 oz. of beeswax with ^ pt. of boiled linseed oil. Dip the
line in while hot and stretch to dry, as above described.
To colour any of these dressings, add a little paint
ground in oil.
Making Printers' Rollers.- When a printer's roller
is unflt for further use, all the composition is stripped
from the iron or wooden core and is carefully washed
in hot water, cut into small pieces, and soaked in cold
water for about an hour. The composition maybe re-
melted repeatedly, but must be strengthened on each
occasion by the addition of treacle and glue. Ordinary
roller composition may be bought ready for use at about
8d. per pound ; or it may be made by melting 2 lb. of good
glue, and then adding 61b. of treacle and Jib. of Paris
white. These proportions are varied according to tem-
perature and to suit particular kinds of work. In cold
weather, and to produce softer rollers, use more treacle ;
in warm weather, and for harder rollers, use more glue.
The glue, which should be clem and brittle, is soaked
in water, which when the glue begins to swell is poured
on i the glue is then placed in an inner vessel surrounded
by an outer vessel holding the water, which must not
be allowed to boil. When the glue has been reduced to the
consistency of syrup, add the other ingredients, and keep
the mixture heated for about an hour, taking care that
curves, detached points may be marked out by stakes on
the ground, as shown iu accompanying figure, where
b =^, c, = — % — = feet in offset. In setting out, con-
2 radius
tinue the straight direction past the tangent point to
whatever distance is decided upon tor length a, then take
an offset b as per formula and range through tangent
point and offset point to get next offset.
StuiBng and Mounting Fish. — In stuffing and
mounting a fresh-water fish, first cover with muslin
the best side of the fish, and place it, with the other
side up, on a table. Cut along from the head to the
tail, and through this long cut remove the flesh of
body. After clearing away the eyes and any flesh
left round the fins, head, etc., dress with the preserva-
tive, which is an arsenical soap composed of 5 parts (by
weight) of camphor, 32 parts of white arsenic, 32 parts
of white soap, 2 parts of salt of tartar, and i parts
of chalk. Now pad round the fins, head, etc., with
putty, and proceed to stuff the skin by replacing the
natural body with an artificial one made of tow, paper,
etc., upon a wire foundation, or by well ramming in saw-
dust, bran, etc., as the sewing up is being done. Now
turn the fish over and fasten it temporarily to a piece of
board tiy means of wires left projecting through the cut.
Arrange the fins and tail iu the desired position and clip
them, by means of pins, between pieces of cork. Insert
the eyes and close the mouth, using pins and cork, and
then leave the whole to dry. Colour carefully to imitate
nature, and varnish to represent wetness.
Steaming a Baker's Oven.— For steaming a baker's
oven for say half an hour each day , a No. 3 or No. 4 dome-
top boiler, as used for hot-water work, but with the
inner dome made lower so as to provide a steam
chamber, would do ; from the top of this a I-in. steam
pipe should be carried into the oven. To feed the boiler.
Jay on a i-in. service from the cold-water main, or
from a cistern if it is about 30 ft. above. Put a stopcock
in this service, and a little water can be let in as re-
quired. There must be a good pressure of water in this
service, in case it is required to let water iu while steam
id up. The boiler must have the usual safet,y valve,
water gauge, and emptying tap. A pressure gauge is
scarcely needed.
218
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
/
Machinery for Rolling Sheet Lead.— The machinery
for rolling lead has to be very powerful. The appliance
consists of along frame, near the centre portion or which
are two steel "-oilers turned by steam or other power. The
lead is first cast into a slug ot the width of the mill, and
a few inches thiclj. This is run on loose rollers, fitted In
the frame, up to the steel rollers, between which it is
passed, the latter rollers being held a certain distance
apart by means of adjui-tins; screws. The slug is passed
to and fro between the rollers, which are brought closer
together after each passage, until the lead is reduced to
about 1 in. to S in. in thickness. The sheet is then folded
and again passed between the rollers ; for Tery thin
sheets it is again folded and again passed through until
the desired thickness is attained. As the tenacity of
lead is very low, very thin sheets cannot be made singly.
The price of milled lead is not very much more than that
ot pi^ lead, and it can be bought for considerably less
than it can be manufactured on a small scale.
Making Trammel Heads from Dunlop Tyre
Valves.— A serviceable pair of trammel heads tor draw-
ing-oiBee work may be made from old or disused
Dunlop valves. Bemove the cap and nuts, cut off the
Hange shown at A (Fig. 2) with a file or a back saw,
and file the end to the shape shown at B (Pig. 3) . Drill
a J-in. hole at C (Fig. 3) right through each valve, and
with a hack saw carefully cut out the slot (Pig. 3) fin.
long by a full i in. wide i file up smooth with a ward file.
A piece ot brass is fitted tightly In the hole in one of the
valves, as shown by dotted lines D (Pig. 1) , and soldered in
place ; the shank of an ordinary brass screw suits admir-
ably. It is then drilled with a 1'5-iu. hole, as at E (Pig. 1) ,
in the stencil plate. Special stencil ink may be prepared
by incorporating any mineral colour (lanipblack for
black Ink, with Venetian red for red ink) with gold size
and, perhaps, a little boiled oil. Another method is to
dissolve loz. ot shellac in Jpt. of methylated spirit
adding to this any dry colour as required. Asphaltum'
dissolved in naphtha or benzoline, may also be used'.
For cake stencil ink, grind lampblack and gum arable
down on a slab or in a mortar, make into a paste with
water, and allow to dry.
Imitation Sandstone.— For artificial rock, Portland
cement may be made to look like grey sandstone by
mixing 3 parts of crushed grey sandstone with 1 part of
cement ; for red, use the same quantity of red sandstone.
It the coloured sandstones are not obtainable, the
cement may be coloured grey with lampblack, or a
•warm grey with umber and a little lampblack. The
cement may be coloured red with red oxide of Iron.
toned, it necessary, with a little umber.
Furnace for Casting Aluminium.— A furnace for
melting aluminium may be built like a brassfounder's
furnace ; the interior should be square with loose fire-
bars, an ashpit having a grating in front, and a chimney.
It must be built of fireclay bricks, puddled with fireclay.
The top is covered with a fireclay slab, which may be
removed for inserting or withdrawing a crucible or for
stoking. The fuel used is ironfounders' coke.
How to Repair Worn Stone Steps.— By one method
of repairing worn stone steps, the worn part is marked
out with a dovetail (see Fig. 1), to which tlie stone is
then hewn out from 2 in. to 3 in. deep, according to the
FiG. 2
Trammel Heads made from Dunlop Tyre Valves.
Fia2
Repairing Worn Stone Steps.
to take the needle point, for which a piece ot an uphol-
stering needle, or the shank portion of a very fine drill
ground to a point, can be used. Now get two small
milled-head screws 1' (Figs. 1 and 3) , such as are used on gas
brackets to keep the globe in place, and drill and tap a
hole in each head to receive them. Take four pieces of
watch spring G about li in. long, and bend them to the
shape shown at Pig. i; these prevent the heads cutting
the beam, and at the same time hold them in position
when they are being moved along the latter. The
pencils supplied with most diaries and pocket-books fit
the heads nicely. For the beam, a piece of black walnut
of any suitable length, accurately planed to y', in. wide
by i in. thick and polished, is best. An ordinary compass
pen may be made to fit into the end of the head by un-
screwing it from the handle and filing it a little. Slide
the heads on the beam, first placing the pieces of watch
spring in the slots, the lower ones with the bend down-
wards and the upper ones with the bend upwards (see
Fig. 1), and screw on the caps. Instead of cutting slots
in the heads, holes may be drilled and a piece of steel
wire used for the beam ; but this does not answer so well
as a fiat piece of wood.
Recipes for Stencil Inks.— The following is the re-
cipe for a perfectly dead black stencil ink which is
insoluble in water. Dissolve loz. of shellac in ipt.
of methylated spirit of wine, filter it through a layer
of chalk, and then add lampblack. It will make the
brush rather hard, but, that can be softened by-
soaking in the ink before use. For another ink, boil
ilb. logwood chips for ten to fifteen minutes in 2(it. of
soft water ; then add 1 drachm potassium bichi-omate,
aud boil up again for ten minutes. Add, when cold,
some gum-water ; stir, and shake well before using.
A simple recipe is. Incorporate lampblack with gold
size, not too thin, and use sparingly. The above inks are
suitable for marking on metal. The following is the
composition ot the ink used for marking sacks. Ordi-
nary printer's ink, to which a little terebine has been
added, may be used ; or ordinary oil paint will answer
the same purpose if slightly thinned. Stencilling is per-
formed by a dabbing motion of a stitf-haired brush,
lightly charged with paint or ink, over the perforations
amount of wear. A piece of stone (Pig. 2) is then pre-
pared and fixed in the step with good lime or cement,
aud the job is then complete.
Damp Walls in Basement.— It is desired to overcome
dampness in the walls of a rather old house which has
no damp course and whose basemeni; floor; 6ft. belowthe
level of the street, is paved with slate 2 in. thick, A damp-
proof course should be inserted about 6 in. above the floor
level. The flooring should be taken up and about 5 in. of
earth excavated. On the new level a bed of concrete
about 4iin. thick (say, in the proportions of 6 to 1)
should be laid, and this should be covered with Jin. of
natural rock asphalt, which should be carried up the
walls as a skirting to the level of the damp-proof course.
On this the flooring of slate slabs may be relaid ; or, if
preferred, the excavation may be only 2iin., the con-
crete laid, and the asphalt used as the finished floor.
If the floors were ot timber they should be taken up,
the earth excavated to the level of the footings, a
similar bed of concrete and asphalt with asphalt
skirtings laid, the space below the boards thoroughly
ventilated, and the wooden floor refixed, care being
taken not to injure the asphalt skirting. This method
is somewhat expensive, but is effectual if the work la
properly done.
Scoring Granite Pavement.— The work of scoring a
granite pavement should be done with a heavy short-
handled hammer and a mason's chisel made from steel of
about liin. diameter drawn down to a flat point lin.
broad. This is known as a punch. If continuous lines are
to be scored across the setts, a string should be stretched
between iron pins as a guide ; but roughening the setts
by punching indentations about IJ in. apart should serve
just as well as scoring lines across.
Cement for Aquarium.— To make a cement tor flxiiB
the glass of an aquarium melt together 2 parts of pitch
and 1 part of guttapercha ; apply to the joints hot, and
slightly warm the glasses before pressing them in posi-
tion. The seams may be neatly finished on the outside
by slightly heatins,' a small poker and running it along
the cement. Another cement can be made by mixmg
gold size to a paste with zinc oxide.
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
2J9
Composition Kellers for Branding Sacks. — To
make composition rollers for branding sacks, soak
until soft in suifloient water to cover it lib. of glue;
ihen melt down by a gentle heat and stir in 41b.
of treacle. The rollers are cast in cylindrical tinplate
moulds with a cylindrical core of wood placed in the
centre. In hot weather the material should be made
stifler by increasing the quantity of glue to Hlb. The
material will better withstand the heat if the rollers are
dipped for a short time in a solution of bichromate of
potash and then exposed to light ; an insoluble film is
by this means produced on the surface.
How to Make a Pigeon Cote.— Fig. 1 is a. front
Tiew, and Fig. 2 a section, of a pigeon cote. Three
nests may be placed in each of the three openings.
A piece of iron about i in. thick bent to the shape
of the hole over the drop-board is held inside by a
hook on which it swings loose, thus allowing anything
to go in the cote but not to come out. The piece A
(Fig. 1) should be Uln. wide by Jin. thick, to hold the
door. Two 3-in. hinges are required for the door, and a
pressing an old flat file, made black-hot, on several
thicknesses of wet brown paper placed on the wood. A
bad bruise should be soi-aped out with a cabinet-maker's
scraper and filled up with a mixture of equal parts of
resin and beeswax melted togeth r and coloured with
Venetian red or umber, to match the wood. Having made
good all defects, wipe over with a rag moistened with
linseed oil, which will cause the old and faded work to
appear darker where the polish is removed ; on compara-
tively new work a light place will show. This difference
in colour requires to be matched by the aid of stains,
dry colours, or dyed polish ; light mahogany places are
darkened by wiping over with strong soda water, lime
water, or solutions of bichromate of potash, and light
places in walnut by wiping over with one pennyworth
of asphaltum dissolved in ipt. of turps. If the faded
polish or light places are not matched by the above
means, body the portion up by passing the polish
pad over it several times to prevent the grain rising ;
then colour up by mixing suitable pigments in 1
-lart polish and 3 parts spirit. For walnut, add
ry brown umber or Vandyke brown with a little
^:
Rg. 1
How to Make a Pigeon Cote.
lock. The (liece A should be sunk into the top and bot-
tom to fix it. Bore twelve holes in the wood to let in
fresh air, and a small window may be fixed in the side
for light, if required. The roof should slant, as shown.
A hole should be cut in the boards for the entry of the
pigeons, and a drop-board about 10 in. long by 6i in. vrtde
should project from the hole. At B (Fig. 2) two
boards should project about 12 in. inside at the back
of the cote ; also at the bottom, as at C, for the nests, etc.
The wood required for this cote is 97ift. of 6-in. by }-in.
stuff. The boards should be tongued and grooved to
hold together better. Two strips of wood for each side
will be required inside to hold the boards. A coat of
tar, etc., could be given to make the cote watertight.
The total height Is iit. 31n., length 2ft., and width 3 ft.
Hints on Repolishlng Furniture. — Bepolishing,
though practically the same as French polishing, calls
lor more tact if the article is dirt-begrimed, broken, or
bruised, and entirely different in colour from what it was
when first finished. Assuming that such an article is to be
repolished, it should first be cleansed. For this purpose,
dissolve a teacupful of common washing soda in Igal.
of warm water, and well rub the article, using, if neces-
sary, a little pumice-stone powder or powdered Bath
brick, and afterwards wiping quite dry. Any necessary
repairs should be attended to, doors unhinged, and all
carvings, knobs, brass fittings, etc., removed. Bruises
in the wood may be generally drawn up level by
black, and apply with a small tuft of wadding or a
camel-hau' brush. A wavy appearance may be obtained
by a tremulous movement of the hand, and a mottled
appearance by gently dabbing with a badger softener or
a soft dusting brush, such as a sash tool, while wet. If
rosewood, mix a little red stain and black, and after
allowing the stain to set for a few minutes, smooth down
with fine worn glasspaper, and apply a thin coat of spirit
varnish. The polishing ingredients are the same as for
new work, but thinner. A tinge of red stain in the
polish improves walnut, mahogany, and rosewood ; but
if for the purpose of matching any particular portion,
a strong colour should be used on the polishing pad,
finishing off with clean polish on another rubber. All
carved portions, mouldings, and parts difficult to finish
with a pad should be given an even coat of varnish.
Many articles may be improved by simply applying
one or more coats of good quality spirit varnish, for
which the following is a recipe. Shellac, 4 oz. ; sandarach,
4 oz. : mastic, i oz. ; Venice turpentine, 1 oz. ; camphor,
10 gr. i oil of turpentine, i oz. ; and methylated spirit, I pt.
Shake weU over a gentle heat and carefully strain through
muslin before using, and apply with a camel-hair brush
in a fairly hot room. For common goods, such as kitchen
furniture, the following will suffice. Shellac, 4 oz. ; resin,
2oz. ; benzoin, 2 oz. ; and methylated spirit, Ipt. To
make a red stain, dissolve one pennyworth of Bismarcl:
brown in ipt. of spirit. A few drops added to polish or
varnish will give a reddish tinge.
220
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
Construction of Folding Hand Camera.— Instruc-
tions on making a quarterplate folding hand camera
are here given. From i-in. mahogany cut a piece
llin. hy Sin. (A, Pig. 1). The rails BB (Fig. 1), shown
in section in Fig. i, should be fitted as shown iin.
from the front and liin. from the baoli. Now cut the
two posts Jin. square and tin. long, and .join with
the cross-pieces D aud D'. Out and bend the plate
E (Fig. 4) to fit the rails B; see that it rims smoothly,
then screw into D. Now cut the board A (Fig. 1)
in two pieces straiglit across 4in. from the back, and
hinge together again underneath. Cut three pieces
r, O, andll; 1' is 7 in. by 4 in., G7in. by 3 in., and H4in. by
4* in. In F and G cut the two slots I (the arc being formed
with a radius of II) aud join all together with A and K,
leaving an opening between K aud G for the insertion of
the dark slide. Next construct a framework L (Fig. 2) 6in.
by 4 in., canting the top and bottom slightly to permit of
swing. Fit in this another franie (to w^hich the bellows
is fastened) i in. wide at the sides and 1 in. at the top
and bottom. Pivot the sides of the awing frame to P and
G at M and N, and fix the thumbscrews I and 1'. Having
got this to work smoothly, remove the frame and form
two tongues Y y, 5iin. apart, running from p to G. These
form guides or stops for position of dark slide. Now cut
two thin brass springs O and screw to the sides of the
frame above and below the tongues. Next make the
its colour, but the toned piece will have yellowed con-
siderably owing to the formation of sulphide of silver.
Thus the theory has been propounded that the gold
forms a sort of casing around the injurious compounds
and keeps them from being dissolved out. As the pre-
liminary washing is dispensed with when the combined
bath is used, toning by this method offers a possible
way out of the difficulty where the water is very
hard ; but with the combined bath the results are not
permanent.
Removing Porcelain Letters from Glass.— To re-
move porcelain letters from glass, well clean the edges of
the letters with the point of the blade of a pocket-knife.
H^en insert a very thin dinner-knife between the letter
and the glass and work it carefully upwards ; the joint
will then break and the letters fall off.
How to IVIake Copyiog Inks.— Copying inks maybe
made by adding a small quantity of alum to an extract of
logwood. To this is added table salt or sugar and glycerine.
The inks so obtained are purple when first used^ and
darken gradually on the paper. The copies taken from
them darken still more slowly. Violet writing ink may be
converted into copying ink by the addition of glycerine
in the proportion of about 3 parts of the latter to 4 parts
of the violet ink. If a quantity of glycerine slightly
4 —
Constrnctlou of Folding Hand Camera.
FIG. 4, p
focussing screen 5Jin. by 31 in., with iin, rebate for
ground glass 4i in. )j,y 3J in., giving a sight of 4 in. by Sin.
At top and bottom of the right-hand end place a screw z
so that it slips under o. Cut four sets of brass joints
(as shown in Fig. 3) for attaching the focussing screen
to the swing frame. Next fit the door P (Fig. 1) for
focussing. Construct two joints Q with springs B, and
fit them to the sides of P and G (inside) and to the
bottom A. On pulling down the front the spring B forces
the side stays up so that the pin s passes into the slot T.
The rising front carrying the flange consists of a square
of wood, with opening for lens, fitting between tiie front
posts and fastened to a rim of brass at the top through
which passes a coarse thread screw worked by a lever J,
which, biting against the front post, holds all tightly
together in any position. A similar screw fastens the
front posts after focussing.
Washing Photographic Printing - out - paper. —
Ordinary tap water, which is generally more or less
hard, is used for the preliminary washing of P.O. P.
The chlorides, etc., combine with the free silver, which
is thus removed. Trouble may arise with extremely hard
water, particularly with gelatine papers. The chlorides
and sulphates have been found to form compounds in the
film that are not readily soluble and are not removed in
the hypo bath or in the final washing if gold has been
deposited on them. In such cases the whites of the
picture usually turn yellow. M. ,Sch51zig has suggested
the following experiments. Wash two pieces of un-
exposed paper in four changes of tap water for a total
period of ten minutes. Let one piece soak for another
ten minutes in a new toning bath. Place both pieces in
the hypo bath ; wash and dry. Next so.ik them both in
water containing a few drops of ammonium sulphide.
The untoned piece of paper will be found to have kept
less than the foregoing be used, the ink will copy within
a quarter of an hour after writing. An ink which will
yield one or two copies by hand pressure may be made
by mixing, say, Ipt. of glycerine in 3pt. of jet-black
writing ink. The following is a recipe that has been
recommended. Place 2 dr. of crystallised carbonate of
soda and loz. of extract of logwood in a porcelain
receiver with 8oz. of distilled water. Heat this until
the solution reaches a deep red colour aud everything
is quite dissolved. Then remove it from the fire and stir
in I oz. of glycerine, 15 gr. of neutral chromate of potash,
and 2 dr. of finely pulverised gum arable, each of the
latter dissolved in a little water. This is another recipe.
Take 4 gal. of soft water (preferably rain water) , and add
gum arable, clean copperas, and brown sugar, using of
each 41b. (not more), and lib. of powdered nutgaUs.
Allow this to stand for two weeks, shaking occasionalw,
then strain. This ink will not fade on exposure to the
atmosphere. A simple method of making copying
ink is to evaporate loz. of ordinary ink to a quarter
of its bulk, and dissolve in it 20 gr. of powdered sugar.
Another recipe is to boil together i lb. logwood extract,
2oz. of alum, 4 dr. sulphate of copper, 4 dr. sulphate or
iron, loz. of sugar, aud 4 parts of water, and niter
through flannel. Add a solution of 4 dr. of neutral
chromate of potash iu 4oz. of water, and a solution of
2oz. of ohemio blue in 2oz. of glycerine. For reo
copying ink, dissolve 6 parts of logwood extract in
150 parts of distilled water without the aid of heat;
add 5 part of ohrom:ite of potassium, and set aside fOT
twenty-four hours, and then add a solution of 3 part
oxalic acid, 4 parts oxalate of ammonium, and 8 parts or
suljihate of aluminium in 40 parts of distilled water, and
again set aside for twenty-four hours. Boil in a copper
vessel, and add 10 parts of vinegai'. In a fortnights
time decant and bottle.
Cyclopsedia of Mechanics.
221
Value of White Mica.— "White mica or muscovite is
valuable, especially if in large pieces, which cleave
easily into thin plates. It is used lor chimneys lor
Incandescent gas lights and Davy lamps, lor smoke
preventers or hoods for lamps and gas burners ; also
in place of glass in the fronts of gas stoves, etc. : and in
some countries it is used in place of glass tor windows.
The rough stuff is ground up and used as a paint, and
the fine scaly kinds are coloured and used in place of
bronze colours. The black mica, or biotite, is of no
value. Sometimes black talc is called black mica. In
addition to the uses above mentioned, mica is put into
room ventilators, and it is very largely employed in
electrical machinery as a non-conductor.
Running an Oval Frame in Cement. — The best
method of riinning an oval frame, 18 in. by Min., in
Keenes cement, would be to use trammels and zinc
templates, as shown in the figure, which is drawn
groportionate to the required size ; or the frame might
e made of wood and bent to the reciuired shape j
varnish enamels dry much more quickly, and to those
conversant with the art of French polishing come as a
welcome change, giving a pleasing finish with a minimum
of trouble, and, moreover, present a surface more readily
adapted for the purpose of decorative ornament, whether
gilding, transfer decoration, or hand painting. These
enamels are made by carefully blending dry colour in
spirit varnish, a dead or semi-lustrous finish being
gained by thinning out the last coat with methylated
spirit by the addition of alittle linseed oil, or by dulling
with finest grade pumice powder or flour emery. A plan
sometimes adopted is to mix the colour required with
about equal parts of polish and spirit, coat after coat
being laid on till a solid body of colour appears. Two,
three, or more distinctive colours may be laid on the
article ; for instance, Japanese boxes, plaques, etc., will
be seen in various tones underneath the decorations.
When the colours which should be laid on with camel-
hair brushes— are dry, the surface should be smoothed
down with finest grade glasspaper, and a coat of clear
spirit varnislx applied ; and this, when dry, will give a
Running an Oval Frame in Cement
or a sei'les of divisions might be made on the oval
by drawing lines perpendicular to the curve (as shown
on the diagram) and cutting similar pieces from a
straight strip of moulding and joining these together,
though this would be a somewhat elaborate method.
Galvanising Wire Articles.— When galvanising small
wire articles, keep the surface of the molten zinc well
covered with sal-ammoniac, and heat the metal well
above its fusing point. Then immerse the articles and
move them in the metal until the zinc appears to be
flowing freely upon the wire ; withdraw and strike lightly
with a stick to jar off superfluous metal.
French Polishing in Self Colours.— Brackets, tables
tor bric-a-brac, picture frames, etc., are often more
attractive when finished in self colours with either a
bright or dull finish, and a judicious addition of gold and
flower decoration, than it finished in the natural tones
left by the polish rubber or spirit varnish. Most of
the enamel paints now sold in tins have an oil varnish
basis, which means that at least twenty-four hours
should elapse between each coat ; and though some of
them have remarkable covei'ing pi-operties, it is sometimes
lecessary to apply at least three coats in order to gain
a good solid body, and if any portion is afterwards to be
gilded it should be allowed to stand several days to
harden thoroughly before this is attempted. Spirit
superior enamel finish if carefully polished. Picture
frames are especially suited to this mode of treat-
ment. The pictures and glass being removed, the frames
should be well dusted, and suitable pigments mixed in
half polish and half spirit. A bronze green, mixed as
advised, gives a finish neither very bright nor yet quite
dull; gilt slips being put in give a green and gold
finish. If a bright finish is desired on such a foundation
a transparent or white hard varnish is advised. Common
brown hard spirit Is apt to alter the colour, but more
pleasing results are gained by leaving the frames semi-
dull, a small quantity of varnish being added to the
enamel for that purpose.
Artificial Stone Cement. — The following cement,
which does not require to be kiln-dried, may be used with
pedestals, etc., out of doors. The materials required
are silicate of soda, or water-glass ; carbonate of lime ;
chloride of calcium ; and quartz, or pure fiint sand : this,
if from the sea shore, shoiild be well washed and sifted ;
if Bedfordshire sand, sift it to get uniformity, and
wash it once. Take 1 gal. of silicate of soda and
1 bushel of mixture of flint sand and a small quantity
of carbonate of lime; mix mechanically, and pour into
the mould and then pour over the mixture the chloride
of calcium. Another cement is washed sUicious sand
3 parts, shellac Ipart. Melt the shellac, and mould
into the sand while warm.
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
making Glass-fronted Hanging Cupboard.— Fig.
1 is an elevation of a small glass-fronted cupboard
suitable for hanging on a wall. The top Is liin thick,
the bottom 1 in. thick, and the sides and bade .1 in. thick.
The sash forming the door is }in. thick, finished size.
The top is rebated and moulded, the moulding being
returned along the ends to form a small cornice (see
Figs. 2 and 5) ; the bottom is prepared in a similar
manner (see Fig. 3). The ends are rebated front
and back (see Fig. i). Fig. 5 shows how the end is
fixed to the top and bottom, whilst Fig. 6 gives a
will strike on a l}-cwt. bell. Going barrel, 6 in. in
diameter and 16 in. long ; main wheel, lOin. in diameter
one hundred and twenty teeth. The hour wheel has
forty teeth, is 3i in. in diameter, and runs with the main
wheel; the second wheel, driven also from the main
wheel, has a pinion of ten leaves, is Sin. in diameter,
and has one hundred and twenty teeth j the 'scape-
wheel (dead beat) is driven by the sec.ind wheel, has a
pinion of eight leaves. Is 4^ in. in diameter, and has
thirty teeth ; striking barrel, 7 In. in diameter, 16 in.
long; main wheel, eighty teeth, diameter 12 in.; second
wheel (carries eight cams for lifting the striking
hammer) , 8 in. diameter, eighty teeth, pinion of twenty
leaves; third wheel (carries a cam upon which the
striking lever rests), 6 in. diameter, eighty teeth, pinion
of ten leaves : Hy (carries the locking arm), pinion of ten
leaves. The looking plate or count wheel is mounted on
a stud outside the frame, and is driven b v a pinion of
eight leaves fixed to the axis of the cam wheel or second
wheel. The locking-plate wheel has seventy-eight teeth.
The fly has two vanes, each Sin. by 4 in., the centres of
which are 12 in. from the axis. The main wheel of the
going train revolves once in three hours ; the second
wheel once in fifteen minutes ; the 'scape wheel once in
one minute. The cylindrical bob of the seconds
pendulum is of cast iron, weighing about 701b. The
going weight will probably be about icwt. or a little
more, falling about 24 ft. on a double Hue for a four days'
run. The striking weight should be about li cwt., falling
about 20 ft. on a double line for a four days' run. The
clock can be made to go for a week by increasing the
weights, putting them on triple lines, and giving about
a 30-ft. fall. The frame should be A-shaped, with the
going ti-ain up the right-hand side and the striking
train up the left. The pendulum should hang in the
middle of the frame from the top and swing between the
barrels. The back 'scape pivot must be held by a ooclt
to clear the pendulum rod. The arbors of the wheels
run in gunmetal bushes screwed on to the sides of the
frame, and each is detachable separately. The striking
pinion, cams, barrels, main wheels, and second wheel
may be of cast iron; all other wheels should be
gunmetal, and all other pinions, lanterns. The bell
hammer should weigh about 3 lb. The pendulum, if not
compensated, should have a deal rod, round, lin. thick.
Fig 4
Glass-fronted Hangrlng Cupboard.
better method of fixing the bottom to the end or side
by means of dovetails, the pins being out on the bottom.
A loose piece of moulding is then planted on to cover
the dovetailing, and the sash is mortised and tenoned
together. If desired, a chamfer may take the place of
the ovolo moulding on the stiles and rails, or the sash
may be made square and a bead mitred round and fixed
with panel pins, as shown in Fig. 7. The sash is hinged
with braes butts, and a straight cupboard lock fixed on
the left-hand stiles, the keyhole only recLuiring to be out,
and a small thread escutcheon let in on the face of the
stile. The middle shelf is fixed on movable fillets.
Arrangement of Small Turret Clock. — The fol-
lowing specification is for a small turret clock which
The wood minute hand is poised by a short outside
counterpoise, and the hour hand by an inside weight.
Stockholm Tar and Swedish Pitch.— Stockholm tai
is obtained during the manufacture of charcoal from
pine wood. It is a good preservative for woodwork,
being better than coal tar tor the purpose. It can ae
thinned with creosote oil or coal-tar naphtha, or witn
wood spirit. Swedish pitch may be melted and the tar
stirred into it for thickening purposes. It is, Perh^.ps,
best to apply the tar hot, because heat expands the ceus
of the wood, and the subsequent contraction causes
the tar to be drawn into the wood. Swedish pitch la
simply the tar heated until the liquid volatile portions
have distilled over.
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
223
BlacK Enamel for Ferrotype Plates.— To make the
bliick enamel for ferrotype plates, mix together amber
90 parts, hlaok resin 60 parts, spir.t of turpentine 45 parts,
and painter's varnish in parts, and add sufflcleut lamp-
black to give the desired blackness. The varnish is
contained in an upright bath and the plates in fairly
large sizes dipped and afterwards cut np. Then coat
with collodion and sensitise as usual.
Breeding Cage for Small Birds.— The illustration
shows a breeding and flight cage, which may have a
mahogany front and zinc drawers. The cage may
be 33in. long, 14in. deep by 11 in. wide, or it may be
28in. long, 15in. deep by Ilin. wide. The cage is divided
into two compartments by slides running from front to
back, but when pairing or feeding these slides should be
replaced by wired partitions, the wires being f in. apart
to permit the birds to put their heads between them
easily. A four-compartment cage made on the above
plan might be 31in, long, 2oin. deep by Uin. high. It
is, perhaps, rather low, but it answers for Norwich birds.
The lower part could be used, when necessary, as a flight
cage by removing the partitions. False bottoms must
be provided with a i-iu, beading all round to keep the
sand, etc., from falling off. Zino can be used for the
seed drawers, but the water should not be kept In a zinc
vessel, as this metal is said to be injurious. The cage
wires should be ^in. apart, but the partition wires should
be jin. apart, so that the young birds may be easily fed.
The bottom stay should be 3i in. high, with the lower
inch cut off to form the front of the false bottom. Fix a
5oz. of strong alcohol ; let it stand in a covered vessel
for about three hours, then add 3ooz. of distilled water.
Heat gently for some hours until the odour of alcohol
is no longer perceptible. Add to the liquor 8 oz. of
distilled water in which 2 oz. of gum has been previously
dissolved. (7) Aniline red, 20 parts; gluten or gum,
100 parts ; water 1,000 parts ; and acetic acid, 100 parts.
The process Is practically the same as with (6).
(8) Dissolve 1 oz. of anile crimson in 1 gal. of water.
(9) For red cochineal ink, rub together powdered
cochineal, J oz. ; carbonate of soda, 1 oz. ; distilled water,
13 oz. Mix these in a large mortar capable of holding
3 pt. or ipt., and stir frequently during two days ; then
add cream of tartar 3o2., alum Joz. "Warm gently,
and stir until all the carbonic acid has passed away. Add
gum arable Joz., alcohol ioz. Filter, and make up the
solution to 15 oz. with distilled water. The ink should
be at once bottled, and kept well corked. (10) Rub
1 part of carmine with 12i parts of liquid water-glass.
Dilute with H2i parts of rain water, allow to stand for
a few days, and pour off. (11) Buchner's carmine ink
is made by dissolving together 12 gr. of pure carmine,
or idr. powdered drop lake, and 3oz. of aqua-ammonia.
Add to this 20 gr. powdered gum.
Making Table Framework, — The accompanying
sketch illustrates an easy method of making the frame-
work of a table. The front and back are cut out with the
ends shown, in one piece. The ends are mortised into
the back and front, and the legs, which should be about
2 in. sqtiare, are halved at the top and glued to the
Breeding Cage for Small Birds.
Making Table Prameworli.
ferch parallel with the bottom stay about 2in. behind
It and li in. lower than the top of the stay. This forms
a feeding-perch. A perch should also be fixed on each
side of the cross-piece for the young birds to stand upon
while being fed. An egg drawer should be provided for
each compartment. As cleanliness is an important con-
sideration, the front shuiild be removable, which is
easily ai-ranged by forming a framework of wood iin.
square just large enough to fit inside the front. In this
framework build the front, and fasten it to the body
with a couple of small brass hinges at the top. A small
thumbscrew on each side towards the bottom should
enter from the outside into the front and thus keep all
tight. On raising the front, the perches come out and
the whole of the inside of the cage is easily reached at
cleaning time. "Whitewash is frequently used for the
■Interior of the cage, but blue enamel is better, as its
smooth, hard surface affords no protection to vermin,
and it is easily cleaned.
Recipes for Red Inks.— (1) To make bright red ink,
over 8oz. of bruised cochineal pour 1 gal. of boiling water,
tnd let it stand. Sow boil 8oz. of I'.razil wood in igal. of
soft water for half an hour, aud in two days' time
mix both together. Dissolve 2 oz. arable in 1 qt. of
water, and when cold add one solution to the other and
stir well. Cork the mixture up, and in seven ' days
strain through muslin and bottle. (2) Pour 2 parts of 90
per cent, alcohol over | part of finely rubbed fuchsine,
and dissolve by gently heating. Dissolve 1 part of gum
arable in 20 parts of water, boil, and then, whilst stirring,
add the fuchsine solution in a thin jet. (3) Dissolve
30 gr. of No. 40 carmine in 1 dr. of ammonia, and add
B gr. of acacia and sufficient water to make 1 oz. The tint
13 regulated by the amount of water added. (4) Grind
1 part carmine with 15 parts acetate ammonia and
1-7 parts water. This is allowed to stand for some
time, strained, and then thickened with a few drops of
dissolved white sugar. (5) Dissolve ^dr. of powdered
orop lake and 18 gr. of powdered gum arable in 3 oz.
or ammonia water. (6) Dissolve 4oz. of aniline red in
sides, with two or three screws put in from inside the
frame. After the legs are fixed, the blocks are glued
in the corners.
Crystoleum Fainting. — Instructions on making
crystoleum paintings are here given. Procure a pair of
convex cabinet-size crystoleum glasses, costingaboutOd.,
from any artists' oolourman, together with sable brushes
and the usual oil colours, megilp„palette knife, etc. Trim
the photograph until it is a little smaller than the glass,
which, after cleaning, should be well bfushed over on the
concave side with starch paste. Press the wetted photo-
graph into close contact, and work out the creases by
rubbing from the centre to the margins with the bowl of
a spoon. This rubbing should be continued— re-wetting
the photograph if necessary- until all shiny spots or air
bubbles are removed. When dry, rub away nearly all
the paper with sandpaper, finishing off with pumice
powder. The picture may next be rendered transparent
by the use of 2 parts of Canada balsam to 1 part each of
white wax and paraffin wax or, preferably, poppy oil.
Or cleariue, which is a preparation sold for this purpose,
may be used. The colours, thinned with megilp and
rendered opaque by mixing with white, are laid on the
glasses. The delicate and sharp touches are placed
directly on the film, and the deeper and bolder work is
done on the second glass. A strip of paper should be
pasted all round the edges of the front glass so that the
two glasses may be kept from absolute contact. A piece
of cardboard is then glued to the back of the picture,
and the two glasses being placed together are bounrf
round the edges with paper. The paper may also b«
removed by rubbing whilst damp, but this method is very
risky. Considerable trouble may be saved and more even
results obtained by using "Novitas" stripping P.O.P.
The film strips readily on placing in warm water,
and may be transferred to any article (previously coated
with a strong solution of gum arable) by lilting on a
sheet of parchment and stroking out air bubbles as
before mentioned. Eastman's transferrotype can also
be used for the same purpose.
224
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
strength of Concrete.— It has been found that the
strength of concrete regularly dimluishea as the pro-
portion of cement becomes less. Approximately the
results follow the formula F = 150-10B, where P =
crushing force in tons per square foot, and B = quantity
of ballast to 1 of cement. (See vol. ill., " Notes in
Building Construction," pp. 208-9.) Sutcliffe's " Concrete "
quotes three tests by Kirkaldy for strength of concrete
beams as follows. (1) Beam of 1 Portland cement and I
coke breeze, seven days old, Sin. broad, 5 in. deep, 72in.
clear span. Breaking weight loaded in centre averaged
3'8.5 cwt., or allowing half - weight of beam between
supports a gross central load of i'Ol owt. (2) Beam of 1
Portland cement and 2 crushed bricks, two or three
months old, 12 in. broad, Sin. deep,60in. span. Breaking
it is called, in plank and in board. To obtain the
ligure it is necessary that the faces of the planks
and boards coincide, as near as may be, with the
direction of the medullary rays ; the more nearly they
do this, the higher the class of wainscot produced.
Fig. 2 shows the ideal system of wainscot cutting, where
eacla board in the log is made to fall exactly on the
lines of the medullar.^ rays. This method or cutting
is expensive, and iii:*ces6aril.y involves much waste of
material. In America, where the production of good
wainscot stuff is uoiv receiving special attention, the
modified system shown in Pig. 3 appears to be most
popular. The figure in the outer boards of each group
is obviously not so good as it is in the centre ones.
When the divergence between the line of the ray and
the face of the board is greater than 15" (see Pig. 3) the
figure begins to be poor, and in most American ports
such material would be graded as "Below Class III."
It could hardly be described as wainscot.
FiC. 3
Fig. I
Wainscot Oak,
weight loaded in centre averaged 13'25 cwt., or a gross
central load of l.^'OScwt. (3) Beam of 1 Portland cement
to 6 gravel, ninety days old, 12 in. by 12 in. by 36 in. span.
Average breaking weight on central 6 in. = 46'67 cwt.
But it must be mentioned that the strength is subject to
so many contingencies that experiments cannot be
relied upon very closely. A reasonable practice is to let
the thickness of concrete in inches equal the span in
feet between main .ioists, and to put cross joists of about
half -depth at half the distance apart.
Particulars of Wainscot Oak. — Oak boards and
planks that show prominently a good silver-grain
figure are spoken of as wainscot stuflf. The term is
not now, as was formerly the case, restricted to the
oak brought from any particular country. Russian
wainscot, Austrian waiixscot, English wainscot, and
American wainscot are the principal kinds now in
the market. Ilussian wainscot oak is brought over in
flitches, as shown in Pig. 1, Austrian stuff principally
in plank form. English wainscot also is mostly in plank,
and American rlft-sawed or quarter-sawed oak, as
Cleaning WMte Buckskin Boots.— To clean a pair
of sham buckskin cricket boots that have turned brown
in places, first tree and then well wash them; let them get
quite dry, then remove them from the trees and soften
all parts, but more especially where the brown marks
are, by well bending the leather backwards and for-
wards. Now put the boots on the trees again, give them
a good hard brushing, and then well and evenly sponge
into them some wet " Blanco." When nearly dry, well
rub them all over with a piece of chamois leather; and
when quite dry, well brush them, and finish hy rubbing
with a piece of dry chamois leather on which some
chalk is placed.
Particulars of Watchmakers' Eye-glasses.—
Watchmakers' eye-glasses are numbered according to
their focal leugth in inches. A glass of short focus is
stronger than one of long focus, and has to be used
closer to the work. Thus with a 2-in. glass,, the work
is held 2in. from the glass, and so on. A 34-in. or Wn.
glass is found the most convenient for ordinary work.
Jf spectacles are not used, order a 1-in. glass.
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
225
Recipes for Rubber Stamp Inks.— One method of
making rubber stamp ink is to dissolTe aniline in hot
glycerine, straining whUe hot. A rubber stamp ink that
will not smear or blvir burnished surfaces is made by
dissolving 180 gr. of violet aniline crystals in 2oz. of
boiling distilled water. Add one teaspoonful of glycerine
and half a teaspoonful of treacle. Dissolve about 1 dr.
of aniline violet in 5oz. of methylated spirit and 5oz.
of glycerine. Black aniline does not answer so well,
and is usually mixed with a small quantity of violet or
green aniline. Black ink for rubber stamps may be
made by grinding vegetable black or lampblack in
glycerine and then thinning with a little alcohol.
Dissolve 3 parts of aniline colour in 10 parts of distilled
water, 10 parts of acetic acid, 10 parts of alcohol, and
70 parts of glycerine. The ingredients above mentioned
form the bulk of stamp inks, and though there are
many recipes not given here, they merely differ as
regards the proportions.
Roof of Corrugated Iron and Felt. — Eooflng
felt is usually laid on close boards, bat as it is proposed
to also lay corrugated iron sheets, the boarding can
be dispensed with. In order to arrive at the proper
distance apart of the battens, it is necessary to re-
member that roofing felt is usually 32 in. wide. It should
be laid by commencing at the eaves at one end of the
roof and laying a strip along the roof just above the
eaves. The next strip higher up should overlap 3in.,
and this brings the battens 2 ft. 5 in. apart from centre
to centre, as shown in Pig. 1. The felt is nailed to the
transfer should be held up in a strong light and tally-
marks pencilled on the back as guides to ensure its
being fixed true. Place the paper, face upwards, on
a sheet of newspaper and cover it with an even coat
of varnish. Then out in around the design to form
a thick edge. Work from right to left several times
without recharging the brush, which should be of camel
hair. Dip it in the varnish, and to work out the surplus
press it over a piece of string stretched over the varnish
jar, or work it over a smooth piece of wood. Any good
(juiek-drying clear varnish will do. It should stand
sufficiently long to have a good " tack "—that is, it should,
whenlightly touched with the knuckle, feel sticky without
being wet. With gold or metal transfers, to be on the
safe side, have them a trifle too dry ; it wet, loss of
burnish or brightness will result. The place on which
the design Is to be fixed having been wiped quite clean,
place the varnished transfer in position and press the
thumb down the centre, working outwards to remove
air bubbles ; for a cycle frame, press well down with the
palm of the hand orwlth a soft cloth. Allow the transfer
to stand a few minutes, then damp the paper with a
sponge moistened with warm water. Press down again
evenly, and apply water more liberally with the sponge.
The paper should now readily lift if held by one corner,
leaving every line of the design perfect. "With thin
paper the same procedure should be followed, the chief
point to be observed being to avoid swimming the
varnish on. In some oases better results are gained
by applying the varnish where the design is to be fixed
instead of varnishing the design. The paper being
F;g. 2
Fig. I
Roof of Corrugated Iron and Felt.
Fig. 4
battens with galvanised-iron naUs. If corrugated iron
sheets 5ft. long are used and of say No. 20 or No. 21
gauge, they will reach over two batten spaces and allow
of 4 in. overlap at the ends. The sheets are usually
fastened with round-headed galvanised screws screwed
through ridges, not hollows, in the sheets, as shown in
Fig. 2. By this arrangement the screw Is kept clear of
water flowing down the sheet. Corrugated-iron ridging
can be procured or a wooden ridge covering can be made.
For securing the sheets at the gables, the best plan is to
make wooden barge-boards, as shown in Fig. 3, with a top
table projecting 3 in. or 4 in. over the edge of the sheets.
To carry the gutters without fixing brackets to the walls,
some simple form of iron bracket can be nailed to the
sides of the rafters or principals, as shown in Fig. i.
Fixing Transfers on Cycles or Wood.— Transfers
afford an easy method of decorating wood or iron ; for
wood they are generally printed in colours, often in
imitation of inlays, though flowers, foliage, etc., may be
shown if they give a pleasing finish. Gold decorations
are chiefly used on iron bedsteads, japanned goods, and
cycle and pianoforte makers' name labels. Generally
speaking, transfers printed on stout paper are fixed with .
the minimum of trouble, but imitation gold transfers
are mostly printed on thin tissue paper, which requires
some practice to yield good results; therefore, those who
desire a few transfers for trade or club purposes are
advised to have real gold printed on stout paper. For
cycles and japanned goods the use of a stove, though
not necessary, is advised, as the clear varnish with
which the design is finally coated will dry out harder
than when finished cold. The transfers are printed on
sheets and must be cut out, leaving a margin- of white
paper arornd the edge j if printed on stout paper, the
removed, the frame should be hung in the stove at a
temperature of about 150° F. for ten minutes or so,
the surplus moisture being first removed by a gentle
dabbing with a clean moist washleather. Remove the
frame from the stove, and whilst it is still slightly warm,
apply a thin even coat of good clear varnish and stove
again for twenty or thirty minutes or even longer:
excess of heat will cause the gold to amalgamate with
the asphaltum of the japan, and thus to turn brown.
When there is no stove at hand, coat the design with a
good spirit varnish or "transfer" varnish, which ac-
quires the requisite tack in a few seconds. The design
is then placed in position and pressed well home.
Allow it to stand ten minutes and then damp with warm
water ; press home again and moisten more liberally ;
remove the paper and surplus moisture and set aside in
warmth for at least an hour. Should the result have a
scaly or whitish appearance only, wipe over with a trace
of raw linseed oil ; rub free from oil and apply a coat
of varnish over the design. Several coats may be given,
at intervals of half an hour. Better results may be
gained it, instead of successive coats of spirit or transfer
■ varnish, one only is given to fix the design and kill any
trace of oil; then finish with a coat of best copal or
coach varnish. Colour transfers are fixed in the same
manner. In the case of wood decoration, the same
general principle is employed, the design being fixed
after the work is bodied up and the surface freed from
grease, the subsequent coat of varnish used for pro-
tection being ofttimes discarded. White or transparent
polish is applied by means of a pad and a lac surface
built up that will give the appearance of inlay. Large
designs require a rubber roller to press them well home.
Transfers, when not required for immediate use, should
be kept flat between the leaves of a book in a dry place.
?M
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
How to Read and Regulate a Mercurial Barometer,
—The following notes are on reading and regulating
a mercurial barometer (Pitzroy pattern). Tiie dial
on the face is divided into set fair, fair, change,
wet, very wet; these require no explaining. The
numbers 29, 30, 31, etc., refer to the height of mercury in
inches. One hand works round the dial as the mercury
rises and falls ■, the other hand is stationary, but may be
moved by a small knob below; this hand is set directly
over the movable hand each daj', and serves to show any
change in the instrument. To regulate the barometer,
it should be compared at a certain time, morning and
evening of each day, with a standard barometer or with
another bai'ometer which is known to be accurate. If
the readings are appreciably incorrect, open the back of
the case and add or take away a drop of mercury as
required ; continue this treatment until the instrument
reads the same as the standard.
Marking Out Involute Curves.— In marking out in-
volute curves, first strike a circle as shown by the sketch i
divide this into a number of equal parts, as A, B, C, etc.,
the more the better ; from each of the points draw a
tangent to the circle DEFGHIJKL. Now, supposing
the curve to commence from C, make D equal to the
distance from C to B measured on the circumference of
the circle, E twice the length of D, E three times the
length of D, O four times the length of D, and so
on; from C, through the ends of D, E, F, G, etc.,
draw the curve freehand. This curve may be de-
scribed mechanically as follows. Take a cylinder of
wood, and on this wind a cord with a loop at the end ;
place a pencil point in the loop, and the cylinder with
paper has undergone some preparation to render the
characters visible. A great number of suitable prepara-
tions are known. The following is the composition of a
sympathetic ink that becomes visible on being warmed
Form a very weak solution of equal parts of blue vitriol
and sal-ammoniac in water. Another, nitrate of nickel
and chloride of nickel in weak solution. Another, dia.
solve 25 gr. of chloride of cobalt in loz. of water
Another, dissolve 1 part bromide of potassium and 1 part
blue vitriol in 8 parts water and 1 part alcohol. Another
dilute sulphuric acid with water. Another^make a wealt
solution of cobalt In nitro-muriatio acid, writing made
with weak tincture of galls is invisible till wetted with a
weak solution of sulphate of iron ; vice versa, a weak
solution of sulphate of iron is not Tisible till moistened
with a solution of galls. If a solution of alum be
employed, the characters will be invisible till the paner
be immersed in water. A solution of acetate of lead in
water will not appear till moistened with a solution of
sulphuret of potass, which renders it brown. To make a
blue sympathetic ink, dissolve cobalt in nitric acid, and
precipitate it by potash. Dissolve this precipitated
oxide of cobalt in acetic acid, and add to the solution
one-eighth of common salt ; for the writing to appear,
heat the paper. It is an awkward matter to write with a
colourless fluid, so any of these inks may be mixed with
powdered burnt cork. When dry, the blackness may be
removed by the use of indiarubber.
Girders and Columns for Carrying Roof.— To carry
a slate roof 30 ft. wide, with a clear headway of 16ft. and
with a span of 50 ft., there will be required four cast-iron
E stanchions about 8 in. by 6 in, by J in., with nroper cap
xxxxx i
SECTION ON A_A
Marking Out Involute Curves.
Girders and Columns for Caxrying Boof.
one end on a piece of paper ; press the point on the paper
and unwind the cord, keeping it tight, and the pencil
will trace a curve similar to that shown on the sketch.
Variations of the curve may be made by using an ellipse
or any other form for the section of the solid from which
the cord is unwound.
How to Sat Beetles.— To set a beetle, pin it through
the right elytron (wing case) with an entomological pin,
raising the body high enough to give sufficient space for
the proper arrangement of the legs. The beetle is then
pinned to a flat piece of cork, and the legs arranged,
each Joint of the legs being kept in position with
common pins. Pins are also used to display the antennse,
and the specimen is then left for a few days to dry.
When dry, the common pins are withdrawn, and the
beetle is removed to the specimen drawer and pinned
down on a card bearing its common and its scientific
name. Beetles may also be set with gum. On a piece
of card drop a little gum where the legs of the beetle are
likely to come. Pin the beetle upon the card, and draw
each leg into position and keep it there till the gum has
set. Then put the specimen away to dry. The gum
is afterwards dissolved, and the beetle set free, by
soaking in water. Each foot is then gummed, and
the insect is placed upon a clean card. It is advisable
to kill the beetles as soon as caught, as some specimens
are likely to be damaged by long captivity. If, however,
they must be kept alive till home is reached, each
specimen must be k(^pt in a separate bottle, tube, or
box. If kept together in one receptacle, they will not
only damage each other in their efforts to escape, but
the carnivorous kinds will devour the others.
Making Sympathetic Inks. — Writing done with
sympathetic or secret inks is not perceived till the
and base and good foundations. Two steel lattice girders
in fifteen bays, with a depth of 3 ft. 6 in., and each capable
of carrying with safety 20 tons distributed, and six
king- or queen-post trusses If of wood, or of trussed
rafter design if of iron, with the usual purlins, etc., will
also be necessary.
Filling Engraved Ivory. — Engraved work that is
to be subsequently filled is executed in the usual
way, the outs being kept as clean as possible. Then
take a stick of the best black sealing-wax, break
it into small pieces, and place in a 4-oz. bottle with
stopper, if possible, pouring on sufficient pure spirit
of wine to dissolve into a thick paste; then add
more spirit to make it run, but not too freely — some-
thing like cream. To use, dip into the solution a steel
tracer or point, and with the side of the point fill the
cuts and leave to set all night. If a number of knife-
handles are to be finished, rig up a small lathe carrying
a linen polishing dolly, made by cutting out into circleB,
from 6 in. to 12 in. in diameter, fifty or more linen sheets,
and screwing them tightly in the centre on a raanaril.
The speed of the lathe causes these to become erect, ana
the ivory handle is lightly applied as the dolly revolves,
aided by a little whiting to grip the superfluous was on
the surface of the handle.
Ridding a House of Bugs.— When bugs are breediug
In plaster, it is a very difficult matter to get rid ot them.
The bugs are easily kiUed, but the eggs remain ana
constantly produce a fresh supply. Treat the waiis
with good carbolic acid, washed on with a onisu.
It must be carefully applied, because it,oauses veiy
serious burns if spilt onlibe hands ; the walls shoiua nox
be otherwise touched until the bugs disappear, and ii
they appear in patches, treat those portions thorougniy.
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
227
Falls for Drains.— The falls for drains are goTerned
by circumstances, sneh as when laid iu flat and when
ill hilly districts. When not sufBeient the drains will
BUt up, and when too great the inverts are worn by the
scour of the grit, etc., carried along with the sewage.
In the latter case the tails have to be broken by steps.
The minimum for drains should give a velocity of not
less than 3 ft., and for sewers 2 ft. to 2^ ft. per second.
The maximum fall should give a velocity ol about H ft.
per second. For a 3-ln. drain the fall to give this latter
velocity is about in; for 4-in. drain, about :j^; for 6-in.
drain, about 5I5 j for 9-in. drain, about ^.
Developing Length of Arc. — The length of an
arc cannot be developed accurately by geometrical
means, but for all practical purposes the two following
methods will be found adequate. In Fig. 1, let A a B
be the arc whose length is required. Draw the
chord B A and produce it to 0, making A halt the
length of B A. From 0, with the radius B, draw part
of a circle, and from A draw the tangent A D, cutting
this circle in the point D. Then the line A D will be
approximately equal in length to A B, being a trifle short
of the real length. If the arc subtends an angle of 60", .
the error will be about one-thousandth part of the
length. The second method is more accurate, giving
results a trifle full. Let A B in Fig. 2 be the arc whose
length is required, and C the centre of the circle of which
it forms a part. Bisect the arc in D, and bisect D A in E.
Draw C E and produce it. From A draw the tangent A r,
cutting E produced in the point P. Draw the straight
line B F. Then a straight line of the length A P + P B
^. /
will be approximately equal in length to the arc AB.
Apart from geometrical construction, the length of the
arc may be measured by stepping a pair of dividers
round the arc, counting the number of steps taken, and
then setting out the same number of steps along a
straight Une. This will always give a result short of the
actual length, but the smaller the opening of the dividers
the more accurate will be the result. A more accurate
way is to use a wheelmefna, or a special instrument
called an opisometer. The length of the arc may
be calculated as follows. Set out the arc either lull
size or to as large a scale as possible, as in Fig. 3.
Measure the chord AB, bisect it, and set up a per-
pendicular cutting the arc in 0. Measure A 0,
which is the chord of halt the arc. The length of the
arc is found by multiplying the length of A C, the chord
of half the arc, by 8, from this product subtracting
the length of the chord A B, and dividing the remainder
by 3. If the radius of the curve is known, and also
the number of degrees contained in the angle (V),the
length of the arc may he calculated in another way, as
follows. The circumference of the whole circle is found
by multiplying twice the radius by 3'1416. Then, as the
circumference contains 360°, the length ol the arc will be
proportionate to the number ot degrees it contains, and
can be arrived at by a simple rule of three sum, thus,
360° : degrees in the arc : : circumference : length of arc.
Preparing Iron Wire for Tinning.— One process of
preparing iron wire for tinning is as follows. The wire,
after it is taken from the annealing pan or oven, goes
into the cleaning room, an outbuilding well ventilated so
that dangerous fumes may escape. By the side of a wall
in this room are troughs, either of earthenware or ot
wood, containing the chemicals. Secured in the wall
just over the trough are two or three strong iron rods.
The fli'st trough contains grounds (old sour ale) and
vitriol— say 5qt. or 6qt. of vitriol to 8 gal. or 10 gal. ot
grounds; it is made stronger by adding vitriol. The
wire is left in this trough for from ten to fifteen
minutes; it is then taken out with hooks made of {-in.
or ^-in. iron rod, and put into another trough containing
clean water. It is here examined by the cleaner to see
whether any scale, etc., is left on. If it is all right it is
transferred to another clean-water trough, where it
stays until all the vitriol is removed, the water then
ceasing to bubble. The wire is then sometimes trans-
ferred to a trough containing a weak solution ot blue-
stone and spirit of salts for a minute or two only, as i!t
it stays in this solution too long it turns copper
coloured ; therefore this bath is better omitted. The
colour can, however, be removed by dipping the wire in
a solution ot ammonia previous to tinning. The wire
then goes to the tinning room (a little at a time, as if
the wire is left in the open air it must be re-cleaned) . It
is dipped in a solution of muriate of tin. The rings ot
wire are then put on the winders ot the tinning appa-
ratus, and the wire passes first through a shallow trough
containing killed spirit, then through the bath of
"grain-bar" tin, and between two hard vulcanite blocks
which remove excess of tin. Cleaners wear clogs and
rubber-covered leggings, and, as vitriol is used, not extra
good clothes ; therefore, when taking the wire from the
chemical solutions it is advisable to use the hooks and
_-' FlQ. 3
Developing Length of Arc.
to hang it on the rods above the trough so that the
liquid runs back into the trough.
Follsblng Cblsel Handles.— The better class chisel
handles are finished in the lathe, the polish being
applied with a pad of wadding that has previously been
used on flat work, so that loose fluff may not be given
off. After applying a small quantity ot polish, the handle
is oiled rather sparingly, and a handful of shavings left
by the turner is held against it for the purpose ot level-
ling and leaving a smooth surface tor future operations ;
the use of glasspaper is thus avoided. The next rubber
of polish is applied thinner, and repeated as often as
necessary. Polish for turned work consists of i pt. of
methylated spirit, 1 oz. of gum sandarach, 1 oz. ot seed
lac, 1 oz. of gum benzoin, and 1 oz. of best quality bees-
wax dissolved in sufficient turps to form a paste ; add to
the above after careful straining.
Kenovatlng Veneered Furniture. — Unless the
veneer is very badly damaged it would be better to
replace the detective portions with new veneer ; small
places can be filled in with a mixture ot equal parts
of beeswax and resin ; melt in an old iron spoon 01
ladle and add a little dry colour- Venetian red foi
mahogany, and umber for walnut. Press in with a slip
of wood, level off with a knife or chisel, and finally
smooth down with glasspaper. The old veneer may be
removed by heating a flat-iron and pressing it well
against the veneer j the latter can then be readily prized
up by means ot a stout knife or chisel. The old glue can
be removed with hot water and rag ; the rough surface
which is left must be planed up and glasspapered in
order to leave a surface fit for polishing.
228
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
Recipe for Boot Size for Kip Work.— To make a
boot size that will give a brilliant polish as seen in
factory made split kip uppers, boil some cheap glue,
broken up very tine (or it may be dissolved in a glue
not), to prevent it burning; it should be quite tnin,
but not watery. Then boil some soap, and when both
the glue and soap are well dissolved, add the latter to the
former, well stir, put in a few drops of ammonia, and
strain through muslin. If, when cold, the substance is
thicker than cream, warm up again with more water.
If it is old stock that is to be revived, logwood chips
can be boiled with the soap.
System of Steam Heating.— The diagram shows
radiators in five rooms of a tnree-Btorey house. This
apparatus is on the one-pipe system. The boiler is in
the basement. The main steam circulation can be li in.,
with single radiator branches of 1-in. pipe. The larger
rooms (say 16 ft. by M ft. by 9 ft.) will require radiators
with 22ft. of surface each, and the smaller rooms (say 12ft.
by 10ft. by 8ft.) 12ft. of surface each. Endeavour to get
the rising main from the boiler up to its highest point as
quickly as possible, and without any radiators on it. It
will be seen that this pipe would havesteamandcondensed
water travelling in It in opposite directions, and this
Is a frequent cause of noise. The thin pipe (i-in.) shown
at the foot of the rising main is a drip to take the water
Steam Heating.
from this point to the boiler. All radiators are
correctly shown as connected on to the falling pipe.
The fall of the main from its highest point is lin. In
10 ft. Badiator branches rise from the main to the
radiators. There Is only one connection to each
radiator, and this has a valve to control It. A trap or
cistern is not needed, as the condensed water is returned
to the boiler. A cold supply service is laid on to the
boiler with a stopcock, and, as the water-line falls,
■water is allowed in to make good the loss. The loss,
however, is verjr trifling, and sometimes the water may
not need replenishing for days. A steam boiler with
150ft. capacity will suffice, one that is a little larger,
however, requiring less frequent " attention. There
should be an automatic draught regulator.
Dyeing Stockings Black.- For a fast black dye for
stockings that have become green by exposure to the
sun, dissolve lib. of copperas and 2oz. of blue vitriol in
1 gal. of water j place the stockings in this, raise gradu-
ally to the boll, and wring out. Then place them in a
bath made by boiling 5 lb. of logwood chips in 1 gal. of
water ; raise to the boil, and keep boiling for about half
an hour ; pass through tepid water two or three times to
remove the excess of logwood, and dry. Lay them out
flat before they are quite dry, and hot press.
Making Collapsible Boat.— In the "Berthon" collaps-
ible boat the stem, the stern-post, and the keel are
permanently joined together. The fore and aft stringers
are hinged at their ends to the stem and stern-post
on each side, those uppermost being blocked out in
order to allow the stringers to fold down to the keel. When
opened for use, the stringers are kept in position by the
thwarts and struts under them resting on the keel. The
hinges are about li in. apart up and down tlie posts, and
are covered with leather, which la kept pliable by castor
oil, neat'sfoot oil, or both. Shredded soap, dissolved
and mixed with the paint, would keep the painted canvas
E liable. For one person the size of boat would be;
length, 7ft.; beam, 3 ft.; depth, less keel, about 20iu. ;
the width, when closed, about Sin. j approx.imate weight,
30 lb. The wood used for these boats is Canadian elm ;
the canvas covering is double, the etringei'S and air
space being between ; on opening the boat the air enters
this enclosure at the tholes.
Making Alcoholic Solution of Gelatine.— To make
an alcoholic solution of gelatine to be used as a mountaut
for glazed prints, cover with water 1 oz. of gelatine, and
allow to stand till quite soft ; then melt down in a steam
bath. While hot, add sufficient spirit of wine till the
liquid just begins to appear cloudy; it too much is
added, the gelatine will precipitate out.
Design for Garden Vase.- The accompanying sketch
shows a garden vase of the most common pattern. It
rests on a slab supported by three pillars, and the height
of the whole might be about 5 ft. By making the slab
as shown, sufficient space may be obtained on which to
Design for Garden Vase.
place a number of small flower-pots. The model of the
vase is most conveniently made of plaster-of-PariB ; the
pedesi.al may be made either of plaster or wood.
The moulds are of plaster, and from them the
finished vase may be cast in cement. When maKms
cement castings from plaster moulds, first varnish
the Inside of the mould to prevent the absorption
of the oil by the plaster. It As possible to make the
vase without a mould by constructing a framework or
wood to form the inside of the vase, covering the frame-
work with cement, and running a zinc template round it.
Loosening Slide of Cornet.— To loosen the slide of a
cornet without damaging the instrument, pour a little
paraffin oil on the elide and let it stand for a few hours;
then wipe off, and gently warm.
Re-painting a Locomotive.— If the old paint is in a
very bad condition, chip it off with a chipping hammer
and scrape as level as possible ; then u'lve the engine two
coats of lead colour (white-lead and patent driers lo
linseed oil coloured with black) ; stop the J>ad places
with hard stopping, then fill up and rub down witn
pumloe-stone and water, and give two more coats of leao
colour. If the paint is in fairly good condition, clean
off all grease with turps and a scraper and give two coais
of lead colour. Stop the bad places with hard stopping
and sandpaper down. Now give two coats of BrnnswioK
green ground in oil and thinned with turps. Line ana
pick out with drop black ground in oil and thinned witn
turps. Varnish with best body varnish. Do not use
terebine or boiled oil; the paint should be ground in
linseed oil, and patent driers uiied.
Cyclopasdia of Mechanics.
229
Recipes for White Ink,— The following are recipes for
white inks. White egg-shells are powdered in a mortar
withcleanwater.andthepowderlsdriod. Dissolve Ipart
of white gum ammoniac in 3 parts of acetic acid ; a gentle
heat will aid this. Strain through muslin, and add
1 part of powdered egg-shell. To thin the ink, dilute
with acetic acid. Write with a quUl pen or sable brush.
Pure whiting or Chinese white may be substituted for
the egg-shell. Another and simpler recipe is to mix
with a weak solution of arable gum any one of the fol-
lowing. Flake white, French zinc white, white-lead,
freshly 'precipitated barium sulphate, starch, or mag-
nesium carbonate. The white substance must be reduced
to an impalpable powder before mixing.
Lead Flashings "Burut-in"to Stone.— The method
of burning-in lead flashings abutting against stonework
is illustrated by the accompanying figure. A groove,
about 4 in. to I in. wide by 1 in . to li in. deep, is cut into the
stone, the back of the groove being a little wider than the
front. Into this the lead flashing is fixed as shown at A ;
apiece of dry deal, about 2ft. long by 2i In. wide by 14 in.
thick, made to the section as shown at B, is fixed over
the groove and kept close by means of struts or weights.
On the upper edge, three or four pouring holes and air-
vent holes or notches are out as shown by the dotted
lines, into which molten lead is poui'ed to fill up the
groove. A greater length than 2 ft. cannot very well be
done at one pouring, and to prevent the lead flowing out
small quantity of common salt is added, say ioz. to the
gallon of solution.
A Book Rack with Sixteen DiTisions.— The book rack
here Illustrated wUl hold sixteen books. All the wood Is
i in. thick, except the divisions, which are i in., and
the centre division carrying the numbers, which is
1 in. thick. In front should be a printed slip taken
from the book list; it may be pasted on and can be
renewed as alterations take place. The ornamental
coping is planted on, and can be made to any design.
The space allowed between the divisions, which is, of
course, the space taken up by each book, is only i in.,
but, if the collector has two books, the space is made
i in. wide, with a corresponding Increase in the size of the
case. The ornamental coping may be tin. broad and
f
Lead naBhimgs "Burnt -in'
to Stone.
at the ends they shonld be stopped with clay or putty.
After pouring the lead, the piece of wood is removed, any
feather-edges on the lead are trimmed off, and the face is
hatched with a blunt hand- chisel to a herringbone
pattern. Sometimes the face of the groove lead is staved
to make it fit tight after shrinkage by cooling, but this
is not a good plan, as the stonework is " stunned," and
this results in a crumbling away after being wetted and
exposed to frost. Flashings are not stepped in tooled
stone walls, but are fixed in grooves cut parallel and
raking with the roof.
How to Make Nickel Solution To make I gal. of
nickel solution, dissolve I lb. of double sulphate of nickel
and ammoniain as much hot rain-water aswill completely
dissolve the crystals. Let this get cold, then filter It
through calico into the vat in which it is to be worked,
and make up to I gal. with clean rain watei\ If best
mckel salt is used, it will not be necessary to add either
ammonia or table salt, these being employed to correct
some fault in old and poor solutions. In working nickel
solutions, they become too acid when insufficient anode
surface has been provided. To correct this excess
acidity, add liquor ammonia in small quantities until
^e solution ceases to redden blue litmus paper.
When a solution ceases to deposit white nickel, a very
A Book Rack with Sixteen Divisions,
iin. thick, either rounded or bevelled. The divisions
can either be fixed in by halt-checking (in which case
the sides should be fin. thick), or, easier, by gluing
strips between the divisions as the case is put together.
Cutting Plates for a Corrugated Roof.— Corrugated
iron sheets are usually cut across the corrugation with
a pair of bent-nosed snips ; by using these, a good edge
will be left after cutting, and the corrugation will be
uninjured. Holes up to i in. in diameter are punched
with a small solid punch ; those of larger diameter with
a hollow punch, the punching being executed on a lead
piece; the burr left from the punching is afterwards
worked down smooth with a square-faced hammer used on
any convenient tool. The principal point to be observed
when riveting is to make sure the rivet is tight drawn
through with a rivet set before hammering it over.
230
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
Composition for Repairing Ebonised Frame,— To
make a suitable composition lor repairing an ebonlsed
picture-frame, crusli a small quantity of gilder's whiting
and mix it in a pipkin wltli sufficient dry lampblack to
make a slate-coloured powder. Now pour a small
quantity of very thin glue Into the middle of the powder
and mix the latter into a ball, well kneading with the
hands. Place this putty In a wet state on the frame and
build up all sharp edges to correspond with the original
work. When dry and hard, sandpaper the repaired parts
until level and smooth. Finish with a coat of black
enamel which gives a good hard surface.
Sterilising and Feptonising Milk.— Tlje best method
of sterilisation is to place the milk In bottles pro-
vided with screw or plug stoppers, put the bottles
in a steam steriliser, and gradually raise them to
100° 0., keeping them at that temperature for at least
half an hour ; but by using an autoclave the tempera-
ture could be raised to 110° 0., and about ten minutes at
that temperature would be even more efficient. The
milk would not have the burnt taste that It has when
boiled over the fire, but it would not taste like new milk.
It is very desirable to sterilise milk either before or
after it has been peptonlsed, otherwise the bacteria
present would grow at such a rate as to render the milk
unfit to drink In a ver.y short time. Sterilisation is only
nearly perfect at a boiling heat, and for perfect sterilisa-
tion sometimes two or three boilings are essential.
Temporary Water Supply during Relaying of
Main. — The simplest method of maintaining a water
supply whilst a defective street main is being relald is
to cut off the ends of the defective main at the points
between which renewal is necessary, to cap the ends
or preferably three, good coats of coloar made with
white lead, boiled oil, black pigment, and turpentine
Glasspaper each coat, which should be quite dry be-
fore the next is applied. Of course, the board should
previously have been planed or glasspapered smooth
(1) Give a coat of flat drop black and japan gold size
containing ilb. of flour emery to 1 pt. of black pig.
ment. When dry, coat again j but add 1 part of turps
to 3 parts of gold size used In the former coat
(2) Coat thinly taut evenly with common black and
driers and 2 parts of linseed oil to 1 part of turpen-
tine. "When dry, spread quickly a mixture of 3 parts
(by measure) of best Ivory black ground in turps and
1 part of japan gold size, and dilute with turpentine.
(3) Give two coats of black mixed with boiled oil i
smooth, when dry, with flour emery paper, then coat
with black mixed merely with turpentine. (4) Coat with
common dark lead colour or with common black paint,
and then with a mixture of ivory drop black ground in
turps, copal, or carriage oil varnish and turpentine. The
greater the quantity o( varnish used the greater will
be the gloss ; but some varnish is necessary to Bind the
colour. (5) Apply japan black and stipple a finish flat.
(6) Give two coats of paint containing an excess of driers.
Glasspaper the board after the first coat. (7) Give two
coats of varnish colour, containing just enough varnish
to produce an " egg-shell " gloss. When thoroughly
hard, rub down with felt and pumice powder, and leave
for a few hours before using. (8) The new board is well
sized and then coated twice with oily, dark lead colour
or common black paint. Before twenty-four hours have
elapsed, apply a mixture of ivory drop black ground iu
turps, japan gold size or copal varnish, and enough
turps to give a thin, watery consistency. This should
produce a flat and lustreless black surface. (9) Grind
AV
•.V
vir-.s:'/^- c.
->.V
^^..^u/.V/.
Temporary Water Supply During Belaying of Main.
of the pipes that are to remain, and fix |-in. or 2-ln.
(according to the number of houses to be supplied)
wrought-iron pipe with screwed joints, for easy removal
afterwards, as shown in the accompanying illustration.
This will act as a by-pass, and supply all the branches
that are not disturbed. Those that come in the defective
part can be connected to the bjr-pass by means of tees.
The temporary pipe can be laid on the surface and
covered with earth out of the trench, to protect it from
frost during the time the new portion is being laid.
After the latter is done, the blank sockets can be burst
off with hammer and hand chisel, and the connecting
joints made between the old and new pipes.
Making and Applying Blackboard Dressings.—
The characteristics of a good blackboard surface are
intense black and absence of gloss; the former is
desirable, inasmuch as the greater the contrast between
the chalk marks and the colour of the board the more
clearly will the characters show up. But that all gloss
Bhould be absent is more important still, as unless the
lighting of the room is very favourable, a board having
a glossy surface is sure to cause annoy;ance and trouble.
A glossy board reflects the light, and, in consequence of
this, it will be found that from some part of the room, at
any rate, chalk marks on the board cannot be seen
clearly. Therefore, the aim in blackening a board must
be the production of a surface containing as little gloss
as possible. There is no best way of blackening a board,
as all dressings will, sooner or later, become polished by
the constant friction of chalk and duster; and. In a
general way, coatings that are less liable to this polish-
ing action have another drawback. This is the difficulty
of rubbing out the chalk marks that to some extent is
possessed by all coatings In the composition of wljich an
abrasive material, such as emery or pumice powder,
enters, and which contain little or no binding agent in
the form of shellac or gum. The following recipes and
instructions are given as the result of much experiment-
ing on the part of those who have afterwards published
the results, and it is believed that below will be found
almost every recipe of importance that has been made
known during the last twenty years. The compositions
given In recipes Nos. 1 to 7 are all applied over two,
lampblack in spirit varnish or alcohol, add sufficient
flour emery to give a suitable surface, and thin with
spirit varnish. Apply to the smooth board with a paint
brush ; allow to become thoi'oughly dry and hard, and
rub down with pumice if too rough. (10) Dissolve iu 4pt.
of alcohol (95 per cent.) 8 oz. shellac, and add lampblack
12 dr., ultramarine blue 20dr., powdered rottenstone i o/..,
and powdered pumice-stone 6oz. Shake the preparation
and apply it with a new flat varnish brush as quickly
as possible to the board, which must be free from grease.
Keep the' bottle well corked. Instead of alcohol, the
shellac may be dissolved in a solution of borax in water,
and coloured with lampblack. (11) Dilute silicate of
soda (water glass) with an equal bulk of water, and add
sufficient lampblack to colour It. Before being added,
the lampblack should be ground with water and a little
of the silicate. (12) Give the new board two coats of
lampblack mixed with boiled oil and patent driers, and,
when quite dr.y, coat with a mixture or burnt lampblaolt
and turpentine. To prepare this mixture, place Jib.
lampblack on a flat piece of tin or iron on a fire till it
becomes red; take it off and leave it until sufficiently
cool, when it must be crushed with the blade of a knire
on a flat board quite fine ; then mix with i pt. of spirit
of turpentine, and apply with a size brush. (13) One
gallon of blackboard dressing may be made by rubbing
into a thick paste 10 oz. of powdered pumice-stone, boz.
of powdered rottenstone (or infusorial sUioa), laoz. or
lampblack, and sufficient methylated spirit. Mix tnis
with the remainder of a gallon of spirit in which 14 oz.
of shellac have been dissolved. Apply two coats, con-
stantly stirring the paint. Apply the second coat lightly.
This quantity of dressing is sufficient for 60 sq. yd., or
board. (M) First coat with a mixture of shellac yaMJsh
and lampblack, and when dry, with three coats of a
mixture of 4 gal. shellac yarnish, .5 oz. lampblack, ana
3oz. powdered iron ore or emery; if toothiclt..tmnwiju
alcohol. Allow each coat to dry before putting on tne
next. (15) Give two or three coats of a solution oi
10 parts of shellac in 90 parts ot alcohol to which has
been added 1 part ot lampblack, \\ parts of ulti'a'"'*™^
5 parts of powdered Eoohelle salt, and 7 parts of powderea
pumice-stone. (16) Apply a dressing made by dissolving
20 parts of shellac in 200 parts of alcohol and adding
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
231
10 parts tif-lTory black, 6 parts of flour emery, and 6 parts
of ultx'amarine. (17) Grind equal quantities of dry red
lead and pumice powder in good varnish thinned with
turps; add sufficient lampblack, and thin with turps.
If desired, substitute wood naphtha for the alcohol and
gold size for the varnish. (18) A good imitation slating
Is produced by applying pulverised slate or quartz rock,
using silicate of soda (water glass) as the medium.
(19) Give two or three coats of asphaltum dissolved in
petroleum naphtha. (20) In many schools the walls are
made to serve the purpose of blackboards. The walls
are first coated with a size made by dissolving lib. of
glue in Igal. of water and adding a little lampblack.
When dry, apply one of the above dressings. (21) Most
of the compositions mentioned above are of the nature
of paints, but stains are sometimes employed for
the purpose, and meet with partial success. Three
methods of staining boards are here given. Break loz.
of nutgalls into small pieces and steep for half an hour
in i lit. of vinegar contained in an open vessel. Add 1 oz.
of salts), 1 part of nitric acid (aquafortis), and 1 part
water. Make warm, and place the vessel on a hob in a
fireplace with a good draught to carry off the fumes.
Dip the silver articles one by one in the mixture
until all the gold has been dissolved ; then rinse well
in clean water and rub in sawdust or bran until dry.
Under-carrlage for'Bus.— An under-carriage tora'bus
Is Illustrated by Figs. 1 to 3. Pig. 1 is a front elevation of
the bed, as finished, and Fig. 2 is a plan of a pair-horse,
olose-futohell carriage (bottom part only). First draw
this full-size, and from it make a pattern for the
futehells A. The bed is first got out straight and square
all waysi the futehells, of extra tough ash, are also
square, tapering slightly at the back end. To frame
them in, mark the centre of the bed on the top, and
cramp the futehells on the bed at equal distances from the
centre line ; test with a wax line from the centre to see
that one does not throw out more than the other. Then
strike along the side with a marking awl, take away, and
Fio 3
Under-carriage for 'Bub.
of steel filings, allow to stand untouched for two and a half
hours, and then apply it with a brush. The second method
is to brush in a solution of sulphate of iron, which should
be allowed to soak into the wood, and then to sponge
with a solution of nutgalls until sufficiently black. The
third method is to apply a boiling solution of ilb. of
logwood in water ; this should have stood for twenty-four
hours and should then have been strained. When di-y,
give another coat, and when this is dry well rub the
surface of the board with straw or something similar,
and then apply one or two coats of a boiling solution of
4 oz. of copperas in Ipt. of water. Chalk marks are not
easily rubbed out on this at first, but the difficulty is
lessened in a few days. The above instructions are on
treating new boards, but recipes Ifos. 9 to 20 are also
suitable for renovating old surfaces. If for this purpose
recipes Nos. 1-7 are also employed, proceed as it treating
a new board which has already received its preparatory
coats of oil paint. It may be mentioned that at many
schools blackboards are successfully re-blackened by a
weekly or bi-weekly application of ordinary black
writing mk.
Removing Gold from Glided Silver.— (Jold may be
removed from gilded silver by the following method.
Mix together, in an earthenware, porcelain, or
enamelled iron cup, i parts hydrochloric acid (spirit
square the marks on to the back and front of the bed.
The top of the f utchell when let in should be about J in.
down from the top of the bed, and the mortise is cut a
full Tj in. lower behind than in front, to give the neces-
sary pitch to the carriage. With the compasses strike
off the felloe piece bearings B (Fig. 2) , also the transom
bearings C (Figs, land 2) ; mark off the spring bearings
D (Figs. 1 and 2) , and the bearings for the splinter bar E
(Pigs. 2 and 3). This bar comes underneath the futehells,
and is compassed as shown in Pig. 3. Knock apart,
lighten the bed down as desired, and carve it and the
futehells and splinter bar. Drive the futehells into
place again, run the holes through for the felloe pieces,
nt the ironwork, and finish off. As will be seen from
Pig. 3, the two centre rollers bolts are put through the
futehells first, and then through the splinter bar ; usually
the bolt end should be much longer than when received
from the makers.
Cleaning Interior Stonework.— To clean interior
stonework, wash it with dry soap and water, usiuy a
painter's ordinary brush. Now make a strong solution
of American potash, thicken it with whiting to the con-
sistency of cream, and paint it over the stone. After a
few minutes wash off with a sponge or soft brush and cold
water. It necessary, repeat. Do not let the mixture stay
too long on soft or crumbling stone, or It may do injury.
232
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
Colouring Spirit Varnishes.— Spirit varuishea are
coloured witli coal-tar dyes soluble in spirit, and usually-
known as " spirit soluble " dyes. As a rule, very little
dye is required. Perliaia the best way to apply it is to
make a concentrated solution ot the dye in spirit, and
add this drop by drop to tbe varnish till it is sufficiently
coloured. The names of some of the dyes are magenta,
methyl violet, methylene blue, brilliant green, Bismarck
brown, aurantia, eosin, nigrosin, etc.
Repairing Worn Stone Steps.— One way to repair
worn stone steps when they are built in the wall is to
out the old tread away to a depth of 3 in.^and then bed a
3-in. slab of hard York stone in sand and cement. If not
built into the wall, and not too badly worn, the steps may
be taken up, the treads reworked, and bedded andpointed
in sand and cement, with a thin slab of stone bedded
under as a riser to make up the original height.
Scantlings for Timber Roofs.— The accompanying
table shows at a glance the respective scantlings for
collar, king-post, and queen-post roofs. As to the various
adaptabilities of these roofs, it may be stated that collar
roofs are not adaptable for roofs above 18-ft. span,
because the timbers would be abnormally large, the
expenditure would be exorbitant, and the roof would be
unsightly. King-post roofs are applicable for roofs of
IS-ft. to 30-ft. spau. Queen-post roofs are applicable for
roofs 30-tt. to 45-lt. span.
pitch, 5 parts ; bleached shellac, 1 part ; glass meal, 7
parts; gum elemi, 2 parts ; and mastic, 2 parts. Avery
strong solution for glass or porcelain may be obtained
from casein dissolved in a soluble silicate of soda or
potassium. To prepare pure casein, slilm the milk of
all cream and stand it in a warm place till it curdles
It should then be filtered, washed with water, tied in a
cloth, and boiled in water. It should be allowed to dry
on blotting-paper, and can then be kept for a long time
A waterproof cement for attaching glass to wood, slate'
etc., is made by mixing together litharge, 3 parts (by
measure) ; white lead, 3 parts ; plaster-of- Paris, 3 parts ■
and powdered resin, 1 part. Make into a paste Tfitli
boiled linseed oil, and use at once. For a transparent
cement, boil isinglass in spirit of wine. A cement to
repair porcelain or glass and to withstand heat is made
by rubbing up in a mortar white of egg and a little diT -
lime. Paint this on the broken edges, put the article
together, then paint strips of calico with the mixture
and lay them over the broken parts outside, and allow
to stand for several days. A coat of oil paint could then
be put on, and would render the whole waterproof.
Silicate of soda or potash (commonly known as water
glass) sticks well to glass, and will stand heat. Either of
these, however, attacks and slightly roughens the glass.
Another heat-resisting cement for glass is the following.
Pulverise together in a mortar ioz. of powdered glass
and 1 oz. ot fluorspar until they are reduced to an im-
palpable powder, then mix with 3 oz. of silicate of soda
Desaription of
Roof.
Sfan.
Tie Beam.
Principal
Rafter.
King
Post.
Queen
Post.
Strut.
Straining
Beam.
Pnrlin.
Straining
Sill.
Common
Rafter.
Collar.
RWge.
Feet.
Inches.
Inches.
Inches.
Inches.
Indies.
Inches.
Inches.
Inches.
Inches.
Inches.
Inches.
1
■ 8
10
3x2
3.! X 2
2x2
24 X 2
7 X li
7 X H
Collar Roof. •
12
11
3.1 X il
4x2
34 X 2
44 X 2
7 X li
9 xl4
16
4x2
5x2
9x1,
. 18
4 X 2i
54 X 2
9 X 14
18
7x3
4i X 3
4.i X 3
35 X 2
7x3
34 X 2
20
9x4
4x4
5x4
4x2
7x4
4x2
King -post
Koof.
22
21
9x4
9i X 4
6x3
6 X 3i
6 X 3J
6x4
4 X 2i
4.1 X 2j
8x4
8x5
44 X 2
4J X 2
26
9x5
6x4
6x4
4x3
84 X 5
44 X 21
28
10 X 5
6x4
6x6
44 X 3
8i X 5i
4; X 2;
30
11 X 6
6x5
7x6
6x3,,
8x6
4; X 2.S
30
9x4
Sj X 4
4i X 4
4x3
7x4
8x4
4x4
4x2
32
10 X 4
6 X 4
5x4
4 X 34
71 X 4
8x4
44 X 4
4x2
31
10 X
6J X 4
6x4
44 X 3i
8x4
84 X 5
5 x4
41 X 2
Queen - post
3)
10 X 6
6i X 5
7x4
5 X 3i
8 X 4J
84 X 5
5x4
44 X 2
Eoof.
38
10 X 6
6x6
7x5
5x4
8x5
8J X 5t
5 X 44
44 X 2
40
11 X 6
7x6
7x6
6x4
84 X 5
8 X 6
5 X i\-
44 X 2
42
Hi X 6
7x6
8x4
6x5
8x6
9x5
6x4 4i X 2
'-
4.3
12i X 6
7i X 6
8x6
6x6
8x6
9x6
6x4 5x2
Cements for China and Glass.— There are many
cements for repairing china and porcelain. For large
articles, plaster-ot-Parls worked up with alum solution
may be used ; or plaster-of-Paris may be stirred into
a clear solution of gum arabic. This should be used
immediately, but is useless if the vessel to be mended
has to hold water. A cement which is said to stand
both heat and water is made by calcining and grind-
ing oyster shells. These are theu reduced to the
finest powder possible with a muller, and the whole is
beaten into a paste with white of egg. In using this
preparation the broken parts should be pressed well
together. A good cement for repairing broken glass is
made by placing in a wide-mouthed bottle a small quan-
tity of glue, ju.st covering it with water, and allowing
it to stand over-night ; next day the excess of water is
poured off and the glue is covered with methylated
spirit. The bottle is then placed in a pan of water and
heated until the glue is melted, then a little whiting is
shaken into it, the bottle removed from the pan, cooled,
and tightly corked. Sometimes a small piece of gum
mastic, together with some ammoniacum, is added to
such cements. Another useful cement lor the purpose
can be made as follows. Cover 4 oz. of gelatine with
strong acetic acid, and, after standing, melt it down by
placing the bottle in hot water. Both these cements are
ready for use it they are placed for a few minutes in hot
water. Another cement for glass, etc., is made by
coagulating milk with acetic acid and washing the
ca.sein in water. It is then dissolved in a cold saturated
solution of borax, and a clear solution obtained, which
is mixed with finely powdered quicklime. This should
be applied to the broken parts cuiickly, and the whole
bound tightly with cord and gently heated. A sulphur
paste for porcelain is made with sulphur, 7 parts j white
and work it into a smooth paste, which sets vei-y rapidly.
A reliable cement for repairing glass and china goods la
a saturated solution ot isinglass in pyroligneous acid.
With the following cement, the article is required to dry
slowly in a warm place ; 10 parts ot white lead and 6 parta
of pipeclay, carefully dried , are incorporated with 5 parts
of boiled linseed oil, heated on a water-bath. To repair
a broken washhand basin, cover the outside of the parts
to be joined with ordinary oil paint, then lay on a strip
of calico, or thin canvas, and paint that outside. This is
not very neat, but such a patch lasts for years. A solu-
tion of 8oz. strong glue and ioz. "Venice turpentme,
boiled and well stirred together, will unite glass ana
metal. To join glass to wood, make a cement by meltmg
loz. beeswax with 1 oz. resin, and stirring into it loz.
Venetian red. Use whUst hot, and warm the glass. If
the wood is to join the edge of the glass, a groove m the
wood will assist in holding it. Soughening the surface
of the glass where the join is with emery powder wm
also help the cement to stick. In cementing white
enamel or glass letters on windows, first dust Frencti
chalk over the glass, then coat the back ot the letters
to about ^in. with white lead and japanners gold size,
which should have been mixed together twelve hours
before. Press the letters well down, and clean the
cement from the edges with a chisel knife. Anotlier
cement for the purpose, and one which dries quickly,
may be made by mixing together 1 part white lead,
2 parts litharge, 3 parts boiled linseed oil, and 1 part
copal varnish. The following cement has Been
recommended for uniting china to metal. Melt resin
20 parts, and stir in plaster-ot-Paris 2 parts, ana
boiled linseed oil 1 part. It kept in a closed bottle,
this cement may be used at any time by simply
heating it.
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
233
Brush Frencli Polish.— Brusb polish is another name
for spirit Tarnish. In a general way, 4 oz. of best shellac
to 1 pt. of methylated spirit will answer for applying by
means of polish rubbers. If the polish is to be applied
- with a camel-hair brush, it must be thicker— say 6 oz.
to Ipt. Some polishers mix equal parts of polish and
best brown hard spirit varnish ; it too thicli, more polish
or spirit is added ; if too thin, add more Tarnish.
Making Cardboard Pnlp.— To make a small quantity
of fine cardboard pulp, cut a suitable piece of cardboard
into small pieces, soak in water for an hour or two,
and then beat it, in small quantities at a time, in a
mortar untU it is reduced to pulp.
Photographic Paper that does not reqiuire Toning.
—Printing-out paper that would give a rich brown tone
with simply washing and fixing and no toning can easily
be prepared. The prints may be made on paper, linen,
silk, wood, etc. Procure some pure RlTes or Saxe
paper (Whatman's smooth drawing paper is also suit-
able) and soak it for about ten minutes in a salting bath
made as follows. Beat 180 gr. arrowroot into a cream
with a little water, aToiding lumps. Boil 15 oz. water
and pour in the cream slowly, stirring the while ; boil
for five minutes. Dissolve 120 gr. ammonium chloride,
200gr. carbonate of soda, and 60 gr. citric acid in 5oz.
water, add to the arrowroot solution, and filter through
muslin. The arrowroot or sizing serTes to preTent the
silver salts sinking into the paper, and glTes brighter
prints. Hang up the paper by the two top corners in a
room free from dust. As soon as the paper is dry, cut it
into sizes suitable for the sensitising dish, and put a
pencil mark on the back of the paper in order to dis-
tinguish the sensitiTe side. So far the operations may
be carried on in full daylight, but the remainder of the
work must be done in an orange or yellow light, such as
tube. Stand the bottle on a table and fill it with
water to the height at which the bottle is to be cut,
and make an ink mark around the bottle at the level
of the watei'. Now empty the bottle, and with a tri-
angular file make a deep cut on the lip of the bottle and,
having lit the gas-jet, place it on the mark ; after a few
seconds remoTe the flame, and touch the part with a
match stalk wetted j a crack will form at once, or after
two or thi'ee trials. Now place the flame in front of the
crack and lead it down the uecli of tlie bottle to the ink
mark, then right round the bottle.
Kecipe for Black Harness Polish.— A good harness
polish consists of beeswax lib., soft soap 6 oz., ivory
black i lb., and Prussian blue loz., ground in linseed oil
2oz., and oil of turpentine ipt. Mix well together and
put in a pot. To use, lay alittle on the leather and polish
lightly with a soft brush or rubber.
Cleaning White Canvas Shoes.— In cleaning white
oanTas shoes haTlng white leather facings, first tree
the shoes, or fill them with soft paper. Well wash
and scrub them, then glTe them one or two coats of
" Blanco," made up in water to about the consistency
of cream. Apply this with a sponge and, when nearly
dry, brush out with a clean brush. When quite dry, take
out the paper or trees and giye the shoes a good hard
brushing to remoTe all the " Blanco," except what is
necessary to leaye them a clean rough white.
Removing Old Paint from Iron.— One method of re-
moving old paintfrom wrought-iron plates is to steep the
latter for about twelve hours in a solution of common
caustic soda (1 lb. to the gallon of water) , and scrape off
the softened paint with a knife as the plates are removed.
Photographic Dark-room Lamp. — Accompanying
this is a sketch of a serviceable ruby lamp to burn either
Fia I ° FiQ. 2
Preparing Photographic Paper that doe^ not require
Toning.
would he safe for handling P.O.P. The paper is next
floated face downwards for three minutes on the surface
of the sensitising bath, which is composed of silver
nitrate 60 gr., citric acid 25 gr., water loz. With practice
it is quite possible to float large sheets of paper, but the
beginner should use pieces not larger than 12 in. by
10 in. See that the solution well covers the dish ; if not,
level up with the wedges (A B C, Pig. 1). Take the paper
by the two opposite corners and lower the near end X
on to the surface of the solution, drawing into the near
corner. Lower the part Y into position. Lift each side
again slowly and, with a clean glass rod, break any air
bubbles adhering. The paper may also be coated by
pinning flat on a clean board and pouring a pool in the
centre and spreading with a Blanchard brush made
by binding some swansdown calico around a strip of
cellulgid, as in Pig. 2. This is convenient when short of
solution, but unless carefully done an uneven coating is
almost sure to result. The sensitised paper is pinned up
to dry, which may take place quickly. Print in the
usual way, but much deeper than for albumen paper.
An image of a dull violet colour is given, which, when
washed and fixed in a 10-per-cent. solution of hypo,
becomes a rich red brown. The prints are then washed
and finished as usual.
Deterioration of SUver-plating Solutions. — If a
BUver-plating bath is exposed to strong .sunlight, a small
portion of the free cyanide will absorb carbonic dioxide
from the air and part with its cyanogen, and thus
become converted into potassium carbonate. The loss
or tree cyanide may easily be made up by adding a
small portion of potassium cyanide dissolved in distilled
'"L li ^beu silver-plating baths are not in use, they
should be closely covered to prevent this loss, and to
keep out dust. They should also be weU stirred an hour
or two before being used again.
Cutting a Glass Bottle.— For cutting a glass bottle,
a small jet made by drawing out a glass tube, or the
mouthpiece end of a clay tobacco pipe should be
connected, to the gas supply by means of a rubber
Photographic Dark-room Lamp.
gas or oil. The lamp should have three illuminated sides,
the front one to take ruby, orange, or opal glasses. The
most convenient plan is to have these glasses fixed in
frames so that they can be run in grooves on one side,
as shown in the illustration ; thus either one or all three
can be used as required. With such an arrangement, it
will not be necessary to regulate the lamp from the out-
side. The opal slide may be pushed in front when
development starts, and may be run back when the
image is fairly out. Porslow plates, the orange slide is
used alone ; for isochromatic plates, the ruby slide ; and
for very rapid plates, the orange and ruby together.
Removing Red Ink Stains from White Marble.—
To remove red ink stains from white marble, cover them
with a little chloride of lime mixed with water, and
wash off in about half an hour.
Brittle Gold.- The following are some of the causes
of brittle gold, (a) Oxidation of copper and absorption
of the copper oxide by the molten metal, (b) A pasty
condition of the molten metal at the moment it is
poured into the mould or ingot, (c) The mould may be
too hot or too cold at the time of pouring the metal,
(d) Absorption of some impurity from the fiux. (e) Some
impurity in the added copper or silver. The impurities
in added metals may be arsenic, phosphorus, iron, or
nickel in the copper; lead or zinc in the silver. Im-
purities in the ilux may be grit and iron in the sal-
ammoniac, and free mercury in the corrosive sub-
limate. In melting the metals for IS-carat gold, use a
phimbago crucible lined with finely powdered charcoal
and piit the copper in first, then add the silver and
gold. When the mixture is at the point of fusion,
throw on its surface about two tablespoonf uls of finely
powdered vegetable charcoal and finely powdered best
sal-ammoniac intimately mixed. Use no other fiux.
When completely fused, stir the whole with the point of
a red-hot iron rod, bring to the proper fiuid condition
for pouring, and hold a strip of wood to the mouth of the
crucible to keep back loose flux whilst pouring the metal
into the mould.
234
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
staining Wooden Playing Bowls.— In re-Rtaiuing
bowling green "howls, any grease, dirt, oil, or varnislr
must be remoTed by re-turnlng in a lathe or by well
scouring with strong soda watei' and pumice powder,
or powdered Bath brick. When the bowls are quite
clean and dry, proceed as with new bowls. Boil in an
old iron pot for several hours lib. of logwood chips,
ilb. of black or green copperas, i lb. of extract of log-
wood, ilb. of Indigo blue, 2 oz. of lampblack, 1 oz. of nut
galls, and 1 gal. of water. Strain through flannel, and
apply hot ; two or three coats may be necessary if the
bowls are of hard wood, and the blackness may be
intensified by brushing over, when dry, with another
stain made by steeping plenty of rusty nails or iron
turnings in common yinegar. A French black stain
gives very good results.
Making np a Fishing Line.— The requisite materials
tor making up a iishing line are a good length of
tanned water cord, some short lengths of pointed
sticks, and some hooks. The latter will vary according
to the kind of fishing; for eels or night lines, eyed
hooks or those with the shank flattened are generally
used, but for day fishing strong gut hooks are best.
Cut the cord into lengths of 10 yd. or 12 yd.,
according to the width of the river, tie one end to a
stick, and at the other end fasten a heayy lead sinker.
About four hooks are BufBcient, and the first one
should be fastened about 18 in. from the weight and the
others a little more than 1ft. apart. To secure the gut
it has thickened and is cooling, stir in a small quantity
of silicate of soda and a few drops of oil of cloves. (3)
Ordinary gum paste is made from equal quantities of
picked gum arable^ white sugar, and water. The solution
is evaporated till it is thick, and about three whites of
eggs added per pound of gum. These should have been
previously beaten up with a flavoui'lng. The whole is
strained through muslin, and evaporated until it will
set. (4) Dissolve a heaped-up teaspoontul of powdered
alum in a breakfast cup of cold water, and with this
alum water mix the paste, crushing all lumps with a flat
piece of wood. Boil slowly, stirring until the stick will
stand alone. This paste does not become mildewed or
offensive. Do not cover up too tight, and do not keep it in
a tin, or put a tin-mounted brush in it, because of rust.
(5) A quick-drying paste is made by mixing 100 parts of
flour paste with 5 parts of dextrine or equal parts of glu»
and paste. (6) There are several materials from which an
adhesive paste or gloy for securing labels could be made.
By treating gum arable with water; by treating dex-
trine (British gum) with water; by boiling glue for
several hours with water, borax, and carbonate of soda,
or by using fish glue. The first method is by far the
best, yielding a stronger gum than any of the others.
(7) Ordinary flour paste, made with the finest wheat flour
and a small quantity of fine white sugar, keeps good for
any length of time if a few drops of carbolic acid are
added. (8) Four parts (by weight) of fine glue are
softened in 15 parts of cold water, and then moder-
ately heated until the solution becomes quite clear;
FlQ
Fig. 5
Making up a Fishing Line.
hooks to the line, make a loop and tie a single knot (see
Fig. 2), which, Vfheu tightened, will have the appear-
ance of Fig. 1. Pass tbe loop of the gut over that of
the line, and draw the hookthrough the loop on the line.
To secure eyed hooks, form a loop in a piece of finer cord
than that used for the line, about 8 in. long, tying it in a
similar manner to Fig. 1. Pass the loop (Fig. 3) through
the eye of the hook and over the point and draw it up to
form a tie, as shown by Fig. i. For day fishing the
hook may be secured to the line as described for Fig. 1,
but for night lines for eels use a swivel to prevent the
line being twisted oft. If hooks with flattened shanks
are used, tie a double knot in a piece of cord similar to
that used for the eyed hooks (Pig. 6). Pull the two
ends and the knot will assume the form of a figure 8. Put
the shank of the hook through both loops of the 8
(Fig. 5) and pull the knot tight, then cut oS the ends. In
using a line of this description, throw the weight as far
as possible, then draw up the line tight, so that the
hooks hang clear of the line.
Recipes for Various Pastes.— The following in-
formation on making adhesive pastes for office and
other use may be relied on. (1) Dissolve a teaspoon-
ful of powdered alum in 1 qt. of water, and stir in
enough ilour to make a thick even cream. Then stir
in a teaspoontul of powdered resin, and pour in a cup-
ful of boiling water. After stirring, pour the whole
into a convenient earthenware vessel, and add a few
drops of oil of cloves. (2) Steep about i lb. of small
pieces of gelatine in about 1 lb. of water till they are
soft. Then heat the whole to dissolve the gelatine, and
pour into the mixture, while still hot, about 21b. of flour
paste and Ipt. of water. Heat this till it boils, and when
65 parts ot boiling water are now added, with
constant stirring. In another vessel 30 parts ot
starch paste are stirred with 20 parts ot cold
water, so that a thin, milky fluid is obtained without
lumps. Into this the boiling glue solution is gradually
stirred, and the whole boiled for a short time. After
cooling, a few drops of carbolic acid are added as a
preservative. This paste may be used for leather, and
it preserved in corked bottles will keep good for years.
(9) A paste possessing good keeping qualities is made
hy adding 15 grains of corrosive sublimate to 1 pt. ot
ordinary flour paste. Of course, corrosive sublimate
is a deadly poison, and must be handled with the utmost
care. (10) The gum used for envelopes, as also for postage
stamps, is dextrine, which can bo bought as a powder
at the chemist's ; for use, it is dissolved in water. (11)
Billposters' paste may be made by beating i quartern
ot wheat or rye flour with a little cold water. Pour
slowly into this 1 gal. ot boiling water, stirring the
while until it thickens. The paste should be made in a
galvanised pail, which should then be placed on the Are
for a minute, the paste being continually stirred. For
use, thin with cold water. A tablespoonful ot powdered
alum should be put in with the flour. For a billposters
paste that could be thinned down as required, mw
powdered gum tragacanth with a little warm water to a
paste, and dilute with cold water ; 1 lb. of gum tragacanth
will yield a strong gum with 10 gal. of water. To make
a concentrated paste for billposters, mix common starch
with a little water In a bowl, and then pour about
five or six times its weight of boiling water on itwnue
it is being vigorously stirred ; this forms a stiff J^W'
which may be readily thinned for use by admixture with
warm water. (12) Paste as used by bookbinders is made
Cyclopsedia of Mechanics.
235
thus; Put a teaspoontul of best white starch into a
cup, and make into a creamy paste with cold water ;
then pour hoiling water over the starch, stirring quickly.
When cold, squeeze through a piece of fine muslin. (13)
To make shoemakers' paste, put some rye flour in a pot,
pour on boiling water, and well stir. Do not pour on
much , as the secret of making good paste is to make it
as stiff and firm as possible. There must be no lumps,
so, as there is such a little water added, the paste
requii-es a lot of stirring, and even after it is cold and
ready for use an occasional stir greatly improyes it.
Sometimes dextrine is added to shoemakers' paste. (13)
This is a recipe for a cheap flour paste suitable for laying
linoleum and oilcloth. Mix rye flour with a little cold
water, then add boiling water, well stirring the paste
while the water is being poured. Stir in some glue size
while both are hot. The more size added the greater
is the strength of the paste. A little alum dissolyed
in the paste is a preservative. If the paste is too
thin, boil it to evaporate some of the water. (15) A
waterproof paste for fastening tickets on ironwork
and tin can be made by mixing a little rye meal with a
solution of glue andwaterand a little Venice turpentine.
If too thick, thin with Venice turpentine. Another
paste for this purpose can be made by mixing lib. flour
with 41b. sugar. Boil carefully to thicken without
burning. Add oil of cloves or other preservative.
Another, 120 parts of gum arable and 30 parts of
tragacanth gum are separately steeped in water. A
solution of 30 parts of tragacanth gum in water is stirred
until it forms a viscous emulsion, and a solution of
120 parts of gum arable in water is added and filtered in
a fine cloth ; 120 parts of glycerine are incorporated with
the liquid, in which 2^ parts of thyme oil have been
dissolved. Finally, the liquid is increased to about 2 pt.
by adding distilled water. Glue thus made Is very
adhesive, and to remain in condition should be kept in
air-tight bottles.
Measuring and Charging for Gauged Arch.— Gauged
arches are usually measured at per foot superficial as
2s. lOd. TVith regard to rough-axed arches, measure the
face and soifit, and describe as reduced brickwork;
'Extra only on facings.'" The best way, perhaps, is to
number the arches, give length, allowing about 6 in.
louger than opening, width of soifit, and depth, and
describe as extra labour cutting and waste to rough
arches. Laxton also says : " Extra only on facings.
Red or malms, common segmental arch axed soffits,
and all labours at per foot super. : labour only, 5d. ;
labour and materials, 9d. To find the value of extra
only on facings, take the difference per thousand
between the building bricks and the required facings,
divide by ten, and the result gives the price in pence and
fractional parts per foot super. Thus, stocks 40s., and
facings 80s., difference, 10s. divided by ten, gives 4A. per
foot ; or, stocks 'tOs., and facings 85s., difference 45s., gives
4Jd.,and so on."
Distinguishing Hydraulic Lime Mortar.— So as to
ascertain whether lime is hydraulic or not, after the
mortar has been mixed, take a small quantity of the
mortar, sufficient to make a ball about 2 m. in diameter,
and also a pat (on a piece of glass or a plate) about
4in. diameter and Jiu. thick. Let these remain until
just set, then place carefully under water. If the lime
IB hydraulic, they will become harder and be quite firm
by the next day, with the exception, possibly, of the
outside skin; If not hydraulic, the sample pat and ball
will be found to have fallen to pieces.
Heating Two Rooms from One Fireplace.— Below
are some suggestions as to a suitable hot-water scheme
of heating two rooms from one fireplace. The sketch
shows a single line of pipe, which is all that can be shown
on a plan drawing. There are, however, two pipes running
in the direction shown, one at the ceiling level and the
other along the floor skirting. Any ordinary grate can
be fixed in the flreplace of the small room, but the flre-box
should be of good size both in width and depth, as a large
fire does better work than a small one and does it more
economically. A suitable boiler should be placed at the
in
II ,11.1 i-^TT-T
Measuring Gauged Arch.
c
^
O-
:#
Heating Two Kooms from One Fireplace.
" extra on facings only on the cost of the general brick-
work." Measure the whole surface of the face and soffit ;
for the face the mean length is taken midway between
the soffit and the top of the arch. Measure the cutting
to facings, and, if less than 6 in. wide, at per foot run.
Give the name and quality of the bricks, and whether
straight, segmental, or semicircular ; whether set in
cement or putty, and how pointed. The ordinary
facings should not be deducted. Centerings also must
be charged. The cost will vary according to the price
of labour and material in each locality. The example
illustrated shows the method of taking out quantities
as described above ;—
/(. in. 1
3 11
1 1
3 8
4t
6 4
ft. In.
Super.
4 3
1 4
Eun.
6 4
Gauged cambered arch,
in best red rubbers,
and set in putty.
Add soffit.
ft, in.
45-in. circular and skew- ("Extrados 4 2
hack for fair cuttings i Skewback 1 1
to lacings (. do. 11
6 4
Laxton's Price Book gives the following. "Gauged
arches not extra only, the brickwork and facings being
deducted in the measurements. Of the best washed
malm stocks, or red bricks, camber, segment, or semi-
circular, gauged, rubbed, and set in putty, at per
root super. : labour only. Is. 7d. j labour and materials.
back of the fire. Prom the top of the boiler carry a 1-in.
flow-pipe, first up to within a few inches of the ceiling,
tlien along as shown in the sketch to where the farthest
radiator stands. Drop down to the radiator and then
proceed along the skirting and connect up to the second
radiator. The fireplace will heat the small room ; while
the large room, it there is no fire in it, wUl need two 25 ft.
radiators in the coldest weather. The 1-in. circulating
pipe must rise from the boiler at least 1 in. in 10 ft., and
it must have an equal fall from the farthest radiator to
the boiler. There must be a i-in. expansion pipe at the
highest point of the circulation (over the farthest
radiator) and a small cold-water feed cistern somewhere
above the highest point of the circulation, with a 4-in.
feed pipe coming down and joining the return pipe at
any point, or it can enter the boiler low down. There
must be an air cock on each radiator.
Paving Material for Stables and Cowhouses The
floor of a cowhouse or stable should be formed of hard,
impervious material, but should not be so smooth as to
be slippery when either in a dry state or wet or
coated with cowdung. Blue bricks or tiles having a
surface formed of about 3-in. raised squares, and a
groove i in. deep and nearly lln. wide, would be the best
material for the purpose; this gives a good foothold
when covered with cowdung or other similar matters.
Granolithic concrete might be made to assume this
surface by inserting ribs of wood when laying the con-
crete and taking them out when it is set. The hardness
should be counteracted by covering the floor with a thin
layer of straw, peat moss, or other bedding material.
The inclination of the floor should be very slight, for
physical reasons; lin. in the whole length from manger
to gutter being ample.
236
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
Black J>lne Method of Copying Drawings.— The
JoUowiBg process will produce black lines on a white
ground from an ordinary drawing. Soak 150 gr. of
gelatine in 5 oz. of water, then place the containing
vessel in a saucepan of hot water until the gelatine is
dissolved. Mix together 100 gr. each of ferrous sulphate,
ferric chloride, and tartaric acid in 5oz. of water. Add
this to the warm solution of gelatine, and coat the
paper quickly whilst the mi.fture is still hot by rubbing
it over the surface. Choose any close-grained paper
that is not too absorbent, pin this down flat, aud apply the
sensitising solution as evenly as possible with a sponge
or a Buclae or Ebin chard brush. The paper, when dry,
is exposed to sunlight for ten minutes to half an hour,
according to the density of the drawing on top of it, the
two being kept in close contact in a frame or by laying
both on a cloth-covered board with a heavy sheet of
^lass above. A faint yellowish image is pi-inted, which
IS developed with oxalic acid 20 gr., gallic acid 100 gr.,
water 30 oz. It is an advantage to have a test negative
at the side, with strips of the paper, which raay be with-
drawn as printing proceeds and developed as a guide to
exposure. Under-exposure is shown by a sort of fog or
veil over what should be the clear portions. When de-
velopment is complete, pass the print through a bath of
water rendered acid with oxalic acid or sulphnrio acid;
then thoroughly wash in running water. When placing
to dry, press the print between blotting-paper. This
process, sometimes known as the ink process, was in-
troduced by Porterin about 1860.
How to Make an Opal Frmting Frame.— A quarter-
plate photographic printing frame in which the whole of
the picture can be examined at once can be made thus :
Substitute for the usual hinged back of a half-plate
frame a piece of l-in. board as shown in Fig. 1, sinking in
it a recess A for the opal about iin. deep, or equal to the
thickness of the opal to be used. The recess should be a
quickly, so that the alcohol does not evaporate. Keep
the cement in closely corked bottles, and heat it when
about to use. To cement xylonite, etc., to glass, use either
of the following. (1) Dissolve 2 parts of white shellac
and 1 part of Venice turpentine in 7 parts of methylated
spirit, and pour off the clear liquid. (2) Heat Canada
balsam on a stove until it is hard, then dissolve 1 part
in 3 or i parts of benzine. Apply to the xylonite and
allow to dry on, then moisten with a little of the warm
solvent employed in making, aud press to the glass.
Lip glue (that is, a mixture of glue size and sugar) might
be used, but it would give way if exposed to damp.
Brazing Steel Articles.— A suitable solder for use in
brazing small steel articles may be made in the pro-
portions of silver 18, brass wire 2, copper 1. Melt in
a crucible ; when cold, hammer into a thin sheet, or
granulate while molten by pouring into water. For
small articles, a solder that will flow at a lower tem-
perature than brass wire should be used. To braze or
solder the article, clean the parts to be united and coat
with pulverised borax which has been previously heated ;
cut off a narrow strip of the solder, if in the sheet, and
place on the parts to be united, then heat until the
solder fuses. The solder should be used sparingly.
Working a Circular Moulded Stone Cap.— When
working a circular moulded stone cap, work the stone
first to the parallel thickness required, and draw on
centre lines at right angles to each other, their point
of intersection being the centre of the circular cap.
These lines should be "boned" through the beds so
that they are in the same plane and coincide with
each other, dividing also the circumference into
four quadrants, to facilitate the working. This being
done, scribe in on the top bed (with compasses or
trammel) the nose line, which is the extreme size of the
stone, as at A and the wall line B in the accompanying
t
Fig. 2
How to make an Opal Printing Frame.
11=^.
Working a Circular Moulded Stone Capi
little longer than the opal to allow room for the springs
E and B, which clip the opal and hold it firmly. Two
pegs are fixed at and D to engage with holes in the
frame and ensure accurate register. The back is held
down by fold-over springs (see Fig. 2). By a method
sometimes employed to prevent slipping, the back of
the opal is touched with a composition of Canada
balsam and wax.
Cements for Celluloid, Xylonite, etc.— The following
is a good cement for celluloid. Shellac 1 part, dissolved
in 1 part of spirit of camphor and 3 to 4 parts of 90-per-
cent, alcohol. This should be applied warm, the broken
parts being held together securely till the solvent has
evaporated. A cement for ebonite is merely a marine
glue which can be made as follows. Dissolve pure india-
rubber in naphtha by means of heat, then add 2 parts
of shellac to 1 part of indiarubber ; continue heating
till the whole is melted. Whilst hot, pour the mixture
on metal plates to cool. When using, remelt it, and
apply hot, at the same time warming the articles to be
joined. Squeeze the glue well out when making the
joint. A cement that will stick xylonite or ebonite to-
gether may be made by dissolving pyroxylin (collodion
cotton) in acetone or camphorated spirit to the thickness
of cream. To make a cement for joining celluloid, etc.,
to gold or other metal, dissolve five or six pieces of gum
mastic, each as big as a large pea, in as much alcohol as
is required to make them liquid. Soften about J oz. of
isinglass in water; wipe it dry when it becomes pliable,
then dissolve it in strong brandy or rum, making enough
strong glue to fill a 2-oz. bottle. A small piece of gum
ammoniac or galtaanum is next added, and stirred about
till dissolved ; pounding in a mortar would assist this.
Heat is necessary to render the cement fluid. Another
recipe is: 8oak loz. of isinglass till it a,bsorba 3oz. of
water, and add 4 oz. of spirit of wine (85-per-cent. alcohol) .
Dissolve as much gum mastic as 4 oz. of alcohol will
take up, and add it to the isinglass solution. Powder
2dr. of gum ammoniac, and mix it with the re.st. The
whole may be ground up with pestle and mortar if done
figure. On the bottom bed scribe in the wall line B', tha
fillet line 0, and any of the other members or fillets pro-
.lected down. Now work the nosing all round, squaring
in from the top bed, and gauge on the two parallel Unes
the width of the nose. Next, take a chamfered check out
roughly as shown on section at A, B, D, ]?, aud clean in
the fascia E ; this may be squared in from the bottom
bed, or a concave template majr be used for guidance,
squaring in only four of the points at the centre lines
instead of the whole line. Kough the mouldings out.
and clean them in, with the assistance of templates and
reverses. Lastly, finish the cap by taking off the
weathering from the top bed.
Stretclilng Paper on Drawing Board.— To stretch
drawing paper on a board cut the paper i in. less
than the board all round; then turn it over and
sprinkle the back with water, spreading it over the whole
sheet and leaving the 4-in. margin dry all round for the
glue. Let the free water dry oft' and then turn over the
paper, taking care to place it iu position so that it need
not be moved, as, the paper being moist, it drags heavily
when being shifted. Place a full length straightedge
on top of the paper, keeping it it in. Inside the edge of
the paper, put a heavy weight on each end of ths
straightedge to keep it from shifting, and then turn up
the dry edge of the paper all along. Glue it down with
thin hot glue and, after pressing the edge to the board,
wipe off all superfiuous glue with a clean cotton cloth
wrung out in very hot water. This should be done care-
fully, as lumps of glue that harden on the edge will throw
the tee-square out of truth. Do the same for alrthe
other sides, stretching the paper as tightly as possible,
and doing the longest sides first. The paper should pe
allowed to dry while the board is lying flat, as otherwise
any tree water underneath will drain down to the glue
and prevent it setting properly. When the paper dries
it will be found to be dead flat and stretched as tight as
a drum. Drawing paper that is to be pinned down shonla
be stretched and fixed from alternate corners, drawing
as tight as possible.
Cyclopsedia of Mechanics.
237
DrllUng Hard Steel Watch Pinions.— When driUins
hard steel watcli pinions, commence with a hard and
Bharp drill, and drill a little way only; then, hefore it
ceases cutting, withdraw the drill and resharpen it, and
so on until the hole is deep enough. On no account keep
on drilling for a single revolution after the drill ceases
to cut, but constantly re-sharpen. It is principally the
backward and forward motion of a bow that causes the
bottom of the hole to "glaze" when drilling tempered
steel i consequently a watch lathe in which the motion
is always in one direction is better. While adrill retains
its cutting edge the work will not glaze. Having got the
work glazed, the surface can be roughed by a piece of brass
wire into which fine emery or oilstone dust and oil has
been hammered at the tip end. Use the braes wire as a
drill for a minute or so, then thoroughly clean out the
hole and commence again with a sharp drill.
Bamboo Rocking C Hair. —A working sketch of a base
rocking chair with beech rockers and bamboo frame is
here given. The rockers are made in two parts from
li-in. stuff. The two pieces A for the base can be joined
together either with four birch or bamboo rails, 15 in.
lODg when finished, and the front should have castors.
The top rockers B are 17 in. long, and form the base
on which the sides of the chair will be built ; li-in. or
14-in. canes should be used for this work." The two up-
rights should be fixed to the rocker with hardwood
dowels, fitted into holes bored in the rocker at one end
and into the hollow tube of the upright at the other end.
These dowels must be a perfect fit, as upon them the
wood is dry and perfectly clean, brush over with
common raalt vinegar, to kill any trace of lime or
soda before apjplying varnish or staining medium.
Woodwork that is requii-ed still darker in tone should
be brushed over with one or more coats of bichromate
of potash, ' 2 oz. to each pint of water. In order that
the latter may be effective, the work must be per-
fectly free from oil, varnish, polish, or wax; otherwise a
stained varnish will be necessary to bring all the work
to an eejual tone or colour.
How to make a Fishing Reel.— Fig. 1 is a back view,
and Fig. 2 a section, of a 44-in. reel for a fishing-rod.
It would be cheaper to make the fittings, as to buy
a single set would cost nearly as much as a reel. A
pattern may be made of the back piece and handles,
from which castings may be made. File the back
piece, and drill the screw holes and the hole for the
spindle. This should be made of a piece of i-in. steel
rod, turned down to i-„ in. at the back and i in. diameter
where it passes through the reel, the outer end being
fitted with a nut as shown. The spindle should be
riveted and brazed into the back plate. A brass ferrule
Is bored out to fit on the spindle to form a bearing for
the reel, through which it is driven tightly, a little
shellac varnish being used to give greater security. For
the woodwork, procure some thoroughly dry walnut,
coeus, or ebony, and turn it to the sizes shown on the
Bamboo Fockiiig Chair.
stability of the chair greatly depends. The two rails
for the side and arm of the chair should be fitted, filled,
and, after the uprights have been glued and fixed,
screwed into position with round-headed screws. A piece
of bamboo should be bent as at O, and fixed with nails
as a stay between the arm and back of the chair. The
herringbone w<5rk between the arm and bottom rail
should now be fixed. The pieces for this work, after being
fitted, should be filled with dowels so as to strengthen
the arms. The two sections when set should be joined
together with the six cross rails, which should be 15 in.
long when finished. The rails to which the upholstering
will be fastened should be filled right thi-ough with deal
dowels to give a hold for the nails. The herringbone
work should now be added to, the back, and after the
upholstering is done the chair will be ready for fixing
to the base with j;wo rooking chair springs.
Cleaning Watch Plates.— In cleaning watch plates,
immerse them in benzine and brush them with a clean
and soft watch brush and a very little dry chalk. The
appearance when finished depends greatly on the original
quality of the gilding and the age of the watch.
Removing Paint from Old Wood.— To remove paint
from old wood, apply freshly slaked, hot limewash,
to each bucketful of which from 2 lb. to i lb. of
common washing soda has been added ; use a common
fibre — not bristle — brush. As the paint softens,
scrape off with a painter's scraping or chisel-shaped
putty knife. Repeat as often as necessary, using a
thinner solution as the paint is removed. The above
pickle will also darken the wood. SwUl off with
plenty of clean water, and when the surface of the
1*-'^
How to Make a Fishing Beel.
drawings, accuracy in fitting being essential. The
handles may be of ivory or metal, and the spindles
turned out of a piece of A-in. iron wire, or a couple of
No. 10 wood screws may be adapted for the purpose.
Executing Designs on Sheet Copper. — Baised
Images, etc., are produced by stamping the copper.
The art of engraving these steel dies is named " die-
sinking." Raised designs in copper are also produced
by punches or similar tools. This is named " repousse
work." Raised images can also be produced on sheet
copper by drawing the design with a varnish that will
resist the action of acid, and then etching the exposed
parts in a bath of dilute nitric acid. A similar result
may be obtained by electrical action in a bath of dilute
sulphuric acid, the plate to be etched being attached to
the positive pole of a battery, and a plain sheet of copper
to the negative pole. The process may be reversed, if
desired, by carefully scraping the design on a varnished
Elate and depositing copper on the exposed parts in a
ath for electrotyping.
Repairing Worn Stone Steps.— This is a simple
method of repairing stone steps which are worn more
or less right across the tread. Take a plan of the stair-
case, and have new treads sawn, If in. thick ; also fix
new risers, 14 in. thick, with proper cramps to the old
tread, and allow the new tread to project fin., so that
the pointing can be neatly finished. The tread will be
greatly improved by the additional Jin. The difference
in the first riser is obviated by always keeping a stout
mat in position.
238
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
Tools for Dressing Granite, — Pig. 1 represents
the punoh that is used with the hammer for removing
superfluous waste anil for pointing the face to almost
any degree of fineness. Its cutting edge is sharpened
to a stumpy pyramidical point. Pig. 2 shows a
hammer-headed chisel used with the hammer for
drafts, margins, mouldings, etc. The pitching tool
shown at Pig. 3 has a bevelled instead of a cutting edge,
and is used with the hammer for pitching and Ijnoolc-
ing off irregularities or waste lumjjs on block. Pig. i
shows a jumper ; the tool illustrated is sometimes known
as a hand-drill. This is chisel-pointed and slightly
round-nosed ; it is wider at the cutting edge than the
diameter of the tool, so that it clears itself In cutting
or drilling circular holes, for which it is used. Fig. 5
shows a hand hammer (sometimes termed a mash or
maul), which is made of steel and varies in weight,
though 5 lb. is a good average. It is chiefly used with
the punch for removing waste and also for chiselling,
jumping, etc. The spaul or spall hammer shown in Pig.
6 varies in weight from 12 lb. to 16 lb. It has a square
edge of about IJin., and is a very effective tool for
knocking oil rough lumps. Pig. 7 shows a pick, about
14 lb. to 16 lb. in weight, which is chiefly used for dressing
the inequalities of the rough or rook face, close to the
finished surface, or for leaving it with a picked face, and
also for scabbling blocks roughly to shape. At Fig. 8
an axe of about 121b. or Ulh. weight is shown. It is
holes are put at an average distance of 4 in. to 4} in
apart, though they can be spread a little if the stone ia
thin, say up to about 1ft. 6 in. thick. The grain, too
makes a difference, as in cutting the tough way the holes
want to be closer together than for cutting with the
grain. The jumper is from 5 ft. 6in. to 6ft. long, and
has two bits, one for pitching, say, about Jin., and the
other (called the bottomer) for pitching about iiu. less
It is used with both hands.
How to niak'' Indelible Inks.— Many attempts have
been made to pi oduce an ink which cannot be removed
by chemical means, and the most satisfactory ink has
been found to be a solution o( Chinese (or so-called
Indian) ink in acidulated or alkaline water. Hydro-
chloric acid is used for the acid solution, and caustic
soda for the alkaline water. With steel pens only the
alkaline may be used. Indian ink is a preparation oE
carbon in a very fine state of division, and is not affected
by any chemical. Another indelible ink is made thus :
Saturate boiling water with borax, and add as much
brown lac gum as it will dissolve, and then add lamp-
black. This ink dries with a gloss. An indelible aniline
ink may be made by rubbing 60 gr. of aniline black
with 60 drops of strong hydrochloric acid and 1 oz. of
alcohol. Dilute this blue liquid with 3 oz. of water in
which Joz. of gum has been dissolved. Or mix lamp-
black with a solution of 5 parts (by weight) of lac and
Fio 7 Fig 8
Tools for Dressing Granite.
Fia12
chisel-pointed for removing the inequalities left by the
pick and for dressing the stone similar to tooled work,
showing the marks or indents in p.arallel lines. Pig. 9
shows a patent axe. The body of this is of iron, with a
slot at each end, in which a number of thin i>lates of
steel, chisel-sharpened and of equal length, are inserted
and tightly bolted together. This tool produces the
finest description of face next to polishing. Pig. 10
shows plug and feathers for coping or splitting
granite. The plug is conical and of soft mild steel, and
the feathers are thin pieces of iron, slightly hollowed
-and bent to fit the hole. Holes are .lumped in the
granite about 5 in. or 6 in. deep, the distances apart
varying with the tenacity of the material, and the
feathers are then inserted. The plugs are driven in and
are afterwards tapped with a heavy hammer till all have
got a hold; then harder blows are given in quick suc-
cession, and the fracture or split made. In the West of
England and in the granite districts of America the
plugs used in splitting granite are about 5 in. long, i in.
wide, and S in. thick, and, instead of being conical, taper
to about i in. (see Fig. 11) , while the steel feathers are
about i in. long, semicircular in section (see Fig. 12) , and
tapered upwards to almost a point, as shown in Pig. 13.
The feathers are made of mild steel, and are supplied in
lon^ lengths by the steel merchants, the rods being a
semicircle of i In . diameter. Steel has superseded iron on
account of its durability and greater cheapness in the
long run. As has been remarked, sometimes ahand drill
Is called a jumper, but a jumper proper is shown by Pig.
U ; this is in use in all Cornish quarries on account of the
speed with which holes for cleaving can be made with it.
Thirty holes may be made in half an hour with this tool,
though the average is twenty holes per hour. Three-and-
a-half-inch to 4-in. holes are deep enough to cut even the
big blocks of Cornish granite used for the docks. The
1 part of borax in suSlclent water. Impure Indian ink
(by analysis) contains much animal glue, therefore if
a small quantity of bichromate of potash be added to
it, after being exposed for one hour to sunlight it should
prove indelible. Another, mix together 3 oz. of pulver-
ised verdigris, 6oz. of sal-ammoniac, 2oz. of lampblack,
and 35 oz. of water. Shake well before using. Hausmann's
indelible ink is said to be made by mixing 1 part of
Trinidad asphaltum with i parts oil of turpentine and
sufficient colouring matter— plumbago for black and
vermilion for red. This is said to be the recipe for
Close's Indestructible ink : Mix 25 gr. of powdered cobalt
with 200 gr. of oil'of lavender; for blue-black ink colour
with 3gr. of lampblack, and for a red ink with sufBoient
vermilion. To make Gaffard's indelible ink, mix together
1 part of lampblack, 12 parts of potash water glass o(
the consistency of syrup, I part of aqua ammonia, and
38 parts of distilled water. For indelible marking
' ink, take Joz. of any pigment used in making ticket
inks and I dr. of salts of steel ; mix with linseed oil to
the proper consistency. Use with pen or metal stamp
(not rubber). Indelible ink for glass or metal is
made by boiling under cover borax loz., shellac ,ipz.,
and water 18 oz. (fluid). Colour with lampblack and
levigated indigo, and in two hours drain off and bottle.
In certain safety papers, which have been invented,
the object has been to introduce into the paper a
chemical which should yield a black compound in contact
with the ink. By Bellande's patented process, oaJotnel,
or a salt of iron, copper, or lead is coml(ined with the
paper. Calomel is preferable. If combined with we
pulp, 25 per cent, by weight of calomel is added; itnxea
to the surface of the paper by gums or gelatines only
t per cent, of calomel is necessary- The ink used w
1 part of prussiate of potash and 1 part of hyposulphite
of soda in 2) parts of thin gum solution.
Cyclopedia of Mechanics.
239
Making Hair Wash.— To make a hair wash to remove
scurf, use tincture of cantharides, 1 dr. ; rum or rectified
spirit, li pt. ; carbonate of ammonia, 1 dr. ; and carbonate
of potash, Idr.; a small quantity of eau-decologne may
be added it desired. Shake tiU dissolTed. Eub well into
the scalp until a lather is formed ; then wash out with
■water. Llguor ammonia would make the lotion stronger.
A little hair-oil or lime cream should be applied to the
hair next day, as the lotion remOTes the natural oil.
This wash does not dye the hair. A liquid soap for
thampooing may be made in the following manner.
Dissolve i oz. of castile soap (out into shavings) in 5 pt.
•of methylated spirit, and add a few drops of essential
oil of lemon or bergamot.
Setting Out Mitre Lines.— When setting out a mitre
block for mouldings meeting at right angles as shown
at A (Pig. i), it is only necessary to draw a square on
the top block as shown at ABCD (Pig. 1), aud then
the diagonal AC is the mitre line. When the mouldings
meet at an obtuse or acute angle, as B or (Fig. 4) , the
better plan is to set out the mitre on a piece of board, as
at Pig. 2. Smooth up a board and shoot the edge, then
gauge a line about Jin. (say) away from the edge and
supports life, is exhausted, and is replaced by carbon
dioxide, which, as already seen, is incapable of support-
ing life or light. Hence the necessity for ventilation,
which is defined, in the laoolt mentioned above, as " the
dilution or removal; by a supply of pure air, of the pi'o-
ducts of respiration and combustion in ordinary dwell-
ings." The average amount of carbonic acid given off
by adults is 0'6 cub. ft. per hour, besides about 550 grains
of watery vapour. A cubic foot of coal gas yields, on
combustion, 0'52 cub. ft. of carbonic acid and 1'3 cub. ft.
of watery vapour ; while an ordinary gas burner may be
reckoned as equal to at least three adults in its
effect on the atmosphere. The atmosphere of the
home, to he of the standard degree of purity, should not
contain more than 0'6 part of oai-bon dioxide in 1,000,
and in order to maintain this standard it is necessary
to supply at least 3,000 cub. ft. of fresh air per head for
healthy persons, whilst the sick need at least 4,500 cub. ft.
of fresh air per hour. In actual practice, however, it
is found that, in England, the air of a room cannot
be changed more than three times an hour without
giving rise to draught. Air at a temperature of 60' P.,
and moving at the rate of more than 3 ft. per second,
becomes a perceptible draught ; but if the temperature
c
B
i\i '^x
A
Fig I
\
SG \
F
E
u
(^y Fig. 2
■I
^^^
1
FIG. 3
Setting Out Mitre Lines.
aet out the required angle, as shown at r H G ; now bisect
this angle as shown, then HK is the mitre line. A bevel
should now be set to the mitre line, as shown, and
then applied to the mitre block. Reference to Fig. 3 will
make this quite clear.
Principles of Ventilation.— The following short sum-
mary of the principles of ventilation is taken from Messrs.
Notter and Pirth's "Practical Domestic Hygiene."
The composition of pure dry air may he taken to be as
follows. Nitrogen, 79'02 by volume, 76'84 by weight;
oxygen, 20'94 b.v., 23'10 b.w. ; carbon dioxide (carbonic.
acid),0'04 b.v., 0'06 b.w. There are also present in the
atmosphere, which is free from colour, taste, or smell, a
certain quantity of watery vapour, with various impuri-
ties ; and Lord Kayleigh and Prof. Ramsay have recently
shown that about 1 per cent, of what was considered
to be nitrogen is an elementary gas called argon. The
nitrogen in the air is incombustible, and incapable of
supporting life, and evidently acts as a diluent of the
oxygen, which is necessary to lite, combustion, and
light. Carbon dioxide, or carbonic acid, is produced in
all processes of combustion, and by the breathing of
men and animals, as well as by the process of putrefac-
tion. The watery vapour in the air prevents undue
evaporation from the body and from plant life. The
physical properties of the air are weight, expansion
and contraction, and diffusion. The pressure of the air
at searlevel is equal to U'75 lb. per square inch of surface.
The pressure on the atmosphere is never constant, but
varies with the temperatui'e and with the presence of
moisture. The ventilation of ordinary dwellings is ren-
dered necessary by the tact mentioned above— thatwheu
air XBbreathedorused up in combustion, its oxygen, which
be, say, 70° P., the velocity of the air may be greater
than 3 ft. per second without causing an unpleasant
sensation of draught. Each adult in a room should
have an air space of at least 1,000 cub. ft. ; but in lodg-
ing-houses the allowance is only 300 cub. ft. In Board
schools the regulation minimum allowance is 100 eub. ft.
per head ; in factories and workshops, 250 cub. ft. per
head in the daytime, and 400 cub. ft. at night ; tor mili-
tary barracks, 600 cub. ft. per head ; while in hospitals
the allowance ought to be (juite 1,500 cub. ft., if not
nearly 2,000 cub. tt., and the minimum floor si ace 100 sq. ft.
The question of floor space is of considerable import-
ance, and it is recommended that the lowest limit of
floor space should be not less than one-twelfth of the
cubic space. " It cannot be too well understood," say
the authors of the above-mentioned excellent manual,
" that cubic space is of no value when it is principally
obtained by means of lofty ceilings. The space at the
bottom of a well, it crowded, would speedily become un-
wholesome, although the air space above is unlimited ;
similarly, people have been known to die of suffocation
in a crowd, though in the open air." A room, therefore,
need not exceed lift, in height, and 12ft. is sufficient.
Minimum floor areas prescribed are for soldiers in
barracks, 50 sq. tt. each ; for children in schools, 8 sq.
ft (but in newer schools the allowanoe is sometimes
extended to 15 sq. ft.) ; patients in hospitals, 100 sq. ft. to
150 sq. ft. and more. Prom the foregoing tacts it is
deducible that proper ventUation is a means of renew-
ing the air in an apartment without creating a draught ;
the iubide air being constantly kept up to the standard
of purity previously stated. An agreeable atmosphere
for a room has a humidity of 60 per cent, and a tern-
perature of 611" F.
240
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
Safety Valves of Range Boot-boilers.— The num
ber of weights, which really means the weight of
metal with which the Talve is loaded, is controlled
hy the pressure of water in the holler, and not by
the size of the range. The customary method, when
fixing dead-weight valves, is to have all the weights on
when the boiler is flrsc charged, and then to lift them oft
one at a time until water runs from the valve. Imme-
diately water runs, put a weight on to stop the leak,
and then put on one more weight— it is usual to put one
weight more than is just necessary to prevent the valve
lealiing. This kind of valve should not he used on an
apparatus having plug -cocks, that can be shut sud-
denly, as the sudden closing causes a shock in the pipes,
and this may cause the valve to lift and eject water on
each occasion that the tap is used quickly. A 5-in. valve
is the correct size for all kitchen boilers, and for small
Independent boilers. A boiler having more than 20 sq. ft.
of effective heating surface ought to have one 1-in. valve
or two J-ln. valves. The six ring weights on a valve are
not always sufficient if the house is a high one, with the
cistern at the top and the range at the bottom ; in this case
lead rings or a solid lead weight are used. The pressure
in feet should be stated when ordering these valves.
A Workman's Tea and Sugar Case.— Figs. 1 and 2
illustrate a convenient little case in which workmen
can carry tea or coffee and sugar to work. It is made of
scrap pieces of tin, such as come from an old corned beef
tin. The side piece is tinned round, seamed, and soldered.
The division piece, seen in Fig. 3, is next soldered in, and
the bottom cut out and fixed. In cutting this, care
shoirld be taken to leave sufficient stuff to form the
the surface, excepting those portions to be etched,
with a solution of 1 part wax in 4 of turpentine
thicltened with a little finely powdered white-lead.
The alabaster is then immersed in water for from 20 to
50 hours, according to the effect desired. The wax is
then washed off with turpentine and the etcheri parts
brushed with plaster-of-Paris. The real alabaster is
etched in a similar manner, very dilute acetic or hydro- -
chloric acid taking the place of the water. Another
means of decorating alabaster is to colour it, but"
this is adopted as a rule only with the imitation
material. Pigments that are not decomposed by
contact with sulphate or carbonate of lime are added
to the gypsum whilst in the wet state. Busts, medallionu,
etc., are coloured with sienna in powder or ground in
water. For architectural purposes, the colour is added
to clear size with which the plaster is worked up into the
Imitation material. Real alabaster may be coloured by
applying hot licjuid dyes or stains ; the material itself
shovild be sufficiently hot to cause the liquid to simmer.
For blue stain use tincture of litmus or an alkaline
solution of indigo ; for brown, use logwood extract ; for
crimson, use alkanet root dissolved in oil of turpentines
for gold, use a mixture of equal parts of white vitriol,
sal-ammoniac, and verdigris ; for green, use an alkaline
solution of sap green ; for red, use tincture of dragon's
blood, alkanet root, or cochineal; and tor yellow, a
tincture of saffron. The rough alabaster is polished
in the following manner. It is first rubbed with pumice
powder or dried shave-grass (equisetum) and water, and
^
i
- - ^H
sr
..\
TT
FIG. I I
A Workman's Tea and Sugar Case,
lap joint. The lid. Fig. 4, fits tight over a narrow rim
soldered round the inside of the top edge. The division
is placed beyond the centre to afford a larger space for
the sugar than is required for the tea or coffee.
Working In Real and Imitation Alabaster.— Alabas-
ter is a soft, semi-translucent white sulphate or carbonate
of lime ; sometimes it has veins of yellow, red, or brown.
A common material generally known as- alabaster is
made of gypsum (plaster-of-Paris) by a special process,
and is hardened by subjection to a heat of about 300° or
'■-jo'')" P., for from 12 to 24 hours. When almost cold it
is immersed in pure water or in a weak solution of alum
for a few minutes. These operations have often to be
repeated. Sometimes the imitation alabaster is suspended
in an alum bath until the alura crystallises on the
surface. The material is then polished with a wet cloth.
The real alabaster is worked in much the same way as
is marble. It is easily turned in the lathe, strong chisels
of the kind used by carpenters being employed for the
straight work, and point tools for roughing out. For
turning hollows the chisels are ground round. The cutting
angles require to be more obtuse than for cutting wood.
Alabaster is also easily; worked in the lathe with tools
such as are used in ivory and brass turning. It is
a common practice to construct alabaster ornaments
in two or more pieces and then to cement these together.
The following cements are I'eoommended for the
purpose. (1) Mix the curd, formed by adding ^pt. of
vinegar to i pt. skimmed milk, with the whites of
five eggs. Well beat together and sift in sufficient
powdered quicklime to form a paste. (2) Mix together
by the aid of heat equal parts of plaster-of-Paris, yellow
resiu, and beeswax. (3) Sift powdered quicklime into
thin rice paste. (4) Melt 2 parts of yellow resin and stir
In 1 part of plastei'-of-Paris. Apply hot to the warmed
alabaster. (5) Pl.ister-of-Paris mixed merely with water
is a simple cement. Powdered sulphur may be added to
this. A meau.s of decorating imitation alabaster
Is by etching. This process is executed by covering
afterwards with a paste of powdered and sifted slacked
lime and water. The final lustre is given by friction
with finely powdered talc or French chalk. Another
method of polishing is first to smooth the surface with
rifflers, scrapers, or glasspaper, and then to remove all
tool marks with fine sandstone or gritstone, such as
robinhood stone, water-of-Ayr stone, or snake stone.
Then rub with pumice, either in lump or powder, and
water, following with putty powder and water. Soap and
water finish the polishing, or, instead of this, calcined
tin may be applied with a linen muUer In the form of a
cushion. Methods of cleaning alabaster and its imita-
tion are the following. (1) Immerse in milk of lime
(slaked lime in water) tor some time, wash In water, and
when dry dust with a little French chalk. (2) Apply
benzol or pure oil of turpentine. (3) Wash with soap
and water containing a little ammonia or soda. (4) Enb
with soap and wash in hot water. It stained, apply
fuller's earth, pipeclay, whiting, or quicklime for three
or four hours and then wash off. (5) If very dirty, wash
with dilute aquafortis or dilute muriatic acid. (6) Mix
pumice powder with verjuice and allow to stand un-
touched for two hours. Then rub it into the alabaster
with a sponge, and wash with fresh water applied with a
linen cloth, afterwards drying with clean linen rags.
Making Hydraulic Cements.— Hydraulic cements,
such as Portland cement, are made either by grinding
and burning natural cement stones— that is, atone
containing carbonate of lime or chalk and sulcata
of alumina or olay-or by grinding together in the wer
state clay or mud and chalk, drying, and burning, ihe
materials must be exceedingly fine i that is why Tlianies
and Medway muds are preferred to clay. Paving stones
as a rule are composed principally of silica, aud are t|oo
hard to be ground fine enough. The material 'UiSM'
however, be mixed with Portland cement and mouldea
into artificial stone blocks.
Cyclopedia of Mechanics.
241
Colouring Venetian Blinds.— Pine laths are gener-
ally flnished with size and varnish, the latter alone
Imparting a sufficient hue. For a more pronounced
tone, yeflow ochre or lemon chrome may he mixed
with the sizes tor walniit, add Vandyke brown; for
mahogany, add hurnt sienna. For laths that have
been already painted the use of self colours is advised,
such as green, blue, or yellow enamels, though, as a rule,
special preparations are used, with turpentine or resin
varnish as the basis. The varnish gi-een with which
Venetian blind laths are coated is made of ground
mineral green, 2 lb. ; white lead, .5 lb. ; with turps enough
to mix. Then add 7 lb. of turpentine varnish. Mix the
other ingredients before adding the varnish.
Making an Extension Ladder. — The extension
ladder illustrated in Pigs. 1 to 3 will be found useful
for light work. Three to four 8-ft. to 12-ft. lengths
of straight-grained red deal, about 3 in. by 2 in., can
be jointed together, the wood being free from knots
and oval in section. Oak or ash is suitable for the
rounds, old wheel spokes often being used for this pur-
pose. The iron (Fig. 4) should be about J in. thick and
glue. The wood or other substance must be heated
before applying. (7) Boll lib. of common glue In 2 ijt. of
skimmed milk. (8) Indiarubber solution is a good water-
proof cement. To make it, cut loz. of pure indiarubbe/
into fine threads with a sharp knife, place in a dry, wide-
mouthed bottle, and add 4oz. to 6oz. of solvent; cork
the bottle loosely and allow to stand in a warm place
(away from any flame) until the rubber has entirely
dissolved. If the material is too thick for use it may ba
diluted by adding a little more of the solvent and allow-
ing to stand until it is absorbed. The solvent may be
any of the following: Ooal-tar naphtha, chloroform, oil
of turpentine, ether, petroleum naphtha, bisulphide of
carbon, and benzine. (9) Pour 1 pt. of vinegar into 1 pt.
of milk; clear it of lumps and let It settle, then mix
the whole well together. Sift in quicklime and stir to a
thick paste. (10) Make glue with linseed oil instead of
with water, boiling well in the ordinary way. (11) Marine
glue is quite waterproof and can be recommended. The
true marine glue is a combination of shellac and a
solution of caoutchouc in benzole. To make it, dissolve
1 part of indiarubber in 12 parts of solvent (see above),
and add 20 parts of powdered shellac, heating the
|B
Pig. I
PIG 1
Making an Ex>euslon Ladder.
21in. wide. These irons should be welded, and prepared
with screw holes as shown. They are fixed with screws
on the sides about three rounds from the top before the
sides and rounds are fixed together. So that the ends of
the lengths shall fit tightly into the irons, and at the
same time be easy to release, they should be tapered a
little, as shown at A and B (Fig. 1) . To allow for this, the
long dimension of the iron should be about *in. less
than that of the two sides.
Recipes for Waterproof Cements.— Below are some
rehable recipes for waterproof cements. (1) Bub
magnesia with a little concentrated solution of mag-
nesium chloride; apply this cement at once. It is
soluble in acids, but not appreciably so in water. (2j
Dissolve by the aid of heat 1 oz. of gum sandarach and
loz. of gum mastic in Ipt. of alcbhol, and add Ipt. of
turpentine and Iqt. of strong vellum glue at boiling
poiut. (3) Canada balsam is a good transparent cement.
(4) Melt 4 parts of glue with a small quantity of water
and 1 part of Venice turpentine. (5) Soak 6 parts of
glue in water, and, when soft, pour off the excess ; the
softened material is melted by heat, and I part of bi-
chromate of potash, dissolved -in the least quantity of
water, is added. Thiscement shouldbe kept in the dark till
required, then melted down by heat and applied. On ex-
posing the cemented parts to light the material becomes
iiisoluble. (6) Make a strong solution of gum arable, and
^"."'Plaator-of -Paris in it, to make a thick paste. Apply
with a bixish. This takes longer to set than ordinary
16
mixture cautiously over the fire. Another recipe is:
1 part of caoutchouc or indiarubber is dissolved in 12
parts of benzine or naphtha with the aid of gentle heat.
In from ten to fourteen days, when the solution is
complete, 2 parts of asphalt are melted in an iron vessel,,
and the caoutchouc solution is poured in very slowly, in a
fine stream and under continued heating, until the mass
has become homogeneous and nearly all of the solvent
has been driven off. It is then poured out and cast into
greased tin moulds to harden into dark brown or black
cakes. This cement requires considerable heat to melt
it, and to prevent it from being burned it is best to heat
a piece of it in a water-bath until the cake softens and
begins to be liquid. It is then care'fully wiped dry and
heated over a naked fiame, under constant stirring, up
to about 300° Fahr. The edges of the article to be mended
fchould, it possible, be heated to at least 212* Fahr., so
as to permit the cement to be applied at leisure and with
care. The thinner the cement is applied, the better it
binds. (12) A good waterproof cement, which is really a
marine glue, is made by melting together lib. of gutta-
percha, 2oz. of linseed oil, 2oz. of pitch, loz. of shellac,
and i oz. of indiarubber. This cement should be used
as hot as possible.
Mortar for Pointing.- In making mortar for flat point-
ing, 1 of lime or cement to 2 of sand may be used. A
struck .joint with the upper edge pressed in, and done
as the work proceeds, is generally more durable than
flat pointing.
212
Cyclopsedia of Mechanics.
Preparing Chlorides of Lead. — There are two
chlorides of lead— the dichloride and the i)erchloride.
The first is prepared hy precipitating a solution of lead
niti-ate with hydrochloric acid. Or in place of the lead
nitrate, acetate may he used, and common salt solution
instead of the hydrochloric acid. The precipitate is
heavy and crystalline, and, dissolved again in hoiling
water and cooled, separates again as needle-shaped
crystals. To produce the perchloride, dissolve the
dioxide in strong, well-cooled hydrochloric acid, wherehy
a yellow, strong oxidising solution is ohtained. Prom
this, water and alkalis may he made to throw down
the dioxide.
Stove for Heating Six Laundry Irons. — The
accompanying sketch shows a stove that Is suit-
able for heating six laundry irons by gas. The body
is made in one piece of at least No. 16 gauge sheet-iron,
the pattern being a rectangle 21 in. by 1-5 in. Punch a
row of holes along each side parallel with the burners,
and bend the ii*on to shape; the angle at the apex
should be about 90°. Next cnt out the bottom, allow-
ing for folds as shown, so that it may be riveted in
position ; also cut out an end that will fit and com-
pletely close the back end, making an allowance round
this pattern for riveting also. In the top of the end
pattern cut a hole in which is riveted the end of the
probably under the combined influence of heat, water
and pressure. Granite is largely used for heavy work
where great durability is required, and for ornamental
columns and other parts of structures, being then
usually polished. It is only used as a building stone
in neighbourhoods where it occurs in abundance. It
is hard and difficult to work, and therefore is expensive
Granite is usually regarded as being a very durable
stone ; but whilst on account of its hardness it is
undoubtedly good for resisting heavy wear, it does
not resist the corroding influences of the atmosphere
so powerfully as is often supposed. Felspar, especially
the pink potash variety, yields in time to atmospheric
influences, breaking down ultimately to a soft, inco-
herent mass of kaolin or china clay, and it is by no
means uncommon to find beds of granite which have
been exposed to the air for ages weathered in this
manner to a considerable depth. The corrosion that
has been observed in granite structures is, of course,
much less, being mainly confined to a loss of the polish
and a roughening of the surface, due to the corrosion of
the felspar crystals. If iron be present in any form,
it may accelerate decay, especially if it he irregularly
distributed in the form of marcaslte (FeSs). This is
indicated by the production of Iron stains on the
surface of the stone on exposure to the weather. As
a general rule the smaller the grain of a granite
:OOOO0O0OOOO0OOO0OOOO0OO
"S~~'»'~~o • • • • o • " ~ V~" • • • ^1
stove for Heating Six Lavindry Irons.
ventilating pipe. Next bend up angle pieces of a
size convenient for supporting the heel of the iron ;
rivet pieces in the ends of these, and then rivet the
lull length to the sides as shown. Bend up two
angle pieces and rivet these along the bottom, as
guides for the stand carrying a pair of radial burners.
Rivet the ends in the hood and the bottom, and the
stove is complete.
Notes on Granite and other Igneous Rocks.—
Under the name of granite are included many rocks
differing largely in appearance, properties, and mode
of origin, but agreeing in their general petrological
character, The granites are all distinctly crystalline,
the size of the crystals varying from a few inches in
length, as in the porphyritic granites of shap, to an
almoht microscopic size in some of the very finely
grained granites. Granite is composed essentially of
three minerals— quartz (SiOa), usually white and glassy ;
felspar (a silicate of alumina and potasli, or some other
base), often in large crystals ; and mica (a complex
silicate of alumina and other bases), in iiaky crystols,
usually of small size ; scattered through the mass
there are very often crystals of garnet and other
secondary or accessory minerals. The colour of the
rock depends mainly on the colour of the felspar and
the mica. When pink felspar is present, the colour
is pink; whilst when the felspar is white and the
mica black, the granite is grey. The colours vary
considerably, according to the proportions in which
the various constituents are present. Granite is usually
classed as an igueous rock ; but whilst it is probable that
some of the granites have been formed by fusion, there
are others which have certainly been produced by
the metamorphism of stratified rocks without fusion.
the more durable it is likely to be, and at the same
time the more easily will it be worked. Syenite closely
resembles gi'auite, except that the mica is replaced by
hornblende ; or if both mica and hornblende are present,
it is a syenitic granite. The syenites are often darker
in colour than true granites, and are hard and tongn.
Igneous rocks other than granite are not used to any
large extent, except in localitieswhere they are abundant.
The porphyrites are compact rocks of igneous origm.
consisting of a felspathic base, in which are crystals or
quartz, felspar, and other minerals. They contain from
50 to 80 per cent, of silica, and vary in colour and in
chemical and mineralogical composition. Porphyrites
are mainly used in England for road metal.
Fixing Indian InU.— There Is no method of absolutely
fixing Indian ink rubbed in water from the stick ; alum or
liquid ammonia is, however, commonly added for tne
purpose. Before waterproof ink was Invented, it w>is
customary to strain the sheet of drawing paper wi.n
glued edges on to the drawing-board, make the drawing
with stick in k, wash it all over rapidly with a wet sponge,
and then let it dry before colouring. The rapid washmg
took off the surplus ink without smearing, and did not
materially reduce the blackness of the hues, water-
proof or fixed ink is by far the best thing to use tor lines,
and stick ink for washes and shading.
Testing Clock Pallets.- To ascertain whether the
pallets of a thirty-hour American clock are opri-ect,
place the pallets against the 'scape-wheel teeth, with tne
point of one pallet against the point of a tooth, ine
point of the other pallet should then come mif "W
between two teeth. If this is the case and the distance
is correct, the depth will be right.
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
243
Bright Silver Plating. - Silver Is deposited in a dull
or matt condition, wliicli needs brushing and polishing
to become bright. For a solution to give bright deposits
in special parts, place 3 iluid oz. of carbon bisulphide
in a Winchester bottle, and add 3 pt. of old silver-plating
solution, and shake well. Then add enough strong
solution of potassium cyanide nearly to fill the bottle,
and set it aside in a cool dark place for twenty-tour
hours. Use 1 fluid oz. of this mixture to each 10 gal. of
the ordinary plating solution, and stir well before-
putting in the articles. A current at from 2 to 4 volts
pressure will be suitable. Too much brightening solution
will make the work patchy and brown. Some platers
use a plating solution strong in free cyanide to put on
the first or striking coat, and finish off in one containing
less cyanide. Striking solutions are not always neoessai-y.
Distinguishing Boiled from Raw Unseed Oil.— In
distinguishing boiled linseed oil from raw oil, it must
be remembered that the raw oil is usually of a pale
yellow colour, a sweet nutty odour, and a mild taste,
whilst boiled linseed dU is usually more or less brown,
and has a varnish-like or burnt odour, and an acid taste.
Recording the Opening of a Door.— Alittle appliance
devised for recording the opening of doors, etc., is shown
in front elevation in the accompanying illustration.
The device consists of a small clock-movement (preferably
of the twenty-f our hour type) , the hour-wheel spindle of
■ which is made to carry a light frame of brass or aluminium
to hold a dial-card D. At one side of this dial is a stand-
ard B, of fairly stout sheet-brass, which is secured to the
one would not answer) may be out. Each roller is now
divided, one-half of each taken, and the pair dowelled
together to form a pattern. The turner should leave
a taper in each ring to enable the pattern to be easily
drawn from the sand. The half pattern with the parallel
rings is lifted straight from the sand ; the other half is
withdrawn by screwing out of the sand. As this causes
the pattern to move endways in the mould, the latter
must be mended afterwards, or, better, the plain neckat
one end (it there is one) should be attached loosely so
that it may be withdrawn first; the end motion then
carries the pattern into the space left. A few rollers
only may be built up of turned pieces in the manner
described, a neck being arranged with collar at each end
for holding the parts together. A cast screw is likely to
cause trouble if required to actuate a nut. The rollers
could be made of hard wood, but a special tool would be
wanted for the screw-cutting lathe. Any jobbing iron-
founder would make the castings if supplied with the
pattern. In turning the pattern, consider the shrinking
of the metal during casting, double contraction being
allowed for the plain halt roller.
Boxing Out Panels of Carts.— For boxing out the
pillars and bottom sides to take the panels on vans,
carts, etc., a right- and left-hand router, as Fig. 1, and
two or three of various sizes for boxing or cleaning
out, as Fig. 2, are required, as are also a few ordinary
firmer chisels and a good mallet. For taking out a cor-
ner pillar on one edge only, set the iron in the grooving
router (Pig. 1) to nearly the depth required, adjusting
the distance on the pillar by the iron fence on the bottom;
Becordiug the Opsuing of a Boor.
Fro 2
Router Planes for Boxing Out Panels of Carts.
inside of the wooden case, au d to which is pivoteda lever L,
cut from sheet-brass. Attached to this is a spiral spring
8, which draws, downward the arm of the lever it is
attached to, when a cord fixed to the end of the opposite
arm is released. When the door to which the device is
applied opens, a short length of soft blacklead pencil or a
crayon inserted in a piece of thin tubing forming a-
holder on the lever at P describes a line on the dial-card.
This indicates the hour of its occurrence, and also, as
the dial rotatesi the duration of time of such release,
since the pencil-point, after moving from the centre,
remains stationary at about Jin. from the circum-
ference of the card until the cord is again pulled taut.
In fitting it up,- the case of the instrument is secured
firmly to the wall behind the door. A small hook is
screwed in the latter, about lin. from the axial line of
the hinges and also on a line with the hole in the case
through which the cord passes. Then, the door being
closed, the cord must be of such a length as to retain the
lever in the position shown in the illustration, when
hooked on the door. The front of the case may be
glazed if preteiTed. Dial-cards can be made of Bristol
board, and the twelve (or twenty-four) hourly divisions
should be drawn curved as shown, their radii being
equal to the distance between the pencil-point and the
fulcrum of the lever. Each division may be subdivided
to denote halves and quarters, and numbered if necessary.
Dimensions are not given, as they must be proportional
to the size of the clock used.
Pattern for Cast-iron Roller.— In making, say, a
roller about 6 in. in diameter by 60 in. long, threaded
™li sixteen threads in 9 in. half-way round the roller.
Its other halt having a straight thi'ead, proceed as
follows. First make a plain pattern of one-halt the
roller from which to obtain four castings. Allow for
metal to turn off the threads and tor facing at the joint,
iwo halt castings being faced and fastened together, the
parallel rings may be turned out. The other two halves
leing attached to each other, a double thread (a single
this has a stud welded into it which works through
a slot in the handle, being kept in place by a wing nut
on the top ; run this to the depth set. With the mallet
and a chisel, knock out the wood to form the rebate, using
the chisel bevel side downwards, when the wood will
work out quite easily ; take it down to the depth of the
groove, set the iron in the boxing router (Fig. 2) to the
depth the recess has to be, run it along the pillar, keep-
ing it flat on the face, when it should clean the wood out
square and true. Where a rebate has to be made in a
bottom side to take a panel, two grooves must be made
with the router, keeping just inside the lines, chopping
and cleaning out as already described, cleaning out to
the gauge lines with a T-plane, trying the panel while
the work proceeds to ensure a good fit.
Glass Embossing by the " Brnshing-out " Method.
—The brushing-out method of embossing glass is executed
as follows. First coatthe glass with asphaltum (Brunswick
iSlack). Now lay on the stencil, which is made of tinfoil.
With a soft brush go over the stencil with soft soap ; the
latter is employed to keep the turpentine which is after-
wards used from getting under the edges of the stencil.
Now with a soft brush dipped in turpentine rub off the
Brunswick black through the stencil ; then take off the
plate aud wash with cold water. The work is now ready
for the hydrofluoric acid to bite off.
Setting Beetles.— The following shows how beetles
should be set. Place a card upon a board or cork and pin
the beetle through the right wing to the cork. The legs are
next extended and the card is brought up to form a rest
for them ; they are then fixed by a little gum. Then
put away to dry, and when set release from the card by
dipping into warm water ; then lightly touch the under-
side of the feet with gum, and place upon a clean card,
bearing name, date, locality, etc. The beetles may also
be set by means of card braces or pins, left to dry, and
placed in the cabinet with the name, etc., upon a separate
card. Further information on the subject is given on p.226.
244
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
Making a Removable Tile Hearth.— In the case
under consideration It Is not necessary to take out tlie
stove before tlie tile hearth can be laid, and another
advantage is that the hearth is easily removed when
occasion requires. The tiles should each not he less
than 3 In. square, but ordinary designs can now be got
in 6-in. tiles ; plain 6-ln. tiles coloured teapot brown,
buff, peacock blue, etc., to harmonise with the general
colour of the room, are, however, recommended in place
of the design. Pig. 1 shows an Iron curb or fender that
can be bought of almost any size for any ordinary
fireplace. Fig. 2 is a plan of the hearth it is wished to
convert, and Pie. 3 shows the curb or fender In position
resting on the floor boards just up to the hearth. Two
countersunk holes are first drilled through the top of
the curb, as shown at A A (Fig. 3), and the curb is
screvfed down to the floor with two long wood screws,
with the heads flush with the top of the curb. The
fender or curb is thus easily removable, being secured
to the woodwork of flooring by only two screws.
These curbs, shown In section by Pig. 4, are about 3 in.
high, so that there is plenty of room inside the curb to
bed the tiles directly on to the existing hearth and leave a
2-in. projection or curb round. The curbs can be bought
quickly and lightly on the surface of the cement, and
pat them down evenly to a level surface with a piece of
wood. It any of them are too low, or do not bed, they
can be easily picked up with the point of a trowel
inserted in the joint, and' a little cement can be added
or taken away as required ; the tile can then be re-
bedded. After the tiles are all bedded, with a rag rub
some stiff cement well into the joints and then polish
the tiles with a dry cloth.
Tufting Chair Backs.— If it is reijuired to button and
tuft some upholstered chair backs the following materials
will be necessary. A packet of buttons to match the
covers, a ball of twine, a straight needle about 6 in. long,
and a regulator. The last is a sharp-curved blade, some-
thing like the pointed end of a large packing needle, set
in a wooden handle. Mark the positions of the buttons i
one dozen will be sufficient for a large chair back. Now
insert the point of the regulator through the canvas at
the back, and work it freely all round, forming a hollow
in the inside of the scLuab ; thread the needle with twine
and push it through the back, drawing it out on the
front. Take up a button and push the threaded needle
through the tag of the button ; slip the button on the
S
JTe
Fig. 5
A Removable Tile Hearth.
from about 4s. each unjapauued ; they are made in a
variety of designs, but a plain curb with bevelled edges
looks very well. It is desirable to buy it unblacked and
black it when it is in position and the hearth is laid.
The tiles may now be put in their places, as shown in
Fig. .5, cutting and fitting those that require it. To cut the
tiles, cut through the glaze on the top with a small steel
chisel about 4in. long and Jin. wide on the cutting edge,
and then tap smartly along this cut on the back of the
tile with a small hammer. After a little practice they
will be found to break quite easily. The tiles should not
fit too tightly, and a space of abont j^in. should beat
each joint. It any of the tiles require a piece taken
right out of them, it is simpler to cut them straighi;
across and then cut the small pieces off afterwards ; the
joint will hardly be noticed if no cement gets into it
whilst laying. "When the tiles have been cut and fitted,
take tliem up andputthem into apall of water, pencilling
a number on the back of each so that they may be
returned to their correct positions. Before preparing the
cement bed to receive the tiles, try the hearth to see if
it is level. Make a "screed," as it is called, out of any
piece of wood about i in. thick ; cut out at each end so
that the ends rest on the top of the iron curb, and the
body just clears the hearth by about Jin. (see Pig. i).
It will be seen that by working this backwards and
forwards, keeping the ends hard down on the fender, it
will screed or scrape the cement bed to a level surface,
and the back part can easily be worked to the same
level. Next mix up in a pail some neat Portland cement
rather soft, and float over the whole of the hearth,
ecreeding it down to a level surface. Lay all the tiles
twine and pass the needle back through the stuffing,
about i in. from the other end of the twine, so as to have
the two ends of the twine 'at the baek with the buttoa
attached on the front i tie these ends as tight as possible,
and thus draw the buttons well in and throw up a tnft
all round. To prevent the twine cutting the canvas when
tying up, put a tufting washer, madeironi clippings of
leather or stout cloth, between the ends before the knots
are tied. To secure deep tufts, leave the ends of the
twine long enough to reach the side of the back frame;
a tack is knocked half-way in the wood, the ends of tne
twine are pulled tight and lapped round the tack, wnioti
is then driven home. The button should then he
satisfactorily.
Cleaning Badger Skin.— To clean the skin of a badger,
place the latter hair upwards, upon the table and pro-
cure a basin of warm water, soap, sponge, and towel.
Now proceed to wash the head, using no more water thnn
necessary ; do not allow water to get upon the under side.
Then suck up all the water the sponge will take, aiio
finish the drying with the cloth or towel. If this fans
the skin is probably stained, and may require bleaching.
Toilet Cream for Chapped Hands.— Several material^
such as white petroleum jelly or benzoated lard, cowa
be used for making a cheap toilet cream for chappea-
hands. Oocoanut oil, scented with a little oil oi
lavender, is a good cream. The following is a more com-
plicated recipe. Melt together benzoated lard, l*"'-'
spermaceti, 2 oz.i and white wax, i oz. Add rose water ^oz.,
and oil of bergamot IJdr., and stir thoroughly till ooia.
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
245
Dyeing Canvas or Clotb a Blue Colour.— By the
indigo process oJ dyeing canTas, a rednced hatla is
made as follows. Take 10 gal. of water and add 5 oz.
of finely powdered indigo, 14J oz. of dry slaked lime,
and 9ioz. of copperas ; stir the bath and keep it covered,
stirring afterwards from time to time till the hlue of the
indigo disappears. Steep the canvas in this for two hours,
then remove and hang up in the open air to oxidise. If
the canvas is not sufficiently hlue after exposure, repeat
the dyeing process. Pass through a hath of dilute
sulphuric acid (1 part acid to 20 parts water), and then
wash thoroughly In clean water, without soap.
Fixing Pictures on Canvas.— The following is a
method of mounting to produce the appearance of oil
paintings. Make a stout deal frame, and stretch over the
front unbleached calico, fastening it with tin-tacks, and
taking care that all folds and wrinkles are pulled out.
Now turn the picture face downwards on a newspaper,
-a.nd, having trimmed to the size of the stretcher, damp
the back with water. The sponge should be passed over
several times until all curl is removed. When the water
has soaked in well, coat the back with strong paste ; then
drop the stretcher down and rub well with a dry cloth on
the back of the canvas. The picture should be well
rubbed down at the edges of the stretcher, as a good
hold must be secured there. It the edges are inclined to
curl, put the stretched work face down on a clean table
and place weights on top. Coat the picture with size,
allow to dry, and finish with best quality paper varnish.
Mastic Asphalt for Laying Wood-block Floors.—
The mastic asphalt used for laying wood-block floors is
Buplied in blocks weighing i owt. each. A concrete found-
ation for the floor should be provided, and this should be
brought to a true surface with a skin of neat cement.
The asphalt is heated In an Iron cauldron with sufficient
bitumen to bring it to a proper consistency, and the
blocks are dipped into the heated mixture one by one
as they are laid. Sometimes a mixture of pitch and
creosote oil is used instead of mastic. Such work as
this is usually done by specially experienced workmen.
*' .«.' *« ■«-' -.^ ^ '. • ' *-. "^ ■, J*' * * "^ ".^ '
Wood-block Floor laid with Mastic Asphalt.
The blocks are often grooved along the sides as shown In
the accompanying illustration, and the asphalt entering
into this groove keys them together and prevents them
from rising.
Putting Facework on Granite.— The usual faces put
on in the trade (the fineness of face varying as to the
price paid) are rockwork (sometimes called rustic face),
punched, picked, single-axed, patent-axed, and polished
faces. Eockwork is a cheap lace, being left in its natural
fltate as cloven, and merely pitched to a face line by a
chisel, though exception is generally taken to any part
of the rustic work being inside the pitched line of face.
Some engineers also stipulate that there shall be only
a, certain amount of rock left on the face, as on the
Tower Bridge over the Elver Thames and in the ex-
tension to the dockyards at Devonport, where the rock
is limited to 1 in. beyond the face line. Eockwork faces
have also come into vogue a great deal lately for house
building, but for this class of work each stone has a
margin draft run around the face, generally about li in.
wide. A good example of this kind of facework can be
seen at Fry's Chocolate Works a,t Birch, the stonework for
which building was worked in West Cornwall. Blocking or
ashlar for big engineering .iobs, such as piers, hai'bours,
and the big masonry dams now in progress in various
parts of England, are also made to a rockwork face.
Punched faces are used where the faces are required
to be down to a given level for various purposes, such
as pavements, edge kerbs, and channelling for streets,
and for stones destined to occupy places where a fine
faf^e is not required, as the quoins, heads, and sills at
the backs of houses. The inside faces to smaU piers and
harbours are generally punched. Picked faces are
employed on dockwork and for coping for piers. Good
examples can be seen at all docks of recent construction,
notably at Portsmouth and Southampton and at the
Devonport extension. The outside faces of lighthouses
are also picked laces, with margin drafts. These faces can
be put on at a moderate cost. The faces are first drafted
around, then punched close and tooth-axed. That the
tooth-axe is undoubtedly a great labour-saving tool is a
fact that is confirmed by its universal use in Cornwall,
whence practically all dock-work granite comes. In
tooth-axing these faces, care should be taken to cross
the work a good deal, or else, seeing that the teeth
are in one line, the marks would appear to run in lines.
Single-axed faces are slightly better than picked faces,
a further operation being required, namely, that in
which the single axe (or, as it is called in Cornwall,
the chopping axe) is put on after having punched
the face and regulated it with the tooth-axe. Single-
axed faces are less expensive than the patent-axed face.
They are used for steps and risers, and are sometimes
put on the sof&ts of arch stones for bridges that have
patent-axed fronts. The Broomielaw Bridge at Grlasgow
IS an example of patent-axed fronts and • single-axed
BOfats to the arch stones. The bedstones for heavy
machinery also have single-axed faces, which make a good
level bearing. Patent-axed faces are the finest that can
be put on granite with tools. The first example of
patent-axed faces seen in England Is believed to have
been at the Great Exhibition of London in 1851. Patent-
axed faces vary in fineness according to the number of
cuts or blades of steel in the hammers. Thus there are
four-cut, six-cut, eight-cut, ten-cut, and sometimes twelve-
cut hammers. These faces are first drafted around,
then punched carefully off to about iin. high to the
drafts, carefully avoiding all holes ; then tooth-axed till
about i in. high to the drafts, and finally worked right
down by the single axe ; then, if for a six-cut face, the
four-cut is run over it, then the six-cut. The mason
should always be. sure to single-axe right down, as the
patent axe is not intended to take anything off, but
simply to mark over the lace in a uniform manner.
If lor a finer face than six-cut, the other hammers are
put on in rotation until the required number of cuts is
put in. The reason for putting them on in due succession
according to the number of outs is because these ham-
mers are costly both to buy and to sharpen, and that
to put an eight-out hammer on, say, after a four-oUt.
would probably cause the blades to bow or to splinter
up. The Tower Bridge and Putney Bridge afford good
examples of patent-axed work, some of the stones
having eight-cut work on them, especially on the finer
mouldings to the Tower Bridge. The cost depends on
the number of cuts required, as a six-cut requires one
more operation than a four-cut, and an eight-cut one more
than a six-out, and so on. The cuts on the laces are put
on square to the beds of the stone, and on circular work
radial to the centre. The patent axes, generally called
bush hammers, are sharpened on the grindstone, the
blades being screwed out for that purpose. Polished
faces are the most expensive. These have to be
worked up to a six-cut face, the cuts being crossed
diagonally to make a harder face. Then the stone is
put on the machines, which rub it with iron rubbers,
fed first with sand and water, then with emery, and
finally finished with flannel and putty powder (oxide
of tin). The greatest care should be taken, In working
off the faces with the tools, that no dead hard blows
are given, as these stun the stone underneath where
the blow is given, and, though this cannot be detected
at the time, the bruises show after the polishing has
been put on.
Making Blue Mottled Soap,— The manufacture of
blue mottled soap is a difficult operation. In making
soap by the cold-process melt 66 lb. palm kernel oil and
33 lb. cottonseed stearin or tallow by a very gentle heat
and bring the mixture to a temperature of 100' P., then
stir thoroughly, and, while stirring, pour in a caustic
soda lye of 65° Twaddell, at about 7,0° P. very slowly,
taking care that it is well amalgamated. The amount
of lye to be used varies from 70 lb. to 90 lb. When the in-
gredients have been thoroughly crutched together, pour
into a frame. Now mix in a shallow trough 2 lb. of
ultramarine (washing blue) with some oil until it forms
a cream. With a wooden frame long enough to reach
the bottom of the soap frame, the blue may be dis-
seminated through the soap. Dip the wooden frame into
the blue and place it in the soap, moving it from side to
side until the soap is sufficiently mottled ; then cover up
the soap frame and allow to stand for three days, when
the soap may be cut up.
Dyeing Green Cloth Black.— The following is a de-
scription of how to dye green cloth to a black colour.
Two baths are required. For the first, 51b. of logwood
chips and 1 lb. of sumach are boiled in 2 gal. of water
and strained. For the second, 5 oz. of sulphate of iron
(copperas) and 3 oz. of sulphate of copper are dissolved
in 2 gal. of water. Place the cloth in the first bath and
raise gently to boiling point ; then wring the cloth
out, place It in the second bath, raise to the boil, and
boil for about half an hour ; again wring out and pass
through two or three lots of clean, tepid water ; then again
wring out, partly dry, and finally press with a hot iron.
246
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
Design for Flower Stand.— Fig. 1 ehows a metal
stand complete with the flower pots in position. Fig. 2
IS a plan o£ the top, which should be ol' hard wood,
turned circular in form, with a head round the lower
edge, as shown in section (Fig. 4). The top may be
left plain, and polished or varnished, or ornamented
by a strip of thin brass, having a vandyked edge,
screwed round the upper portion (Fig. 1). Each tube
should be the same length, a piece oi wood being cut to
the size ot the tube and driven into it. An iron or brass
plate, as shown In Fig. 5, should be screwed to this end of
the tube, but before screwing on the plates a slot must
be filed to allow the bracket straps (see Pig. 3) to pass
through. These straps should be of strip brass i in. by
iV In. thick, curled at one end, and then screwed to the
underside of the top, as shown in Fig. 3. The bottom of
the pillar is a brass casting (see Fig. 1) , into which
the tube may be screwed at the top; on the underside
Is an iron screw pin, having a square centre, screwed at
the one end to fit the casting, and on the other to
take a knob. The scroll feet should be of strip brass
1 in. wide by i in. thick, fastened in the centre by an
ornamental knob and ball nut. Each of these feet
should have a square hole, through which the iron pin
///A'^V////r,//////y///
Pig. I-
Design for a Flower Stand.
at the bottom of the pillar will pass and be fastened
with a knob. This makes the frame rigid (see Fig. 1).
The middle shelf should be of wood, with the brass strip
ornamentation as before described. Fig. 7 shows the
method of fixing this shelf, whilst Fig. 6 shows arepouase
brass clip fastening it and the outside scrolls to the
pillars. The outside scrolls at the foot should be of
brass strip i in. by tjIh., fastened to the tube pillars and
the scroll feet with round-headed screws. The three
upper scrolls are for ornamental effect, but they also
have a little tongue screwed to the top of the upper table
to hold the scrolls carrying the outer hanging pots.
The braaswork should be polished and lacquered. The
scrolls may be bent in a vice, using a pair of round-
nosed pliers for the bends and square-nosed pliers for
the corners. A piece of hard wood, about li in. thiclc
and rounded at the top, would be useful when making
the scroll portions.
Hints on Oilstones.— The oilstones in most general
use are four in number— the Turkey, Washita, Oharnley
Forest, and Arkansas. The Turkey stone is known
as white, grey, or black, but generally its colour is
a mixture ot brown and blue shades. It is a close-
grained stone, and, though not used for very fine
edges, it cuts quickl.v and is suitable for ordinary
use. It wears away rather irregularly. The Washita
(Ouachita) stone Is yellowish-grey in colour, and though
It wears away quickly it does so much more regu-
larly than Turkey stone. The Charnley Forest stone
a'
t:
is ot a greenish-slate colour with sometimes small
brown or red spots. The lighter the colour of the
stone the more serviceable it will be. Arkansas oil-
stone is a compact white stone resembling Washita
stone, but It has a finer grain. It wears well and cuts
slowly, being largely used for finishing the edges of
surgical instruments. The stone should be cemented
into the box made to receive it, not with white lead, but
with a mixture of hot glue and dry red lead. White
lead is taken up by the oil used with the stone and tends
to harden its surface. When an oilstone has been in use
for some time its surface is apt to become hard, especially
if certain oils are used with it. The reason is that the
pores of the stone are closed by the viscid or gummy oil,
which contains particles of steel rubbed off in sharpen-
ing J when the stone is in this condition it is not touched
by the tool, which rides upon a substance as hard as
itself ; therefore the stone fails to sharpen the tool. A
mixture ot oil and turpentine is often applied to hard
stones to cause them to cut better; for this- purpose,
also, they are sometimes boiled in soda water. Hard
oilstones may be made to give rough edges to tools by
S5)rinkling a very little flour emery on them after the
oil has been applied. JSTeat'sfoot oil is the very best for
oilstone use, all others hardening the surface much more
uickly. Soap has been recommended for the purpose.
)he stone is wetted and rubbed with soap and more
water is applied until a lather forms. This is allowed
to dry, and when the stone is required for use it is
mcirely necessary to wet it slightly. Oils in common use
for stones are sperm, olive, and sweet oil; these are
otten mixed with heavy petroleum. It is sometimes
requii'ed to cut an oilstone into pieces, and this may be
done by rubbing across it the edge of a sheet of soft
iron or mild steel, using sand and water as required.
Or, instead, a piece of hoop iron (such as that used on
casks) may be used with emery either wet or dry as the
cutting agent. Another method is to insert a piece of
an old small-toothed hand-saw into a wooden block
and to rub the stone on this. The teeth are, of course,
set uppermost.
Details on Worklne Marble.— British marbles are
quarried In blocks and roughly scahbled to shape on
the ground ; they are then taken to the sawmills and
sawn to the required sizes, either as slabs or scantlings.
The saws generally used are long thin blades or
strips ot iron about 4 in. wide and'rtiin. thick; these
are fastened tightly iu a frame by means of wedges
and screws. Tiie frame is then drawn backwards and
forwards, either by manual labour or by steam power,
the cut being fed with sharp flint sand . After the marble
is taken from the saw it is worked to the required form
by means of chisels and points ot various sizes, either
with the hammer or mallet. Saw kerfs and chisel marks
are removed, and a smooth surface produced, by rubbing
the surface of the stone with iron or other hard rubbers,
and sharp sand and water. The rubbers are shaped to
fit the several profiles and faces. The polishing is
effected by rubbing with grit stones of varying degrees
of fineness, finishing with a pad of felt sprinkled with
putty powder (oxide ot tin). Several machines are
employed for working marble, the principal one being
similar to that ot an iron-planing machine; marble ia
also turned in the lathe, the cutters working automatic-
ally. All steel tools uSed in" working marble are
tempered to a deep straw colour at the cutting edge.
Making Night Lights.— Night lights are usually
made of cerasin, or of a mixture of cerasin or paraffin
with stearic acid, the latter being in the proportion of
from 5 to 10 per cent. These lights are moulded, the
wick being placed in the mould, or afterwards put in
attached to a piece of tinplate. The lights are then
placed in small cardboard cases ; they are used in a
saucer of water. The moulds may be cast in metal ;
for small quantities they may be made like bullet
moulds, to open into two parts ; *ut tor large quantities
they may be in the form of shallow troughs with cir-
cular depressions and plungers to force tlie lights out
atter they are cold. Probably the latter method -nould
be preferable.
Preparing Litmus and Turmeric Papers.— To pre-
pare ordinary litmus paper, powder 1 oz. ot litmus
and boil it with 4 oz. of water, filter, and wash the
i-esidue with a little hot water, adding this to the filtrate.
If blue litmus paper is required, cut blotting-paper into
strips, dip them in the solution, and hang up to dry- «
red litmus paper is required, add one or two drops or
nitric acid (just sufacient to change the colour or the
solution to red and no more) and dip unsized paper in
this. For careful work the litmus must be purified before
using. To make turmeric paper, treat loz. of powdered
turmeric with 4 oz. ot warm methylated spirit. Allow
this to stand for a few hours, when it should be filtered ;
blotting-paper should then be dipped In the solution
and allowed to dry.
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
247
Bronzing Zinc— To make zinc resemble lirass, mix
1 pt. of best oak varnish with i pt. of turpentine ; well stir,
and then add gradually lib. or best gold bronze. When
these materials are thoroughly mixed, apply with a
brush in the usual way.
Making Walking Sticks from Rhinoceros Hide.—
To make walking sticks from rhinoceros strips, they must
first be straightened by damping and suspending from a
naU with a weight at the lower end. When thoroughly
dry they should be trimmed by knife, rasp, file, emery,
etc., and made as smooth as possible. Now French
polish them without any " stopping," thus allowing the
polish to penetrate. When a good surface has been
obtained and a ferrule put ou, the work is complete.
This produces a semi-transparent appearance, tinted by
the polish, and broken abruptly by large dark, or even
black, patches. The usual preservatives replace the
semi-transparent appeai-ance by a whitish opaqtue ap-
pearance, similar to wood. The elasticity will also suffer
in the latter case.
Potash Lye for Soapmaking.— The amount of water
required in making a potash lye for soapmaking depends
up"n the process s in the cold process very strong lyes
of about 70° Twaddell are used (that is, containing
35 per cent, potash) ; therefore about 21b. of water would
be required for it ; but for the boiling process weaker
lyes of about 14° up to 35° T. (that is, containing 9 to
20 per cent, potash) are employed; for the latter^ roughly
41b. to 91b. of water would be required. Caustic potash
behaves like caustic soda in soapmaking when only a
small quantity is added, the bulk of the alkali being
soda ; but if the potash Is in excess, then the result will
be a soft soap.
Softening Leather Machine Belt. -A new belt may be
softened by sponging it with warm water, then well
rubbing It with dubbin. On the side next the pulleys
give it a little castor oil now and again, and cleanse
occasionally as above.
Sharpening a Boot Clicker's Knife.— The point of a
clicker's knife wears away, and manjr workers sharpen
this part only ; therefore the knife gets stumpy.
Sharpen the knife for a length of about 3 in., bearing
most on the part near the handle. To commence, hold
the emery strop on the board with the handle just
raised so that the tip of the knife gets done the least.
Hold the knife so that the back is worn away rather
more than the edge. Have a piece of upper leather
between the emery and the wood. The better plan is
to have two sides of leather, and always to keep one
side with old emery ; thus the knife can be given a few
rubs on the new stuff, and finally on leather only.
How to Make Black Harness Oil.— This is a recipe
for a black harness oil. Melt 3 lb. of pure tallow without
letting It boil, and pour In gradually 1 lb. of neat's-
foot oil. Stir continually till cold, so that it will be
thoroughly amalgamated, or else the tallow will harden
in lumps. Then colour by adding bono black.
Cutting Moulds for Stone.— In cutting moulds for
stone from a full-size drawing, the latter or a tracing is
placed over a sheet of thin zinc (Wo. 9 Is a useful
gauge), and the profile pricked through with a fine-
pointed steel soriber. The zinc is then cut to shape with
a pair of tinman's shears, or cut with a small hammer
and chisel on an iron plate, as near to the line as possi-
ble, and afterwards carefully filed to the required form.
A lone cornered chisel with a V cutting end will cut the
straight edges of the mould better than the -shears j by
drawing the tool over the same line a few times, and
bending the zinc backwards and forwards, it readily
breaks off, and a few touches of the file are all that is
necessary to give it a true edge.
Fartlcalars of Red Sandal-wood. -Eed sandal-
wood is frequently confounded with red sanders-wood—
a much better-known and commoner material. Ked
sandal-wood is brought to England from somewhere on
or near the Malay'Islands. The wood is sometimes called
coral wood.
Embrocation for Sprains, etc.— This is a recipe for
an embrocation for sprains and bruises. Dissolve
camphor 23 gr., in methylated spirit 6 dr., and tho-
roughly mix with dilute acetic acid 2J oz., one-fourth
Dart of the yolk of an egg, and 6 oz. of turpentine.
Black Drawing Ink.— The best black ink to use for
arawings is China ink rubbed down by working with a
circular motion and light pressure on the slab. Heating
tne slab or leaning heavily upon the stick makes the
Ink muddy and prevents it running freely. For ink that
IB to be used for all papers— drawing paper, Bristol board,
or tracing paper-nothing should be added ; but for cloth
tracings a little oxgall or soap should be added, as it
helps in causing the Ijik to tlow. Also, sprinkle the
tracing cloth with dry chalk and rub it well in after-
wards, dusting it off to get as much of the oil out of the
cloth as possible. "Artists' Black" is a liquid ink said
to be specially suitable for drawings intended for
process reproduction. It can be used equally well for
finished drawings on cloth or other tracings ; it has a
dull black finish, whereas the China ink has a glossy
black appearance.
Design for Oxford Picture Frame.— Fig. 1 illustrates
a design for the corners of Oxford picture frames. The
lozenges are level and form the top surface, the interior
being carved Jin. deep and scored. A section of the
lozenge is seen in Fig. 2, and a section of the chamfer
part of the moulding in Pig. 3. For frames of large size, the
Fig. 3
FIG. 1
Fig. 4
Design for Oxford Picture Frame.
length midway of the sides is relieved with an in-
termediate ornament, shown by Fig. 4. The moulding
illustrated is fin., so that for larger or smaller sizes the
lozenges should be correspondingly reduced or enlarged.
The frame is finished in the natural wood, being polished
or varnished.
Plumbers' Astragal, Slip, and Expansion Joints.—
An astragal joint consists of a soldered ' joint with
ornamental mouldings, or astragals, round the pipe. A
slip joint is simjjly one end of a pipe slipped into the end
of another, which is enlarged to receive it. This is
similar to that of an ordinary iron rain-water pipe.
Expansion joints are of many kinds. An ordinary one
is similar to a slip joint, but an indiarubber or asbestos
ring is used instead of any packing or jointing material
which would become hard. An astragal joint is
generally used on outside lead soil pipes. Slip and ex-
pansion joints are used for waste pipes, but chiefly for
those through, which hot water passes.
Flat Grounds for Plate Glass.— One of the best
backings for plain or blended grounds on glass is made
by grinding the colour in nut oil ; bind with sugar of
lead ; thin with benzoline. This will stand the heat or
frost without cracking. A good background for fascias
well protected is made by grinding the colour in milk ;
this is applied as distemper, stippled ; a very pure colour
is produced by this method.
248
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
How to Make a Saw-uharpening Machine.— The
saw-sharpening machine shown in the accompanying
illustrations may be made as follows. Out from a
piece of good hardwood the main standard A (Fig. 1),
12 in. square at the base and 9 in. or 10 in. scLuare
at the top. Two pieces B are fastened to it with bolts, one
on each side, being also secui-ed to sleepers fixed in the
ground or to the floor-beams, as the case may be. Two
pieces (Fig. 1), 3in. or 4in. by IJin., with the grain
following the curve as nearly as possible, should be cut
from a piece of oak and similarly fixed with bolts
to the main standard. At the upper end of each piece
there is a bearing D to carry a small shaft which is
shown separately at Fig. 2 j this shaft has fast and loose
dotted line In Fig. 3, as shown in Fig. 1. It Is then
secured in place. A belt leads from an overhead or
intermediate shaft to the pulleys. There are set-offs on
the ring at M (Fig. 4), with holes in them to receive
the small pins or bolts N (Pig. 1) ; this ring forms the
appliance for canting the swing-carriage N' (Pig. 1) to any
desired angle in order to give lead to the saw teeth when
they are being gulleted. The swing-carriage is made of
iron, and, with the exception of the centres (Pigs. 1 and
5) , handles P, and the bolts N (Pig. 1) , is in one piece ■
there are bosses to receive the centres, which are
held in place by means of small studs as shown. Be-
tween these centres the spindle that carries the emery
wheel runs. The handles P P are used for bringing the
pulleys, and a grooved pulley tor the band which drives
the emery wheel. Out out a piece of plate-iron to the
shape shown at Fig. 3, bore holes in, it at E E, and tap
them to receive the studs, which are referred to later on.
rp indicate the studs that pass through the slots G in
Pig. i. At H (Fig. 3) six holes are bored to receive the
stout screws that secure the plate to the oak bearing-
pieces (see J, Pig. 1). A narrow ring is riveted on the
plate at K (Fig. 3) ; it should be small enough outside to
allow the ring shown at Fig. 4 (see also L, Pig. 1) to pass
over it easily, as the latter has to be revolved partially
on it. The large centre hole is to allow a gut or rope
band to lead to the emery-wheel washers for driving the
wheel. After the plate J(Fig. 1) has been shaped, bored,
etc., it is heated and bent to a right angle along the
Fig. d
Bow to Make a Saw-sharpening Machine.
emery wheel to the saw when it is being gulleted. A wire
Q (Pig. 1) passes over the hooked end of the weighted
lever B, from which the swing-carriage is suspendett.
The emery wheel is shown in position in Fig. 5, being
held in place by means of nuts screwed tightly against
the grooved washers that receive the gut or rope band.
The spindle of the wheel, and the centres Tietween
which it runs, should be of hardened steel. Fig. 6 is aside
view of the iron bar S (Pig. 1) that carries the saw. ine
slot is to receive a bolt on which washers are placed (see
Pig. 1), and between which the saw is secured. The slot
allows saws of various diameters to be held. Ihe Bar is
fixed by means of two studs to a piece T (Fig. 1), shown
in plan at Pig. 7. This appliance is hung to the raaomne
by passing the hole U (Pig. 7) over the lower stud E (lig-
3) and the lower end over the bent piece V (fif- ^i-. J-".°
saw-plate, whilst being sharpened or guUeted, beais
against the straight edge of tTie piece sjoyn by lig. (■
Fig. 8 is a front view of the iron bracket W (PiS-l)™'"
carries the weighted lever E, which is fixed by means ol a
bolt. This bracket is secured to the plate J by means oi
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
249
two small studs passed through the holes In Pig. 8, and
screwed into the top holes E (Pig. 3). A dust-guard maybe
made from a piece of sheet-iron, and secured hy means
of a stud to the front of the swing-carriage N' {Pig. 1) . The
machine should he given two or three coats of good paint.
How to Make Celluloid Varnish.— To make a so-
called celluloid varnish the material to use is not
celluloid, but trinitrooellulose, sold under the name of
collodion cottpn. This is soluble in amy! acetate.
Acetone is also a solvent lor collodion cotton, and may
be used in place of amyl acetate.
Making Meclianlcal Dental Plates.— This is an out-
line ot the processes and methods adopted in making
a plate in mechanical dentistry. Prom an im-
pression in composition make the plaster model not
less than Sin. deep from the edge ot the teeth to the
base. When dry, immerse it In melted stearine for
fifteen or twenty minutes, then allow it to stand and dry.
Press over the model some thin sheet lead, siifficient to
cover the palate ; take it off, out away the edges, and try
it on the model. Now flatten the lead duplicate, lay it on
the metal plate, carefully mark the latter with a pencil,
and cut it out with shears. Mix some casting sand, as sold
at dep6ts, with just suffloient water to bind it; if too
damp, the zinc will spurt when being poured. Having
thoroughly French-chalked the model all over, place it
on the work-bench, base downwards ; place the iron
casting ring, which should be 4 in. deep and 6 in. across,
on the bench encircling the model, and shape the sand
well round the sides ot model, pressing it down with the
thumb untQ the ring Is full. Give the ring a few sharp
t^ps on the side with a small mallet and the model will
fall out ; turn it over and place carefully on the bench,
and the mould is ready. Melt some zinc in an iron ladle,
taking great care not to make it too hot or it will burn
and become useless, and when melted pour very carefully
down the sides of the mould until full. When set, knock
it out, and a facsimile of the plaster model will be found.
Presuming the piece of plate is ready, anneal it over a
spirit-lamp, and, when cold, bend it up with a pair of
half-round smooth pliers, so that it will lie on the model.
Now melt lead in a ladle suiliciently deep to allow the
insertion of the zinc model, which should be well oiled
all over. Place it in the molten lead and allow to cool
down, when it may be knocked out of the ladle, a few
sharp blows with a hammer separating the zinc model
and lead. The counterpart is now complete. Commence
striking up by placing the metal plate between them,
taking great care that it is in the correct position. Place
them together on a pad on the bench, and give a few
blows with a hammer of about five or seven pounds
weight. Take out the plate and remove all signs of lead,
and anneal it, as it becomes hard and liable to crack.
Place it between the part and counterpart and strike up
4.gaih, until the plate fits the plaster model correctly.
The tooth or teeth, it is supposed, have been ground to
fit the gum. Take a small piece of plate sufficient to cover
the back of the tooth, and cut two holes in it to admit
platinum pins. Having done this, cut off the pins,
leaving sufficient to rivet the plate quite close to the
tooth. Now file off the edges of the backing, so that
none is visible, taking care that the backing is long
enough to rest on the plate when the tooth and plate
are in position on the model. If bands or clasps are
to be attached they should be made to fit the teeth they
are to embrace quite accurately, bending up with smooth
pliers. Supposing the plate is 16-carat gold, the bands or
clasps should be of another quality— a gold which con-
tains a certain amount of platinum, which makes it very
tough. The plate being ready and made to fit quite close
to the necks of standing teeth, so as to prevent any
food getting between plate and palate, place the plate on
the model, the tooth in position, and the bands or clasps,
taking care that these just rest on the plate ; retain them
in position by applying a little warm beeswax and resin
mixed, and the case will be ready for soldering. Mix a
little plaster-of-Paris with a little pumice-powder and
water till rather stiff, and spread it on the soldering-eoal.
Take the plate, with attachments, off the model very
carefully, and embed them in the plaster and pumice,
bringing it well round the tooth andT clasps, so that they
remain stationary ; then allow to set. Having done this,
pour boiling water over the whole until every particle of
wax is removed, and allow to stand and dry, say, for one
hour. Place the soldering-coal in a warm place, allowing
the whole to warm through ; .grind lump borax on a slab
with water, then with a camel-hair pencil paint the parts
to be united— tooth, clasps, and pins at back of tooth ;
cut small pieces of gold solder and place them along the
line of union. The soldering requires much care, as if
the flame is directed too suddenly the teeth will crack
and be quite spoilt. First direct the flame aU round the
beddmg of pumice and plaster, gradually bringing it to
the case until this reaches a dull red heat ; the solder will
then begin to flow. Great care is required to exclude any
draught or cold air coming in contact with the case, or
the teeth will crack instantly. Allow to cool very
gradually, remove the bedding from the coal and place
m water, when it will break up ; wash the case and then
with small half-round files and scrapers remove any
projections of solder ; remove all file-marks with water-
of-Ayr stone and water. Heat one tablesjjoonful of
nitric acid with two tablespoonf uls ot water in a poi'ce-
lain pan over a spirit lamp, place the case in it, and It
will assume its natural colour. With the circular brush
of the lathe, polish first with very fine pumice and water,
finally with crocus and oil. Then wash thoroughly, and
the case is ready for the patient's mouth. Of course, skill
in the art of mechanical dentistry plate work comes only
with experience.
Straightening Ivory Walking-stick,— To straighten
a bent ivory walking-stick, procure a length ot dry deal
or pine 30 in. (or less) by 3 in. by 2in., and along it run a
straight groove with a round-nose plane the size of the
diameter ot the stick ; secure the stick with narrow lead
staples in the grooYe, and stand in the sun. Turn the
stick in its bed daily until it is straightened.
Preparation of Collotype Plates.— The process of
collotype is based upon the peculiar property of gela-
tine, wnen sensitised with bichromate ot potash and
dried at a high temperatux-e, of absorbing water and
refusing greasy ink in some places, whilst in others
it refuses water but will take the greasy ink. The
latter are those parts that have been exposed to light,
the former unexposed, and there are degrees between
the two. First, a reversed negative is required; this
should be thin and soft, such as is suitable for bromide
printing. Plate-glass several times larger than the
desired picture is finely ground with emery powder
and coaled with a substratum of albumen and water
glass; the plate has to be re-ground each time it is
used. Place in a 20 oz. bottle some bits of brolten
glass and add 4 oz. albumen (the white of fresh eg^) ;
2oz. water glass solution (commercial) ; and 6oz. water.
Shake this violently to a froth, allow to subside and
filter through fllter-paper. The ground-glass should be
well rinsed to remove every particle of emery powder.
Grease must be avoided, as this leads to the film tearing
from its support, the greatest trouble in collotype. The
plate is then coated with the substratum as in varnish-
ing a negative, except that no heat is necessary, and it
is dried guarded from dust. The plate is then again
rinsed and dried, and is ready for coating with the sensi-
tive film. Hard gelatine leads to the production of flat
prints, and the soft gelatine breaks up after few im-
pressions. Burton advises the use of equal parts of No.
1 and No. 2 (Nelson's) gelatine, and gives the following
formula : No. 1 gelatine 1 oz.. No. 2 ditto 1 oz., bichro-
mate of potassium 100 gr„ alcohol 1 oz., chrome alum
2 gr., and w^ter 20 oz. The potassium bichromate is
dissolved in 2oz. water, and then ammonia is added till
the solution smells. The gelatine is allowed to soften
and is then dissolved by heat : the two are mixed and
then the chrome alum is added in the form, of 40 m. of
a 5 per cent, solution. The alcohol is merely added to
make the solution flow better, and should be added
immediately before use. Finally filter through swans-
down calico. The plate is next heated as hot as the
hand can hear and held with a holder in the' left hand,
whilst a pool is poured in the centre. The excess is
poured off, and, after a slight rocking to ensure an even
film, the plate is placed in the drying oven, the thermom-
eter on the outside ot the door ot which should indicate a
temperature of about 120" P. Drying should take about
three hours, not more. When dry, the plate is ready for
printing from the negative. The two films are placed
face to face in a stout pressure frame and exposed to a
bright light. The negative must have a safe edge fitted
as in carbon printing. Printing is judged by an actiuo-
meter, the simplest form of which is a piece of albumen
paper exposed behind a thin quarter-plate negative.
When printed sufficiently, the plate is laid face down on .
a sheet of black velvet and the back exposed for a short
time to form an insoluble coating near the glass, and to
prevent tearing. Development merely consists in wash-
ing the plate entirely free from the bichromate, when
the lights will be found to have swollen considerably.
When drying the plates care must be taken not to open
the door, or drying marks may be caused. All the opera-
tions up to the coating with the bichromate solution may
take place in ordinary light, and even after coating the
plates are comparatively insensitive until dry. More care
must, however, \>e taken to protect them from light than
would be necessary for ordinary P.O.P. or albumen paper.
Removing Grain Marks from Ivory.— To remove
black grain marks from ivory, scrape the latter, being
careful to keep to the original contour. A plan adoptsd
with valuable pieces is to engrave a design on the sur-
face, and to fill with sealing-wax dissolved in spirit.
Leave this to set, then polish off, thus hiding the
objectionable marks.
250
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
How to Make Fly-paperB.— In making fly-prpars,
melt 1 oz. of powdered resin with 3 fl. dr. of colza oil
(which need not be very pure) in a small pot set on the
bar of the kitchen iire. When thoroughly melted, stir
well, and apply while hot with a small varnish or paste
brush to old newspaper leaves.
Notes on Gesso Ornamentation.— Gesso work, to a
small extent, has been employed in the decorative arts
tor a very long time ; but it is only of late years that
gesso has been recognised as a material with which
effects can be obtained by simple and easily aoqnired
methods. The possibilities of gesso for decoration
ure almost limitless ; the material enters into the
composition of panels for furniture, it forms the
most effective friezes, etc., and can be employed on
caskets, brackets, picture frames, and the score of fancy
articles which nearly every home contains. Gesso is a
kind of plaster decoration, presenting a raised and
indented surface, which may afterwards be coloured.
It differs from stucco, to which it is akin, in not carry-
ing within itself a hardening principle that is awakened
by mere slaking with water. Stucco hardens like plaster-
of-Paris ; gesso contains glue, oil, etc., for binding
the chalk which is its chief ingredient. Gesso can be
applied with a brush ; stucco can be put on better with
modelling tools. Gesso Is for lower relief and finer work
thuu stucco. The body stuff of gesso must be whiting,
chalk, killed plaster-ot-Paris, or something similar s
bone-stone and pumice have been used. Glue, linseed
oil, pitch, resin, and turpentine are employed to bind
the stuff together. Very little oil is required, less resin,
and still less pitch ; all three may be left out. This is a
reliable recipe for gesso : Mix 10 oz. of glue in 21 pt. of
water, 8 oz. of white resin in IJ pt. of linseed oil, and
2 oz. of pitch in i gill of Venice turpentine. Mix together
by the aid of heat 6 parts of the glue-water, 1 part of the
resin oil, and ^\ part of the pitch solution. '' Gilders' "
whiting that has already been crushed to a powder, or
soaked and converted into a paste, must then be stirred
into the hot solution ; with the paste, less water will
be wanted In the glue solution. When of the right con-
sistency for application with a brush, this is called
" thick white " ; gilders' " stopping " is the same stuff
brought to the consistency of dough, and the " compo,"
used for making the ornament round a frame for sub-
sequent gilding, is gesso. Besin varnish and some kinds
of driers may be used with glue and whiting to make
gesso. Water and linseed oil when shaken up together
form a mixture, and If to this some whiting is added,
gesso is left as the water dries out. This, having the
consist?ency of cream, is applied to the sized or lacquered
wood by means of a brush. The decoration may be
brought into higherrelief by applying two or more coats,
and, whilst still soft, the composition may be modelled
with the brush. If left flat, a good ground for painting
upon is formed. Some idea of the appearance of a piece
of gesso work when completed can be gained by imagin-
ing a plaster cast of some figure decorated with silver
and gold, and tinted with metallic colours. The effect
of well-executed work is rich and harmonious. It
is quite possible, of course, that instead of being
harmonious it may be garish and vulgar ; the
worker alone is to blame if a pleasing effect is not
secured.
Tbe Preparation of Lampblack.— In producing the
various grades of lampblack, soot oil, which is the
last oil obtained in the distillation of coal tar freed
from naphthaline as far as possible, is burned in a
special furnace. In this furnace is an iron plate,
which must always be kept glowing, and upon this plate
the soot oil trickles from a vessel fixed above. It is
decomposed, and the smoke (soot) rises into lour
chambers through small apertures. When the quantity
of oil destined tor decomposition has been used up, the
furnace is allowed to stand undisturbed lor a few days/
and only after this time has elapsed are the chambers
opened. In the fourth chamber is the very finest lamp-
black for lithographers' use ; in the third is the fine
rade employed in making printers' ink ; while the
irst and second contain the coarser soot, which, well
sifted, is sold as fiame lampblack. From grade No. 1
the calcined lampblack tor papermakers is produced.
For preparing this lampblack, iron capsules with
closing lids are packed tightly with the coarse lamp-
black, and the cover is smeared with fine loam. 'The
capsules are next placed in a stove and semi-calcined,
this causing the oils to evaporate and the remaining
lampblack to become odourless. The capsules are
allowed to cool lor a few days before being opened,
iis the soot dries very slowly, and easily ignites in
contact with air It the capsules are opened too soon.
For the purpose of preparing completely calcined lamp-
black, the semi-calcined substance is packed into tresn
capsules, these being closed up well. After a calcination
lasting two days, the capsules are opened, and the lamp-
black, which is found to be in compact pieces, removed.
i
For the manufacture of soot black anothei furnac»
is employed. Asphalt or pitch is thrown in through
the doors, air being excluded as far as practicable
and the smoke escapes through the chimney to the
soot chambers 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5, and in these chambers
the soot assorts itself. The asphalt or pitch is burned
up completely, and the furnace is then left unopened
for several days; then the outside doors are slowly
opened and air is admitted. Later on the doors can
be opened altogether, if the soot black is quite cool
Chamber i contains the finest soot black, and this is
used in the manufacture of leather-cloth and oilcloth
In the other chambers is fine and ordinary flame"
black, which is sifted and packed in suitable barrels
Calcined lampblack may also be produced from it
the operation being the same as for oil black. '
Notes on Working Tortoiseshell.— Tortoiseshell is
supplied almost entirely by the carapace or shell of the
" hawksbill" tortoise, which frequents the warm waters
of the East and West Indies. The shell always consists
of thirteen plates, and these are generally torn apart
and tied together for convenience of carriage. Tortoise-
shell sells at from 2Cs. to 2is. a pound, and very often a
single large plate will be more than 1 lb. in weight.
Much time and money have been expended in endeavours
to find a means of melting tortoiseshell, but without
success, and so it is joined by a kind of welding process.
The edges to be united are shaved and scraped to a
feather edge, and laid together with a piece of fresh
shell upon them j the whole is then subjected to a moist
heat (as of hot water), which softens it, and it is then
put under great pressure until the parts are united,
after which the surplus thickness is removed as waste.
Another method of welding tortoiseshell is to first file
it clean, and lap one edge over the other, taking care
that no grease remains, wet the joint with water, and
hold it in a hot pair of pincers, so constructed as to
cover i in. or 5 in. of the joint. Kemove the pincers and
apply moi-e water, and the joint will be found secure.
The pincers must not be so hot as to burn the shell.
In some cases it is possible to lorm a good joint
by cementing, and then one of the following cements is
used.. (1) Dissolve In 125 parts of 90 percent, alcohol 3(>
parts of shellac and 10 parts of mastic, and add 2 parts
of turpentine. (2) Dissolve in 58 parts of 90 per cent,
spirit of wine 5 parts of mastic and 15 parts of ihellac,
and add I part of turpentine. In making tortoiseshell
combs, two are cut out of one strip, and while soft a
deep zigzag cut is made down the centre of the strip to
lorm the teeth of the two combs, which thus fit closely
to each other. As quickly as possible the two parts thus
divided are torn asunder, as in a tew seconds they would
reunite. This is a difiicult operation, and liable to prove
costly it much waste results. To form the knobs and
other raised parts seen on fancy tortoiseshell combs,
the shell is neated, and while in a pliable stat6 is
gradually worked and pressed up into a mould of the
required form, and subsequently smoothed and polished.
Material which has been thus treated cannot be re-
shaped if broken, for on re-heating it takes its original
lorm, from which it cannot be altered. Combs are
usually made of more than one thickness of shell, and
as many as six thicknesses are sometimes welded to-
gether. When patterns are to be carved into the work,
extra thicknesses are welded on. Shell from the claws
is used when a streak of unusually light colouring
is required, and the under or " belly " shell, which is
almost transparent, is used for the amber shell-work.
In finishing tortoiseshell, it is first scraped, and then
polished with pulverised charcoal and water on a
woollen cloth perfectly free from grease. This is followed
by water and washed chalk or whiting, the article being
moistened with vinegar. Finally it is hand-rubbed with
dry whiting or rottenstone. By another method of
polishing, the horn is scraped smooth and level and is
rubbed with very fine glasspaper or Dutch rushes, and
afterwards with felt dipped in finely powdered charcoal
and water. After rubbing with rottenstone or putty
powder, it is finished with a soft washleather damped
with sweet oil, or is rubbed with nitrate of bismuth
applied by the palm of the hand.
How to Make Shaving Paste.— This is a method of
making a good shaving paste. Dissolve Jib. of caustic
potash in 2pt. of water, and now melt 21b. of tallow
and i lb. of coooanut oil in a large pan, add the
caustic potash solution gradually, and boil together.
Continue boiling and stirring until a unifoi-m paste is
formed which, when rubbed between the finger and
thumb with a little water, feels soapy and free from
grease. Allow to cool, and determine whether the soap
IS thin enough for the tubes ; if it is, heat the soap and
fill hot i if it is not sufficiently thin, add water and boil
again. Add any desired scent previous to filling. An
easy way of making shaving paste is to cut any good
soap into shavings and boil with about four to sis times
its weight of water till dissolved.
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
251
Cements for Mica. — Mica may be cemented by
moistening the edges with a solution of gelatine in
strong acetic acid. Another cement for mica is made by
soaking gelatine in cold water and pressing out excess
of moisture in a cloth. Then heat it on a water bath
until it begins to melt, and stir in alcohol to form a
fluid. For each i>int of solution, gradually add whilst
stirring i oz. of gum, Ijoz. of gum mastic pre-viously
dissolved in i oz. of rectified spirit. Keep in stopper
bottles, and warm when required tor use.
Removing Dents from Brass musical Instruments.
—There are many methods of remoTing the bruises
from brass instruments, the position of the bruise de-
termining the method to be employed. In some cases, to
avoid taking the instrument to pieces, the top of a piece
of stout brass wire is soldered to the indented spot, and
the brass is then pulled up. This iSjhowever, only
practicable in the case of slight dents. Where the dent
is in the smaller tubings or too far round the main bow
to be acceseible from the bell, the instrument must be
taken to pieces at the joints and the bruises removed
by means of a series of steel balls of graduated sizes,
which are screwed on a curvedr and tapered steel arm
fixed in a vice. The ball should fit the bore of the
tube to be trued. This is then thrust over the arm,
and the bruise pressed up from the inside by the steel
ball. If the dents are sufticiently near to one end of the
tube, a burnisher can be emplojred to remove them.
The burnisher has the curve of its face equal to the
curvature of the tube. The burnisher is merely placed
In the tube and worked to and fro over the dent until it
is smoothed out.
Repairing Lead Gutters.— When stopping a crack
in a lead gutter, the crack should be opened, the wood-
work beneath dished, the edges of the lead dressed into
the dishing, and then shaved to present a bright surface
for soldering. Next; drive in a few tinned copper nails
to prevent the lead rising and showing through the
solder ; a little tallow should be rubbed on. Plumbers'
solder should then be melted, poured on, and kept in
a semi-molten condition by a plumbers' iron red hot.
After the solder has well tinned to the lead it should be
wiped flush with the lead at the sides.
Making Soluble Oil.— Soluble oil as used in finishing
cotton goods may be made by mixing 2 parts hy weight
of castor oil with 1 part of strong sulphuric acid. The
pan in which the mixing is done should be placed in
a tank' of water and kept cool by allowing the water to
flow through the tank. Allow the mixture to stand for
about a day, then add brine (salt solution) ; wash by
stirring thoroughly, pour oft the oil, and wash two or
three times with brine. Now add ammonia or a solution
of washing soda in small portions at a time until a
portion of the oil taken out and mixed with water
readily emulsifies, with it.
Polishing Icory.— Ivory may be polished by hard,
medium, and soft revolving brushes with wet whiting
and water, finishing with a soft polishing bob charged
with dry whiting or with putty powder. To polish ivory
by band, make a pad of thick fiannel or blanketing and
rub with whiting and water ; finish with a new pad and
dry whiting or putty powder. When finished, stand
in the sun to bleach, if desired.
Cleaning Windows.- Windows that are dull and
smoked through being near a briokeroft are cleaned
in the following manner. Slake i oz. of quoklime in
sufficient water to make a paste, and add 1 lb. of washing
soda dissolved in 1 qt. of water ; mix thoroughly, and
wash the windows with this. Follow with clean Water,
and dry with a clean cloth. A little whiting, made to a
paste with water, rubbed on, allowed to di-y, and then
rubbed oft' with a clean cloth, will also be of service.
How to Burnish Photographs.— A cheap burnisher to
put a glassy surface on photographs consists of a steel bar
and a ribbed roller rotated by a handle ; the lubricator is
made by dissolving about 20 gr. of Castile soap in 6 oz.
of methylated spirit. The soap may be used dry, but gives
then rather more trouble. Even with a lubricator there
IB great liability of scratching. When marks are detected
the roller must be removed, and the bar, when cool,
rubbed from end to end with tine emery-paper on a strip
of wood. To use the burnisher, the bar is heated, by gas
preferably to spirit, till a spot of water touched on the
side hisses faintly. For gelatine prints the bar must be
much cooler. See that the bar and roller are parallel
and at sufficient distance apart by passing through a
useless print. When the card passes through just easily,
without strain, insert one end of the photograph and
Immediately wind it through without hesitation. The
shghtest stop will make a dented line, which is difficult
to remove. The handle must be started from such a
position that it may be taken round with one continual
sweep. As the picture passes, the ends are lifted slightly
to impart the least possible curl backwards. A better
effect 13 obtained it the picture is passed through from
side to side rather than end to end. The film of the
photograph goes against the steel roller. The photo-
graph should not be bone dry, but, if too damp, it may
blister. A certain amount of polish may be obtained by
rubbing with encaustic paste, or even with white curd
soap, and polishing with an old silk handkerchief. Gela-
tine prints are polished by drying in contact with glais,
but this does not permit of their being worked up.
Writing on Opal Glass.— Asphaltum in an eqnal
weight of methylated spirit is useful for writing on opal
glass, as it will not peel. Break the asphaltum small,
put it m the spirit, and set it near a fireplace for two or
three hours. It may be thinned by adding spirit. Apply
two coats thin, rather than one thick, t-'ealing wax
treated the same way in spirit of wine, and applied hot,
IS good for polished grounds.
Quickening Combustion of Charcoal.— A method of
impregnating charcoal so as to make it light up very
quickly is to make a strong solution of nitre in boil-
ing water ; dip the charcoal in this, and then dry. If
the treated charcoal burns too quickly, which will
probably be the case, it should be mixed with some of
the untreated stuff.
Renovating a Celestial Globe A celestial globe,
the varnish of which has become chipped, is renovated
as follows. Cleanse by gently rubbing with soft flannel
and white curd soap, and wipe perfectly dry with clean
chamois or window leather. Wipe over any scratched
portionswith the least possible raw linseed oil; then, if
necessary, touch up defective portions with white hard
spirit varnish or transparent paper varnish. Using a
camel-hairbrush, apply ratherthinly to avoid the appear-
ance of overlapping.
Setting Jewel Hole in Geneva Watch.— Below is a
description of the method of cutting a new setting
for a jewel hole in a Geneva watch. The watch plate
is cemented with shellac to a brass face-plate about
iin. or I in. in diameter, run in the lathe. A spirit
lamp held underneath the face-plate softens the
shellac, and a sharp-pointed watch peg is then steadied
upon the hand-rest and the point inserted lightly in
the pivot hole as the lathe runs slowly. This centres
the. plate, and as the shellac hardens the plate re-
mains true. The cutters are generally made from the
tang ends of old flat files ; these can be laid flat upon the
T-rest, and with the aid of an eye-glass the setting is
turned out to receive the jewel, the hole being opened
and a slight ledge being left tor the jewel to rest upon.
A circular groove is then turned round the setting, to
leave an extremely thin wall ot brass standing up all
round the edge of the jewel. The jewel is then placed
in, and the thin brass edge burnished over it by a round-
pointed burnisher slightly oiled. The plate is then
melted off the chuck and the shellac dissolved by boiling
in methylated spirit iu a metal spoon over the flame
of a spirit lamp.
Hints on Working the Howe Sewing Machine.—
The following hints are on the working of a Howe
sewing machine. First, get the machine to run back-
wards, or from you, quite easily ; if at all stiit use
paraffin oil. Thread the shuttle, first through the holes
in the bottom, or under side, then under the spring
in the front, or pointed end, and lastly out through
the hol6 in the top side. The tension screw in the
front is left-handed— that is, turns opposite to the
direction in which an ordinary screw turns. The needle
is set with the short groove towards the shuttle, and with
the eye level with the needle plate, when the mark or
scratch on the bar is just flush with the top of the face-
plate or part containing the needle bar and foot bar, etc.
If there is difficulty in obtaining needles, use a Singer
arm machine needle, cloth point it for cloth worli,
leather point if for leather. The top cotton threads
once or twice round the tension wheel, then under
the small threaxi guide, just behind the needle bar, then
in the slot in the top ot the needle bar, down through the
eyelet in front of spring, through the spring, back
through the wire eyelet again, and through the needle,
threading towards the wheel end. The stitch is altered
at the screw in front of the arm, and the top tension is
tightened or loosened by altering the brass thumbuut
in front of the tension wheel.
Renovating Brass and Copper Articles.— It is sup-
posed that an article composed of lacquered brass and
copper requires to be cleaned, burnished, and re-
lacquered. First remove the lacquer by brushing
with an ordinary scrubbing-brush and strong boiling
soda water. Then wash off with hot water, and polish
with flour emery powder, crocus, and oil. Finish with
dry crocus or very fine whiting. A calico dolly may be
fixed to a lathe and the polishing done more easily.
To lacquer, the articles must be heated equally.
252
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
Flatting Colours.— To make up flatting for calico to
stand two or three coats, dry dead, and roll without
tracking, take, saj', 51b. white lead, 1 gill raw linseed oil,
i gill gold size, ; lb. patent driers, and as much turpentine
as will thin lor working purposes. Should the first coat
dry with any shine on it, use less oil ; a -very little of a
pigment will give any tint required. Two coats at least
will be necessary. For the same in distemper use whiting
and jelly size ; first, soak the whiting in water, then pour
olf all superfiuous water, pouring in the hot size after-
wards. To each pound of size add a pint of water; a
little dry colour mixed with water to a thin paste may
be added to give the tint required. Two coats must be
applied.
Pasteboard Tube Umbrella Stand.— The illustra-
tions show an umbrella stand made from three paste-
board tubes. They have wood blocks fitted Into the
bottom, and can be screwed to the base, which is
of 1-in. board. If a moulding could be worked round
the trefoil wooden base, the appearance would be
Improved. A hole should be drilled in the wood bottom
of each tube and a suaall pipe Inserted to carr.y off
the water from the wet umbrellas (as shown In Fig. 2).
Three flattened wood balls should be screwed to the
under side of the base to lift It from the floor, and to
admit a tin pan underneath to catch the water. Fig.
1 shows the stand complete, with the brass ornamental
To intensify or brighten, reduce the deposit on the
shadow portions, and allow the dark plate to show
through more. Drops of 10 per cent, solution of iodine
added to the fixing bath have the desired effect. Ferro-
type cameras are fitted with a number of lenses and
divisions in the camera. A repeating back that is, a
frame with a hole over which the slide passes so as to
expose a portion of the plate at a time— may be nsed with
a spring catch In the top slide rail to register positions.
Making Bevelled Stock Hoops.— Below are given
Instructions on obtaining the correct bevel for making
3 in. stock hoops for heavy wheels. Fig. 1 is a side
view of a stock hoop, 3 in, wide, 1 ft. In diameter at
the back, and 10 in. diameter at the front. First
set out the half elevation, as shown at the top part
of Fig. 2 ; then, using G as centre, with a radius of half the
diameter of the back of the hoop, strike the line AE.
From the same centre, with a radius of half the diameter
of the front of the hoop, strike the Inner line a e, thus
obtaining a quarter plan of the part cone formed by the
hoop. Divide the quarter circle as shown at B b, C c, D d,
E e ; also connect A and b by a cross line ; this line mea-
sured across, and marked on the horizontal line from G to
p, and connected to the vertical line at the top centre of
Fig. I.
Pasteboard Tube Umbrella Stand,
rim round the centre ; this may be fixed with rosettes
having pins bent over when passed through the brass
rims and the tubes. Fig. 3 shows patterns for the brass
rims, the lower one having semi-balls hammered up at
intervals. It would be advisable to fix a plate of thin
zinc, say Jin. wide, round the top inside edge of each
tube to prevent the wet umbrellas saturating the
upper portion of the tubes. For colouring, use a light
ground, say grey, fawn, or light green, with a dark ring-
at the top and bottom; these colours may be applied
in enamel paint.
Ferrotype Photography.— The ferrotype plate is a
sheet of Iron covered with an insoluble black varnish
and coated first with a bromo-iodised collodion. Pour a
pool in the centre, flow round the edges, and pour off at
the bottom right-hand corner. When the film has set,
which Is shown by its dulness, it is laid face up on a
dipper— two pieces of glass cemented together — and
lowered into the silver bath consisting of silver nitrate
3D gr., distilled water 1 oz., and 1 drop of a 10 per cent,
solution of nitric acid and distilled water. After one
minute's immersion It is withdrawn, and, if wetted
evenly, requires only two minutes longer. Drain and
wipe the back with blotting paper, and place In the dark
slide. Slides for the wet process have wires on which
the plates rest, and a gutter at the bottom for dripping i.
Exposure is as usual, but wet plates are considerably
less sensitive than dry plates. Great care must be exer-
cised to keep the films free from dust. For development
the plate is held in the hand and flooded with sulphate
of iron .5 gr., acetic acid a c.c, alcohol .5 c.c, water
BO 0.0. Fix In cyanide of potassium 2gr., water 30 c.c.
FioJ
Making Bevelled Stocl: Hoops.
the elevation, will give the diagonal line to be used in
making the pattern (Fig. 3). To make this, draw a-
vertical line A a (Fig. 3) equal in length to the line AH
In Fig. 2. With the line P J (Fig. 2) as radius, and A
— ■■■ ■ ■ •• V -^ . .- '"■- ". With a
Then from b b, with the length of A a (Fig. 3) as radius,
describe arcs atB B. Take the length AB (Fig. 2) as radius,
with A (Fig. 3) as centre, cut the arcs drawn at B B, which
will be points on the top of the pattern; repeat this
each side of the centre until several points are found,
when the points can be connected by a true sweep.
Fig. 3 is the shape to which the hooping must be made
before it is turned round ; of course, allowance must be
made for bending and welding up. When making hoops
as above described, an iron mandril (as Pig. i), known
also as a sugar-loaf casting, is of great assistance.
Double Image trota Field Glasses.- A pair of field
glasses when looked through will sometimes show a
double object. This double image is due to the directions
of the two optic axes not being in correct relation. Ihis
prevents the rays from the image converging upon the
fovese of both eyeballs simultaneously, two difierent
pictures being presented, one to each eye. The remedy
IS to alter the direction of the optic axis of one or tne
telescopes forming the field glass. Probably the join-
ing bars are bent, and so obviously they should Do
straightened.
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
253
Cementing Leatber to Iron.— To cement leather to
lion, first paint the latter with lead colour, such as
white-lead and lamphlack. Soak glue in cold water
until it is soft, then dissolve it in vinegar at a gentle
heat, add one-third of its bulk of white turpentine, njix
thoroughly, and apply hot to the painted iron. Apply
the leather quickly, and press tightly in place.
Making Liquid Glue.— For strong liquid glues, (1)
heat together on a water bath for six hours clear
gelatine, 100 parts ; best Scotch glue, 100 parts ; alcohol,
25 parts ; alum, 2 parts ; and 200 parts of 20 per cent,
acetic acid. (2) BoU together for several hours 25 parts
glue, 65 parts water, and 4 parts nitric acid. (3) Dissolve
6 parts of glue or gelatine in 4 parts of saccharated
solution of lime ; neutralise the lime with a third part of
oxalic acid, and add carbolic acid as a preservative.
Burning Lead Seams with Hydrogen Gas.— Flat
seams that are to be burnt can be either butted or lapped.
In the former case a strip of clean-shaved lead is fed into
the seam, and in the latter case the edge of the face lead is
melted down into the under lap. For upright seams the
lead is lapped ; the face of the uudercloak, and the back,
edge, and trout of the overcloak being cleanly shaved.
No flux is necessary, as, with what may be termed
clean gas, free from smoke, the lead does not tarnish.
A very fine flam jet is necessary, and the seam is burned
from the bottom upwards by'biting off a small bead of
the front lead and burning it back to the uudercloak.
Immediately fusion has taken place the flam is quickly
taken away, and then another bead is floated down to
the last one; and so on until the top of the seam is
reached. Overhead work is done in a somewhat similar
manner, except that a very small bead is bitten off the
surface of the undercloak and floated down and fused to
the face lead. Upright work is more difBcult to do than
flat burning, but overhead work can only be done by
men who have had considerable practice.
Particulars of Hydro - extractor. — A hydro-ex-
tractor, such as is used in drying or oxidising oils on
tow, consists of a circular cage or frame made of per-
forated zinc, copper gauze, etc., flxed on a vertical belt-
driven spindle. The cage revolves at high speed and
passes a current of air thi-ough the tow upon which the
oil is to be oxidised. The cage is surrounded by a cover
to prevent liquid being thrown out.
Making Bronze Powders.- As substitutes for thin
films of the genuine metal, paints resembling gold, silver,
bronze, etc., have long been widely employed. These
paints are formed by mixing what is known as metallic
bronze with a suitable medium which may be one out
of, say, twenty liquids. A few of these are gum water,
copal varnish, white spirit varnish, a mixture of tur-
pentine and French polish, and a solution of collodion
cotton in amyl acetate diluted with petroleum ether.
Most metallic bronze powders are alloys of various
metals reduced by pulverising mechanically or by pre-
cipitation by chemical agency. To make a very good
gold powder, finely grind gold leaf with honey and stir
with water to dissolve the latter. Change the water
several times, then filter and dry. , Another way to treat
pure gold or gold leaf to obtain gold bronze powder is to
dissolve it in nitro-rauriatio acid, and precipitate It by in-
troducing copper or sulphate of iron. In the former case
the precipitate must be digested in distilled vinegar, and
washed repeatedly with water. Then it should be dried.
Other metals may be treated in a similar way, the desired
colour being obtained by the use of basic chromate of
lead, oxide of uranium, antimoniate of lead, borate of
copper, oxide of iron, vermilion, or even red ochre. Mix-
tures of copper, tin, zinc, and iron in various proportions
produce grades of yellow, orange, purple, green, and grey.
Pale gold powder is a mixture of 13^ copper and 2| of
zinc. Ked tones are produced by adding more copper.
Dutch leaf has 20 to 30 per cent, of zinc and from 70 to
75 per cent, of ;opper, and is sometimes ground with
real gold to produce bronze powder. French leaf has
more zinc, is harder, and is a purer yellow. Florence
leaf has still more zinc. "White leaf is principally tin.
the fragments from the manufacture of these metals
are pounded, then brushed through sieves, ground in gum
water on marble slabs for six hours, sorted, and dried.
The following is a cheap gold bronze. Grind and make
into a paste with oU, verdigris 8 oz., tutti powder
(tlower of zinc) 4oz., borax and nitre 2oz. each, cor-
rosive sublimate 2 dr. This is fired and, when cold,
rolled into leaves, being afterwards ground to powder.
To make a copper bronze, plunge a plate of Iron into a
not solution of sulphate of copper; the fine scales of
copper thrown down are repeatedly washed with water,
and mixed with six times their weight of bone dust.
A powder having the colour of bronze, which is
especially suitable for plaster, etc., can be made as
loUows. A mixture . of i pftrts (by measure) of
sulphate of copper solution and 1 part of sulphate of
iron solution is added to a strained solution of soda-soap
ill linseed oil. The metallic soap, which is precipitated,
is washed with cold water, strained, and dried to
powder. This is applied in a medium made by boiling
litharge with linseed oil and adding white wax. A
very simple way of making gold bronze is to sprinkle
powdered tin into very dilute sulphate of copper. This
will throw down some finely divided gold coloured
bronze. To make a red bronze, add pulverised red ochre
or a solution containing chloride of antimony and
sulphate of copper— 12 to 20 parts of copper and 1 of tin.
Another red bronze is made thus: Heat sulphate of
copper 100 parts, with carbonate of soda 60 parts, until
it becomes a mass ; when cold, powder, add copper
filings 15 parts and again well mix. Maintain at a white
heat for twenty minutes, and when cold reduce to an
impalpable T)Owder, wash, and dry. For mosaic gold pow-
der, melt equal parts of sulphur and white oxide of tin in
a crucible over a clear fire. Constantly stir with a rod
of glass (mot iron) till a yellow flaky powder appears.
Another way of making this powder is to use equal
parts of sulphur, tin, quicksilver, and sal-ammoniac.
Melt the tin in a crucible, and add the quicksilver, and
maintain the heat until the mixture is of a gold colour
and till no fumes of quicksilver arise. When cold,
grind the combination with sulphur and sal-ammoniac.
A method of making silver bronze is to melt together
1 oz. each of bismuth and tin. When tin is heated above
melting point in. contact with the air it becomes a
yellowish-white powder, and volatilises at a white heat.
Add from loz. to Jrjoz. of quicksilver, and when cold
pulverise the alloy. To make a dark olive-green bronze,
add muriatic acid and arsenic to a mixture of orange
bronze. To give some idea as to the range of colours in
which it Is possible to produce bronze powders, it may be
mentioned that the Japanese make dark brown powder
approaching black by oxidised iron; deep warm brown
by different proportions of the same material; light
brown by bronze; deep red by copper. They mix iron,
gold, and silver, and get a blue by means of steel.
Another colour is produced by equal parts of gold
dust, vermUion, and charcoal. Plumbago Is used to
produce a black powder. The colour of the powders is
affected by acids. Freshly bronzed articles are given
an antique appearance by rubbing them with a soft rag
or brush dipped in a mixture of J oz. of sal-ammoniac
and li dr. of salts of sorrel dissolved in 1 qt. of vinegar.
Recipes for Various Cements.— The following are
reliable recipes for miscellaneous cements. A cement
for repairing an amber mouthpiece, broken in two, may
be made by dissolving sufficient gum copal in ether to
form a syrupy fluid. The broken portions should be
slightly warmed, the cement quickly applied, and the
two pieces brought closely together and bound by wire.
The cement sets quickly, and the excess may be pared off
with a sharp knife. Another: Heat the surfaces to be
joined and apply boiled linseed oil. Clamp firmly until
united. Instead of the boiled oil, a solution of potash^
or a solution of mastic in linseed oil, may be employed.
A cement for fixing the tangs of knife-blades into the
handles is made bysiulxlng i parts of resin, 1 part of
beeswax, and 1 part ofvplaster-of-Paris, or by mixing
resin with a little white Mnd. Put the cement powder
into the hole, heat the tang, and press home. The
following is a cement for mending cracked or broken
glass lamps to hold paraffin oil. Mix plaster-of-Paris
with white of egg and a little vinegar. Allow this
twenty-four hours after applying in which to become
hard. Another : Mix 3 parts of resin, 1 of caustic soda,
and 5 of water with half their entire weight of plaster-
of-Paris. Use at once, and allow forty-five minutes in
which to set. For attaching the brass rim either of a
glass or an earthenware lamp, powdered alum forms a
simple but thoroughly reliable cement. Clean the rim
and neck from grease, invert the rim, and fill its cavity
with powdered alum, and place on the top of a hot range
or stove. When the alum begins to get pasty, press the
neck of the lamp firmly into place, remove from the
stove, and set aside to cool. In about five minutes the
lamp will be ready for use. Another ; 1 part of plaster-
of-Paris well mixed with 2 parts of resin soap. Zinc
white or slaked lime can be substituted for the plaster-
of-Paris. Another: Plaster-of-Paris worked up with a
saturated solution of alum in water.
Cements tor Machine Belt Joints.— The following
are cements for machine belt joints. (1) Stir i pt.
of good hot glue with a tablespoonful of glycerine
and half a teaspoonful of turpentine. (2) Melt to-
gether in- an old iron saucepan i lb. of guttapercha,
1 oz. of pitch, 1 oz. of shellac, and 1 oz. of sweet
oil. Use hot. (3) Dissolve gelatiue in acetic acid. (4)
Add as much tannin to glue as will make it ropy. (5)
Melt together guttapercha, 20'; pitch, 2; shellac,!; and
linseed oil, 2 parts. (6) Digest guttapercha 3, and
caoutchouc 1, in 4 of bisulphide of carbon. Belt joints
should not depend entirely on the cement, but should
be stitched as well.
254
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
Determining Thioltiiess of Copper Tubing.— To de-
ter nine the thickness in inches of copper tubing to
Bta id a given pressure, multiply the diameter of the pipe
i;i inches by the working pressure in pounds per square
inch, and divide by 5,600. This assumes that the copper
has an ultimate tensile strength ol 15 tons, and that
the factor of safety is 12.
Projection of Curved Wing Wall.— The accompany-
ing illustration shows the method of finding the
elevation ol a curved wing wall lor a bridge. It is a
helical or screw surface. Draw the plan, and divide
the wing wall coping into any number of equal angles
by radial lines from the centre ol the curve. Where
these lines cut the inner and outer edge of coping pro-
ject vertical lines to the elevation. Then in the elevation
set off the height a b, which the coping will occupy, and
by means of the ordinary device of practical geometry
shown on the left divide it into the same number of
equal p.irts as the coping was divided in plan. Now draw
most dangerous gas found in coal mines, beeauee Its
detection is often too late to enable its baneful effects
to be avoided. Carbonic acid gas, blaekdamp (OO2), is
heavier than air, having a specific gravity of 1'529. It
is a colourless and odourless gas, but has a distinctly
sweet taste. It is incombustible, and will not support
combustion. Lamps burn dimly In air containing a
small percentage of the gas, but are extinguished If
the percentage increases sumoiently. Its effect upon
the system is to produce headache and nausea, and
finally unconsciousness, causing death hy sulfocation.
Device for Supporting Large Eggs.— A device for
supporting a large egg can be made as follows. Take
six fine silk cords and knot them together in the
centre ; then form a few large meshes by knotting
the cords together two and two at equal distances from
the fli-st- say 14 in. to 2 in., according to the size of the
object. Having formed a sufficiently large bag, knot
the cords together again about 10 in. above the object
ELEVATION
OF-
0VER3R1DCE
CEMTRE 'LINE
< 1 PLAIN OF OvlERBRIDCE
K^
r
/-^
(0
-1
in
_i
:
<
(t
Projection of Curved Wing Wall.
horizontal lines to intersect with the verticals from the
p an, and draw the required curve through the inter-
sections. The visible edge of the underside of the
coping is obtained by setting off the thickness vertically
at each point below the curve of the upper edge.
Particulars of Cjal-miue Gases,- There are three
mechanical mixtures ol gases found in mines, and these
are (a) air, a mixture of oxygen and nitrogen gases ;
(b) firedamp, a variable mixture of marsh gas and
air ; and (c) afterdamp, a variable mixture of nitrogen,
carbonic acid, and carbonic oxide. The compound gases
usually found in coal mines are four in number, and
theae are (a) light carburetted hydrogen or marsh gas
(CHj); (6) sulphuretted hydrogen (H-jSJ, sometimes
called stinkdamp ! (c) carbonic oxide (CO) or white-
damp i and (d) carbonic acid (CO2) or blackdarap. Marsh
gas (CH4), the lightest cf the hydrocarbons, having a
speciric gravity of only '.569, is a colourless, odourless,
and tasteless gas. It burns with a blue flame, but will
not support combustion. It diffuses rapidly in the air
and forms firedamp. It does not poison the system,
and may be breathed with impunity for a long time.
Carbonic oxide gas, whitedamp (CO), has a specific
gi-avity of ■967, and is a colourless, odourless, and taste-
less gas burning with a pale blue flame. It is very
poisonous to the system, acting as a narcotic, producing
stupor and pains in the back and limbs, followed by
ileliriLim. Lamps burn brightly in this gas. It is the
Large Egg Supported in Net.
and plait or twist them together, carrying them up to a
picture hook or ring so that they will hang about 5 ft. 6 in
from the floor ; they may then be freely handled.
Making Plasterers' Gauged Stuff.- The fine white
wall plaster known as plasterers' "ganged stuff is
made as follows. A pure, tat lime is slaked with water
and afterwards thinned down to the consistency of
cream. It is then left to settle, and the water is allowed
to evaporate until the mixture is thick enough to wurk
with a trowel. When wanted for use, add about a
quarter of its bulk of plaster-of -Paris, and use raiidly,
as the mixture is quick-setting.
Electro-copptrlng a Plaster Statue.— In depositing
a copper coating on a plaster statue by the electrotype
process, coat the statue several times with unseed
oil or saturate with melted stearin to render the
plaster non-absorbent to the copper salts; these would
destroy the statue. When the surface is dry and iirra,
apply a coat of paint made of bronze powder mixed witn
methylated spirit only. Work this into every crevice
with a soft brush, and when it is dry well brush ever/
part with blacklead to get a smooth surface. Brush with
an alcoholic solution of phosphorus, and then, with an
ammoniate solution of silver, prepared by dissolving
silver nitrate to saturation in strong ammonia. 10
ensure conduction to all parts of the statue, several hne
wires should be led to the deeper crevices. A battery 01
Daniell cells should be used, and deposition sliouia
proceed slowly to obtain a smooth coat of copper.
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
253
Making White Soft Soap.- A white soft soap could
■be made from eoooanut oil and lard, but it would
\>e very expeneive. The palest soft soaps are made
Irom refined cottonseed and linseed oils. The pan
for making the soap should he provided with open and
elosed steam coils for heating. Suppose that 100 lb. of
oil be taken as a standard) this will require 221b. of
caustic potash (82 per cent.) for saponification. This
- ehould be dissolvea in water to form two lyes, one of
epeoific gravity 1"08 (16° Tw.), the other of specific gravity
1-15 (30° Tw.). Commence with half the oil, heat up with
open coil, add the weak lye, stir continually till saponi-
fied, then add the remainder of the oil and the stronger
lye and continue boiling till a portion taken out is quite
eiear. Then turn off the open steam, and concentrate
by closed steam till it sets to a jelly when placed on
glass. The pan should be twice the size of the charge to
prevent frothing over.
Building a Dog Kennel.— A dog kennel is illustrated
by Fig. 1. The entrance hole should be about 13 in. wide
by 17 in. high, the other leading dimensions being shown.
Appropriate material will be 1-in. matchboards for the
sides and top, and 1-in. grooved and tongued floorboards
for the bottom. The boarding of the sides and ends
and the flooring should be nailed to fillets A (Fig. 3),
of soda separates in the solid form; It is raked out
towards the fire, becoming hotter and hotter until
finally it is drawn out at the furnace door, thoroughly
calcined. This is soda ash, which is dissolved in a very
small quantity of water and the clear liquid run into
large hemispherical iron pans, where it crystallises in a
solid mass like ice ; this is washing soda. As will be
seen, a large and expensive plant is required.
Re-dyeing Black Canvas Shoes.— In re-dyeing black
canvas shoes that Have worn white, well wash them,
allow to dry, and then apply one or two coats of a
solution made as follows. Put a quarter of a pint of
methylated spirit into a bottle, then add 1 oz. of extract
of logwood (2d.) and twopennyworth of tincture of steel.
When dissolved, fill the bottle up with water; shake
well before using.
Photographing Pencil Drawings. — Slow plates
giving extreme contrasts such as are used for photo-
mechanical work are the only ones suitable for use in
photo-copying pencil drawings. Many workers prefer
to use the wet collodion process for such work, as this,
with intensification, gives extreme density and contrast.
When the drawings are faintly done upon a blue tinted
paper, it is practically impossible to obtain sufficient
li in. square, all round underneath the bottom. The
most suitable way of connecting the sides, ends, and
top is by fixing fillets as iUustrated at B (Fig. 2). The
top may be formed of matchboarding or plain boards,
and to make it more weather-tight should be covered
with felt, tarred and sanded.
Removing Mildew Stains from Leather.— To remove
mildew stains from leather, well rub the leather all over
with spirit of ammonia ; this no doubt will remove the
stain and revive the colour. To stiffen the leather,
apply on the grain side plenty of spirit of ammonia,
and then well rub with a soft dry cloth, and leave to
■dry under pressure.
The Manufacture ot Washing Soda.— In the manu-
facture of washing soda, sulphate of soda, prepared
as described in the fifth paragraph of p. 2e0, is
mixed with coal slack and limestone and fed into a
reverberatory furnace with a revolving bed. The mass
fuses, and the principS,l products are carbonate ot
^oda, sulphide of lime, and carbonic oxide. The fused
jnass is run into iron waggons and, after cooling,
the blocks are broken up, treated with water in large
tanks, which are run in series, the water passing
Irom one to the other so that the more concentrated
iiquor passes over new material. The concentrated
■solution of carbonate of soda is run into a pan placed
over a reverberatory furnace, the heat from which
serves further to concentrate the solution ; from this
tank it Is gradually run on to the hearth of the furnace,
where it forms a pool bounded by solid material. The
flaioeofthe furnace passes directly over the surface of
The liquid and, as evaporation proceeds, the carbonate
contrast, and the only plan is to make a tracing in a
good black ink or ebony stain. This may then be easily
photographed or copied the same size by exposing
beneath it a sheet of ferro-prussiate paper.
Holding Stick Mounts while Engraving. — En-
gravers of stick mounts use a short length of wood,
turned taper, on which the mounts are pushed tightly.
Stick knobs are mounted on cement sticks about
1 in. long. "When the gold or silver is very thin, the
piece is made solid with cement. The article is
warmed in the gas and taken olf when engraved, and
another substituted. Cleaning is done by throwing the
mount into a batli of paraffin, where it remains till the
cement is soft, when the mount is finished in successive
sheet-iron boxes of boxwood sawdust, warmed, and dried
by a gas jet underneath.
Dyeing Ostrich Feathers Black.— The followlrig
are instructions on dyeing ostrich feathers black.
First soften the feathers by soaking them in a wai-m
bath consisting of 1 lb. of carbonate of soda in 10 gal. of
water, then rinse in clean water; they are then dyed by
soaking them in a bath containing 1 lb. of ferric clilorida
or nitrate in 1 gal. of water. After again washing, boil
them till black in a bath previously made by boiling 21b.
of logwood and 2 lb. of quercitron bark with 1 gal. of
water and straining. If a blue black is required, use 2 oz.
of sulphate of copper with the ferric salt. After again
dyeing, wash the feathers In clean water, dip in an
omulsion made by shaking a solution of carbonate of
potash with olive oil, and shake them in the air of a
warm room till dried. It will be advisable first to experi-
ment on worthless samples of feathers.
256
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
Testing Water for Impurities.— The following are
simple tests lor impurities in water. Add Nessler's
reagent ; if ammonia is present, the water will in a few
moments hecome distinctly yellow. Add to another
portion dilute snlphuric acid, and warm ; while hot, add
drop by drop a very dilute solution of permanganate of
potash (strength 4 parts in 10,000) ; should the pink
colour disappear even after several drops have been
added, there is probably much organic matter present ;
if the colour of one or two drops is not discharged, the
water is pretty free from this pollution. Nitrites are
tested tor by a few drops of sulphuric acid and a solution
of metaphenylene diamine, which will yield a bright
yellow colour. Nitrites visually show pollution when
present, but often they are not present in bad waters ; they
are not important unless present in very large quantities.
Principles of Air-gun Construction.— These are some
hints on the mechanism and principles of construction of
an air-gun. Figs. 1 and 2 explain the mechanism of two
kinds of air-guns. In Pig. 1, A is a wrought-iron tube
closed at one end, and acting as areservoir for compressed
air ; B is the butt end of the front part of the barrel,
screwing into A ; is a thick metal plate with a central
hole forming the seat of the valve D; C is screwed or
The two sections into which the barrel Is divided fit
together accurately at D. The section B is fixed to the
stock, whilst portion c turns on a pivot at E into' the
position shown by r. At a there is an ear to which the
link II J ispivoted, and at the end J a plug or piston K is
pivoted. This latter slides easily in LM, the air chamber.
In O is fitted an air piston as indicated, kept in
position bj a piston-rod passing through a guide.
Between the piston and guide is a strong steel spiral
spring, which presses the piston towards the end 1 of the
air chamber. In loading taie gun the fore-part of the
barrel is bent down into the position p, thus exposing
the breech, and a dart can then he inserted. G comes to
the position Gi, and the rod H J is forced into the position
N 0. This forces K back to Ki, and the piston back with
it. The catch, pressed up by a. spring, holds the piston
in that position till the trigger is pulled. This draws
down the catch and releases the piston, which is instantly
forced back by the spiral storing. The rapid passage of
the piston through the air chamber forces a blast
through the air passage, and this blows out the dart. ■ A
spring bolt locks the barrel when the two parts are in
line, but yields to the application of force when bending
the barrel to load. The arrows in Fig. 2 show the direc-
tion in which the several parts move. The illustrations
Principles of Air-gun Construction.
otherwise fixed in the bore of A, and closes it except for
the valve seating; D is a cup-shaped valve, sometimes
made of horn, fitting accurately in its seat in C. The fit
is finally got by heating the plate C, etc., and allowing D
to remain forced into its place by the air in A till all is
cold. E is a spindle passing through the middle of D, of
which it forms part, and sliding loosely through holes in
F and G, which are two vertical metal rods, attached by
each end to A and B respectively. A spiral spring keeps
D pressed lightly against the seating in 0. Hand J are
two plugs screwed into B from outside. J is bored right
through, and H partly so, to receive K, which slides
through J and into H. K is a round steel rod having two
collars, L and M. L takes the pressure of a spring X,
which forces K downwards, M preventing the latter from
being forced out too far. P A is a lever pivoted to K
by a pin at P, working in a slot and turning on Q,
another pin attached by either end to B. At E. there is
friction contact with one end of E. S is a conical
. ivalve in B, kept in its seat by T, a spring pressing
it upwards. The barrel to the left of B is bored smooth,
and a well-flttlng plunger or piston at the end of a rod is
pushed in at the muzzle. The air in the barrel is forced
by the plunger against D, and enters A by passing
between and D. When the piston is drawn out again,
the valve s opens inwards, and lets air in to fill the
vacuum. The bullet is then rammed into B. On pushing
in K, the lever P B, is turned on Q, and E presses on E,
thus forcing I> back and allowing the air to escape from
A and blow the bullet out. Fig. 2 shows another common
form of air-gun, A being the stock of the gun, B the
butt-end section of the barrel, and the muzzle end.
can be regarded only as mere diagrams; they are not
drawn proportionately, and Only such parts as are
necessary to make the description clear are shown.
Particulars of Basalt.-Basalt is a volcanic rook
probably formed by the fluid magma escaping through
some line of fracture in the earth's crust, overflowing
at the surface, and then cooling slowly. Being a
volcanic rock, it shows a porphyritic structure— that
is, crystals are embedded in a fine-grained ground
mass. This is owing to the molten magma solidifying
slowly near the surface and giving time for some'
of the minerals to crystallise out. Basalt is essen-
tially a plagioclase feldspar rock with augite or
hypersthene, and may or may not contain olivine, thus
giving basalts and olivine basalts. In the older basalts
the olivine is often decomposed into serpentine, and gives
an amygdaloidal structure to the rock. The minerals
found in basalt are plagioclase feldspar, augite, horn-
blende, and sometimes small crystals of quartz ana
olivine. Under the microscope are seen many latn-
shaped crystals of plagioclase . feldspar, being easily
detected with croasedNichol prisms by its polysynthetic
twining, which results in the development of a series
of parallel bands of colour crossing the grain. Augite
is pale brown in colour, and wheu revolved on the stage
of the microscope, using only the lower Nichol prisni,
the colour does not change. Olivine is very pale greeu
in colour, and generally traversed by cracks whion aie
more or less decomposed into serpentine. Having a
higher index of refraction than the augite, the olivine
appears more prominently.
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
257
Constrnctlng a Small Saw Mill.— Instructions on
building a shed to te used as a small saw mill are here
given. -The slied may be constructed of old railway
-timbers and sheet iron. The dimensions are 55 ft. long by
30 ft. wide, with a small shed 16 ft. by 10ft. at one end for
the engine. The holes to reeeiye the posts (P, Fig. 1)
should be about 2 ft. 6 in. deep. To these posts the
scantling S (see Fig. 2) is nailed, and to it the sheet
iron that forms the sides of the mill, etc., is secured.
The tops of the posts should be perfectly level, as the
10.0 —
in the ground should be covered in with timber, a
trap-door being placed over each bearing so that free
access may be had to the bearings and pulleys. The
position of each machine is shown in Fig. 1. From the
engine wheel the main belt M leads to a pulley L on the
main shaft M S. Belts B lead fro ji the driving pulleys
E' to the driven pulleys on the rack-bench B and the
hand-bench E. The positions of the sharpening machine
and of the grindstone are indicated at s and G. The
dotted line outside the building indicates the
position of a shed in which the chaff-cutter may be
tlxed. The sharpening machine, grindstone, and chaff-
cutter may be driven from a small overhead shaft, the
end of which passes through the side of the mill into
the chaff-house. A pulley is keyed on the end of this
shaft, from which a belt leads to the chaff-cutter. Two
other pulleys are keyed on this shaft, from which belts
lead to the pulleys on the sharpening machine and
grindstone. A belt leading from the small pulley P near
the end of the main shaft to a pulley on the overhead
shaft drives it. A dotted line at the corner shows the
position of the grindstone and the sharpening machine.
Small posts may be fixed in the ground here and covered
with boards or sheet-iron, so as to form a sharoening
house, which should be provided with plenty of light.
On each side of the mill there should be at least three
good-sized windows. Doorways D for each house are
FiQ, 1
wall-plates must rest on them. The roof principals
are secured to the wall-plates, and the rafters are
naUed to the principals, the sheet iron that forms the
roof being nailed or screwed to the rafters. The engine
Is fixed at E, and should be of from 10- to 12-horse-
ppwer. It wUl be able to drive a rack saw bench In front
of it, and another on the other side of the shed, and
may be used at other times for running a chaff-
cutter, gi-indstone, and saw sharpener. When the
engine has been fixed, the shaft, pulley, and belt ways
must be dug of suitable depth, etc., and these openings
17
Constructing a Small Saw Mill.
shown. There is a door at ea ch end of the mill, and in
line with the rack-bench, so that a rough log brought in
at one door passes out at the other door cut and ready
for delivery. This is a great saving of time and labour.
The bearings marked Aon the main shaft may be secured
to blocks of wood or, better still, masonry, firmly fixed
in the shaft-way. By laying out the machines in the
manner indicated, there will be plenty of room for the
timber that is to be sawn, and for the timber already
sawn, and the stuff can be easily passed from the rack-
bench to the hand-bench when it is to be sawn into
small scantling. Very long timber cannot be con-
veniently sawn, as the length of the rack is short in
such a small mill.
Making Snow-shoes. — Snow-shoes, in ITortheru
Europe, are made of birch bark, bound to a tough rim
6 ft. long and 6 in. wide, the front being pointed and
turned up. There are straps in the middle to bind the
shoe to the foot. The under side is covered with reindeer
skin, the hair being laid backward to prevent backslid-
ing. Canadian shoes are shorter and wider ; the sides
are of tough wood, stretched apart by cross-pieces, the
frame being covered with a network of gut, like a tennis
racket.
Bleacblng Ostrich Feathers.— Ostrich feathers may
be bleached either by exposure to the vapour of sul-
phurous acid, or by immersion in a solution of hydro-
gen peroxide ; the latter method is the better one, but
more expensive ; the sulphurous acid may weaken
the feathers. The feathers should first be immersed for
several hours in a solution of carbonate of ammonia
(about 3 oz. to 1 gallon of water), then washed in
a warm bath made from white curd or Castile soap,
passed through clean soft water, and then put in the
hydrogen peroxide bath (1 part to 10 parts of water),
removed, washed again in water, dried slowly, and
curled. Instead of the hydrogen peroxide, a bath con-
taining barium peroxide in solution and dilute sulphuric
acid may be employed, but in this case the last washing
must be thorough, or the feathers will be very tender.
A pure white may be obtained by afterwards passing the
feather through a warm soap bath with a little blue
powder stirred in. Feathers may be dyed immediately
after bleaching, or, for dark colours, without bleaching,
treating them first with carbonate of ammonia to soften
them.
258
Cyclopsedia of Mechanics.
Removing Fur from Kettle,— The only method of
remOTing the fur from the inside of a kettle is to chip
it out with a chisel or other sharp-ended tool. An
efficient method of preventing the deposition of the fur
has yet to be discoTered. An old-fashioned remedy is to
have a marble rolling about in the Jtettle ; when this
has increased in size by the deposit it may be removed
and the chaiJiy matter chipped from it before replacing.
Particulars of Oleln Oil.— Olein oil is a product
of the decomposition of fata by steam or by lime, being
separated from the harder product, stearin, by pressure.
It consists almost entirely of fatty acids, principally
oleic acid ; the stearin consists of stearic and palmitic
acids, and is used in caudle making.
Kepalring Watch Balance-staff.— A new pivot can
sometimes be put in a watch balance-staff by drilling a
hole in the end perfectly central and straight, and in-
serting a piece of tempered steel, upon which a new
pivot is afterwards turned. This operation requires
either a watch lathe or a pair of "turns," and does not
make a i-eally satisfactory job. It is desirable to have
a new balance-staff.
Cylinder System -Hritli Secondary Circulation A
hot-water apparatus on the cylinder system, with
secondai-y flow and return, to supply bath, lavatory,
and two sinks, is shown by the accompanying figure.
It will be noticed that the secondary return enters
the cylinder about i in. to 5 in. from the top. The
boiler should be boot-shaped in a 10-in. or 11-in. fire :
^^^
>>f.
Cylinder System with Secondary Circulation.
35-gal. cylinder; 1-in. branch to bath, J-in. to sinks,
i-in. to lavatory. Primary flow and return, Itin. ;
secondary circulation, lin.; cold supply, lin.j expan-
sion-pipe, 1 in. The emptying tap beneath the cylinder
can be Jin. or fin. The stopcock in cold supply must
have a full straight-way ; this pipe must be a clear 1 in.
everywhere. The size of the cold cistern depends on
whether the water supply is constant or intermittent.
In the latter case it will depend on the establishment,
but 200 gal. to 300 gal. wUl be a likely size.
Gold Lacquer for Brass and Tin.— A bright (cold)
gold lacquer for brass and tin that will cover solder
maj'ks may be made by dissolving 1 lb. of ground
turmeric, li oz. of gamboge, 3i lb. of powdered gum
sandarach, and } lb. of shellac in 2 gal. of spirit of
wine. When shaken, dissolved, and strained, add Ipt.
of turpentine varnish.
Tonnage of Vessels.— Under deck tonnage is the cubic
contents of the vessel below the tonnage deck divided
by 100. The tonnage deck is taken to the upper deck
in ships that have less than three decks, and to the
second deck from below in all other ships. Length is
measured from the inside of the stem to the stern
timber ; and for each of the following classes of vessels
is divided into different numbers of parts as follows.
1st, 50 ft. long and under, 4 parts ; 2nd, above 50 ft.
and under 12U ft., 6 parts ; 3rd, above 120 ft. and under
180 ft., 8 parts J tth, above 180 ft. and under 225 ft.,
. 10 parts 1 5th, 225 ft. and upwards, 12 parts. Depth
is taken from i of round ol beam to the top of the
ceiling on ordinary floors, and in others to the top
of the ballast tanks, in wliich case the thickness of the
ceiling is deducted. If the depth at the midship sec-
tional division does not exceed 16 ft., divide it into four
parts, and if it exceeds that length, divide it (and also
the others) into six equal parts. The distances are then
measured to the inside sparring ; no measurements are
taken to dunnage sparring. In oil vessels they aie taken
to the inside of the frames ; and if a vessel is insulated
for cooling purposes, to the sparring. These measure
meutsare then put through Simpson's Eule to ascertain
the cubic contents, and the result is divided by lOQ
which is the Board of Trade cubic equivalent for a ton'
and then multiplied by 2 to complete the oaloulatiou for
both sides of the ship, as one side only is measured
Gross tonnage is the addition of the under deck tounaea
to that of the poop, or break, bridge-deck forecasts
charthouse,deckhouses, and hatches, if under i per cent'
of gross tonnage. In these the tonnage is found br
dividing the cubic contents by 100. Galleys and engine
houses are not added. Net register tonnage is the gross
tonnage after certain deductions have been made
These are crew space, officers' rooms, and machinery
space, which includes boiler room, engine room, and
tunnel. An engine store or workshop is not included
in the machinery space. If the machinery space
is above 13 per cent, and under 20 per cent, of the
gross tonnage, deduct the tonnage of the machinery
space plus 32 per cent, of It. If over 20 per cent
deduct II times the space measured. The deduction
Is to consist of the space actually occupied by or
required for the proper working of the boilers and
machinery. Engine and boiler spaces are measured to
tonnage deck without light and air space. Vhen the
32 per cent, cannot otherwise be got, the light and air
space is measured and added to the gross tonnage and
to the machinery space. Light and air space is engine
and boiler casings and engine skylight measured above
the tonnage deck. The following examples will show how
this works out.
Tonnage for three-decked ship with laid decks :—
Under deck 1,928'81
Poop 132-04
Forecastle 55-68
Houses 8787
Excess of hatches 2-24
Gross Tonnage
2,206-64
Deductions :—
Propelling space
Crew space
706-12
77-11
Total deductions
783-23
Gross tonnage
Deductions
2,206-64
783-23
Net Register Tonnage
1,423-41
The tonnage co-efficient is the tonnage divided by length
multiplied by breadth by depth, divided by lUU.
Example :—
The tonnage is 2,310 :—
LxBxDh-10O = 2,951
2,951 )2,310
0-78 co-efBcient
Polishing Shells.— Generally, shells to be preserved
and polished may be divided into (a) those having a
natural polish and requiring very little preparation;
(b) those which have no natural polish, but which
may be polished without much trouble ; and (c) rough
shells which require to be smoothed by mechanical
means before polishing. Some of those in the first
class, especially when found with a glossy surface,
look well if merely cleaned ; with others the colours
and polish will not be so bright when dry as in a wet
state, so they are coated with gum water, white of
egg, or colourless transparent varnish. The polish and
colour of some shells is obscured Iby a dull epidermis
or outer skin, to remove which, soak In warm water and
rub off with a brush or a rag dipped in hy droclilorio acid ;
afterwards, well wash the shells in water and proceed as
before. If, after removing the skin, the shells have no
natural polish, they constitute the second class. Next
wash them well in warm water and drj^ in hot sawdust ;
some may be polished by simply rubbing with chamois
leather, with or without a little olive oil. Others are
smoothed with emery-paper, rubbed with wasihleather
dipped in turpentine and dressed with trlpoll powder,
then with fine tripoli alone, and finally with olive oil
and chamois leather. AU rough shells should first be
boiled in a strong solution of potash. Ordinary files,
followed by emery-cloth, will remove the roughness of
some shells, which can then be polished in the way
mentioned for the second class. Others must be groana
with emery-wheels of different degrees of fineness, or
wooden and other discs dressed with washed emery,
rottenstone, and water ; or the disc may be covered with
leather dressed with putty powder or tripoli. Some-
times, in grinding shells, the outer stratum or strata u
ground through to show the underlying ones
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
259
Recipes for Universal Cements.— Under the name
of univevsal eementa are known many useful prepara-
tions that strongly adhere to almost any substance-
wood, metal, leather, glass, etc. This is a recipe for
such a cement, and it is especially useful for repairing
specimens of minerals, rocks, etc. Reduce 2 oz. of
clear gum arahle to powder, and dissolve it in a little
water. Dissolve IJ oz. of flue starch and i oz. of sugar in
the gum solution, and heat the mixture over a water-
hath until the starch becomes clear. The cement should
then be as thick as tar, and should remain so. It can
be kept from spoiling by dropping in it a lump of cam-
phor, or a little oil of cloves or sassafras. There are
two universal cements that appear in the form of
brown sticks : (a) shellac ; and (b) a mixture of 2 parts
of shellac and 1 part of Venice turpentine. These
materials are melted and then cast into sticks. Another
univei'sal cement is made thus :— Dissolve 8 oz. of sugar
in 21 oz. of water in a glass flask on a water-bath, and
to the thin syrup add 2 oz. of slaked lime. Keep the
mixture at a temperature of about 70-75° 0. for three
days, shaking frequently; then cool, and decant the
clear liquor. Mix 64 oz. of this liquor with the same
quantity of water, and in the mixture steep 16 oz. of flue
gelatine for three hours after heating, to effect solution.
Ji'inally, add to the mixture l!oz. of glacial acetic acid
and 15 gr. of pure carbolic acid. The latter serves as a
preservative. Another : dissolve 2 oz. of isinglass or fish
glue in proof spii-it, and add loz. of pulverised gum
ammoniac. Mix with a saturated solution of 2oz. of
mastic in alcohol, heat over a slow fire, and afterwards
place in well-stoppered bottles. For use, the material
should be heated. This is especially suitable for china
and glass.
Cleaning Gravestones. — The method of cleaning
gravestones by scraping and rubbing with sand and
water is one of the most thorough that Can be adopted.
Chloride of lime may often be used with advantage;
alpaste made of American potash and whiting is also
useful for the purpose.
Testing Drying Quality of Faint. — To test the
drying qualities of paint make some streaks of paint
on glass ^lips and keep them at, say, 212° F. for about half
an hour ; the quickest drying will be the most tacky to the
touch. In ordinary circumstances, the amount of white
lead required for 1 lb. of driers varies from 10 lb. to 11 lb. ;
more will be necessary in summer than in winter. Too
much driers will cause the surface of the paint to dry
too rapidly, the result being the formation of a hard
surface film and a tacky basis. For lead colour it would
be advantageous to use more driers, as the black retards
the drying considerably.
Varnish for Kitchen Chairs.- Before re-varnishing,
the chairs should be washed with soda water— a teacup-
f ul of soda dissolved in 1 gal. of warm watei*. Use a
good quality spirit varnish. The more shellac the harder
the varnish ; soft gums, as elemi, thus, or Venice tur-
pentine, should be discarded,, JPor mahogany or stained
chairs use garnet or button lap In preference to shellac ;
for light or birch chairs, use lemon shellac. A good
useful varnish consists of button lac 4oz., resin 2oz.,
benzoin 2 oz., and methylated spirit 1 pt. Carefully
strain before use ; keep corked when stored away; ; apply
with a camel-hair brush. XMe pennyworth of Bismarck
brown td ,1 pt. of varnish will impart a rich red tone,
though the better plan would be to colour all light places
with equal parts of varnish and spirit strongly tinged
with red, then flnish with clear varnish.
Notes on Damp-proof Courses.— Damp-courses, or
damp-proof courses, as they are correctly termed,
are inserted in buildings to prevent the damp from
entering the upper portion of the walls. The wet can
get into walls in three ways, namely, (1) from the
top, this being avoided by building a coping of hard
bricks set in cement, and a course of tile creasing.
(2) From the front, this being prevented by rendering
with cement, hanging with tiles, and by other methods.
(3) By capillary attraction from the foundations,
when these are laid in wet or damp soil, or when the
top sou becomes soaked by rain. It is to the last-men-
tioned conditions that damp-proof courses are applicable,
water is prevented from getting, by means of capillary
attraction, into the upperportion of buildings, by insert-
ing a layer of some impervious material about 3 in. above
the ground level. Asphalt is the best material that can
be employed, as if any slight settlement should occur
asphalt easily conforms to it without cracking ; it should
be used in two layers, making altogether about Jin. in
tliickness, so that any joins or faults in one layer may be
covered over by the next. >Sheet-lead makes a very good
damp-proof course, as it entirely prevents any moisture
from getting higher up the building : besides, it is pliable,
ind does not crack if any part of the wall should settle
slightly more than another part. It is, however, too
expensive for general use, and must he laid in cement,
as ordinary lime mortar con-odes it very quickly.
A stoneware damp-course of about 3 in. thick can be
obtained with holes perforated through it so that it can
also be used for ventilation purposes. It costs more
than asphalt, but it has the advantage of raising the
building 3 in., thus saving one course of bricks ; this
may be deducted from the cost. Slates laid in cement
are often employed as a damp-proof course ; this, if the
slates are laid in double courses so that each joint is
covered by a slate, forms a very good damp-preventer,
and is very cheap. It has the disadvantage, however, of
being easily cracked, and this lessens its efiiciency. A
covirse of Staffordshire blue bricks can be built in the
wall as the work proceeds, and these, if laid in Portland
cement, make a very durable, permanent, and cheap
damp-proof course.
Machine for Grooving Sashes. — Below ai-e in-
structions on making a small machine for grooving,
rebating, and moulding sashoi and similar Woodwork.
Fix together a strong frame aw for a small hand cir-
cular-saw bench. Two bearin«s secured to the frame
may carry a spindle with a groo red cutter-head D (Fig. 1 ) .
On the frame is secured a portable table, hinged at one
end so that the other end ma,y be raised; or it can be
raised both ends to vary the depth of cut ; or it may be
screwed to the frame, and the cutters a;djusted by easing
the studs that secure them to the cutter-head, the studs
being screwed into tapped holes in the head. A (Fig. 1) is
the spindle, and at B are tight and loose pulleys, and at
the parts that run in the bearings. These should fit nicely
and run freely. Pig. 2 is an enlarged end view of the
cutter-head, showing the cutters E secured to the head.
J- I
E
/
F
HiTTII
E
I
\
''^
|F
E
F
Fig. 2 ^
E
f
FK3. 3
Machine for Grooving Sashes.
Fig. 4
At P are the studs that secure the cutters to the head.
There should be a suitable opening in the table for the
cutters to pass through, and two small pressure rolls
immediately before and behind the cutters to bear on
the stuff to be worked. These cutters should be driven
at a high speed. The higher the speed, without vibration,
the better the work done. In the same bearings a saw
spindle carrying a small circular saw may run. The
table and spindle referred to above should be removed,
and another table with a saw-gate in it for the passage
of the saw should be screwed on the frame. Suitable
saws may be used for tongueing and grooving, or cutters,
as Figs. 3 and 4, may be secured to the cutter-head.
"When grooving, use a long fence, to which the pressure
rollers should be secured. Suitable cutters for moulding,
grooving, etc., may be obtained from makers of wood-
working machinery. The work in such a small machine
may be fed by hand.
Manufacture of Acetate of Cellulose.— Acetate ol
cellulose is made by a process patented by Cross &
Bevan and described in patent No. 9676, 1894. The
method is as follows. Dehydrated cellulose is mixed
with a concentrated solution of zinc aeeta.te in equal
proportions; the mixture is then dried at 110" C,
ana finely powdered. The powder is mixed in small
quantities at a time with acetyl chloride, the proportion
being 2 parts of acetyl chloride for each part of zinc
acetate used at the first. The mixture is well stirred and
cooled, so that the temperature never rises above 30" C.
When the reaction is completed the mass is washed with
water to remove the zinc salts and dried. To free it
from unaltered cellulose, the product is treated with
chloroform, which dissolves the cellulose acetate, and,
after filtering, the solution is heated; the chloroform
then distils over and is collected, and the cellulose
acetate is left as a transparent film or sheet.
260
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics,
Dulling VarnlBbed Surfoces.— To dull a varnished
surface proceed as follows. With a sash tool apply raw
linseed oil over all the Tarnished surface. Then take
up a quantity of medium grade pumice powder on a
fairly stiff bristle shoe-brush of good quality, and apply
liberally and with plenty of friction, more oil being
added if necessary. Should it be found that the
varnish is too hard for the pumice to cut, a small
(juantity of emery powder may be added. As the surface
becomes dulled, cease to use the oil, and use the
pumice drier. Finally, finish off with a drier brush and
plenty of clean rag, in order to leave the surface free
from grease. Excess of oil, or a greasy appearance, may
be killed by wiping over with beuzoline. Best " antique
goods are often dulled with pumice or emery as advised
above, and afterwards finished by a sharp rub of bees-
wax and turpentine, which imparts a pleasing gloss
instead of a shine.
Rifle and Belt Racks for Tent Pole.— Figs. 1 and 2
show an elevation and plan of a rifle rack for a tent pole.
The rack is made of birch or beech wood 1 in. thick by
2i in. wide, jointed in the centra by a hinge A on the front
edge. A semicircular groove is cut on the back edge, a
hoop-iron plate B (Fig. 2) being fixed on each side, so that
the projecting ears C are i in. apart. A }-in. bolt, having
a small wing nut fitted on the end, passes through both
Fig. 4
Fig. 3
Kifle and Belt Backs for Tent Pole.
ears ; this nut, on being screwed up tight, fixes the rack
in any position on the pole without damaging it. For
suspending belts from a tent pole, an iron clamp made to
Fig. 3 to encircle the pole is required ; it is jointed in the
front to allow of it expanding so that it wllitake oft and
on, and is fixed at the back by a bolt in a similar manner
to the rack (Figs. 1 and 2). To take the bolt, It will be
necessary to turn down the ears as shown in Fig. i,
otherwise the bolt will be in the way of the pegs D
(Fig. 3). These pegs are about 6in. long by t^-in. round
Iron, and are riveted into the clamp.
Roofing with Felt.— A small building may be roofed
with felt alone in the following manner. The felt is
placed upon horizontal battens which are sawn from the
round trees, the edges being left rough, and the battens
being placed with from Sin. to i in. between them. The
felt is put on from ridge to eave, passing over the ridge
to the middle of the nearest batten. The felt is hooked
or lapped to give four thicknesses, through which the
nails can go. This roof will stand the test of many
years, not a drop of water coming through, and is light,
cheap, and strong.
Fixing Topmast of Flagstaff.— In fixing the topmast
of a flagstaff to a mainmast it must be remembered that
the masthead, that is, the portion between the two
caps, or brackets, is square and slightly tapered, and the
caps flt tightly on It, one at the top and the other on
the cheeks below. In small flagstaffs, where housing
the topmast is unnecessary, the other holes are usually
round, the heel of the topmast being round also. After
the topmast is hoisted, it is wedged in position, and a
fld bolt put through the heel resting on the lower cap ;
these light poles are not provided with stays. Larger
staffs have a sheave-hole in the heel as well as a fid-hole.
and the upper cap is fitted with Iron bolts, to one of
which the end of the mast rope is hitched. The hauling
part is passed through the sheave-hole, and through a
block hooked on to the other cap bolt. A slack lashing
is put round the topmast and hauling part of the mast
rope about one-third down, a sailor goes aloft and points
the mast, and when the topmast hea,d is well through
the upper cap he puts on a grommet (to prevent chafe)
and then the stays; he then fixes the truck, and' reefs
the signal halyards. "When the mast is hoisted, he puts
the fid in ; the mast rope is then slackened, and Ays
are set up, etc. Lowering, or housing, is performed in
the reverse order.
Making Glauber's Salt.— The Leblanc method of
making Glauber's salt (sulphate of soda) is as follows.
Common salt in fine crystals is fed into a large iron
still connected with several tall towers made from
drain pipes, down the Interior of which water is allowed
to run from the tank. The requisite quantity of oil of
vitriol is then run into the pan and, after the first re-
action has ceased, heat is applied until all the hydro-
cliloric acid has been evolved and the residue is a
neutral sulphate of soda. The hydrochloric acid is con-
densed by the water in the pipes and recovered. The
sulphate of soda is dtig out of the pan. When this is
dissolved in water and crystallised out, it is known a8
Glauber's salt.
Underpinning a Chimney Breast.— In removing a
chimney breast (on ground fioor) and in fixing cantilever
brackets to support three floor breasts above, a steel
joist, I in. in depth for each foot of span, should be fixed
Underpinnlog a Chimney Breast.
parallel to the wall, as shown by Fig. 1, with a sti'ong
1-in . flag on the top under the breast ; or two similar
joists should be fixed at right angles to the wall and
carried across the room as shown by Fig. 2, with a similar
flag carrying the breast. The latter method would be
the safer, but It necessitates two beams instead of one.
Mending a Watch Fusee Chain.— Here are instruc-
tions on mending the fusee chain of a lever watch.
Lay the chain on a piece of wood. Place the nail of
the flrst finger of the left hand on the last link, and
insert the edge of the small blade of a pocket knife and
raise the link just enough to start the rivet and show
where it is. Then place the chain over a steel stake with
graduated holes, and push out the rivet with a flat-ended
needle held in the pin-vice. Treat both ends of the
chain In this manner, making them match each other.
Now flle up a smooth steel pin to form a new rivet, and
tap it in gently. Out it on as close as possible to size,
lay it on the wood, and flle the rivet flush on both sides.
Now lay the chain on a flat steel stake and gently tap
the rivet on both sides with a light watch hammer.
When finished, the join should not be perceptible.
Concrete Construction under Water. —To form
concrete walls under tide level, the most practical way
will probably be to work Inside a timber cofferdam,
it the depth is not too great. The wall would be dealt
with in short lengths. If It is wished to dispense
with a cofferdam, the concrete can be deposited by
means of cranes and special skips', which have doors at
the bottom arranged to open when the bottom of the sea
is reached. The concrete is thus deposited quietly in
position, and if the currents are not strong, the cement
is not washed out before it has time to set. Anotlier
way, used in the construction of piers of breakwaters, la
to sew the freshly made concrete up in long bags, like
sausages, and then drop them into position. The bags
protect the cement from being washed away, l""
method could only be used if the wall were very tnioK,
and could not be depended on to make a water-tight wau.
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
261
Frencb Polishing Turned Teak.— Teak-wood blocks,
turned at high speed in a lathe, are generally left with
a smooth finish; they are oiled and polished whilst
revolving. It the blocks are rough or coarse grained, a
filling of tinted plaster-of-Paris is of ttimes used previous
to oiling. A suitable polish consists of methylated
spirit 4 pt., gum sandarach 1 oz., seed lac 1 oz., gum ben-
zoin Joz., and English beeswax 1 oz. shaved thin and dis-
solved in sufficient tui'ps to make a paste. When the other
gums are dissolved, add the beeswax and carefully strain.
Apply with a flannel or pads of soft wadding.
Thinning Stockholm Tar.— Stockholm tar that has
been kept for a long time and has thickened may be
melted down by a gentle heat, and thinned either with
creosote oil or with coal-tar naphtha ; this will recLuire
very great care, especially if the latter be used, the
materials being very inflammable. The tar may be
applied cold if suffleiently fluid ; but for treating wood
it is better to apply the tar hot, because then it pene-
trates much better.
How to Mak^ Leather Purses.— To make the purse
illustrated by Fig. 1, first cut a cardboard pattern,
and mark and cut out the leather for the back piece
A (Pig. 2), which is on a smaller scale to Fig. 1.
B (Pig. 2) is the front piece. A slit or small hole H (Fig. 1)
is made in the front piece, and a collar-stud is inserted,
or a button may be sewn to the leather. The back and
Next fill in the design with gesso In higher relief,
and let the whole set. The gesso composition will
take the colour more easily if it is sized, but this is
not always necessary. Silver the background, gild
the set pattern, and tint the design, which Is in high
relief, with emerald or serge blue, relieving it with
copper gold in parts. If it is desired to get a bright
effect, size and varnish the panel ; it not, the gold alone
can be sized i this renders it more permanent. As nothing
more is required in the way of finishing, it wUl be
understood how easily and quickly gesso work can be
executed. Prepared metallic colours of a number of
beautiful shades are sold in tins. In using them, pour off
some of the liciuid, turn out the requisite amount of colour
on to the palette, and put the rest of the liquid back into
the tin ; this keeps the colour in good condition.
The white powder and the composition must be well
mixed ; if too much of the latter is added to the powder
a high relief cannot be secured. The brushes and
palette are cleaned with turpentine. Excellent effects
may be obtained by shading a background from
silver to blue, or by graduating the tints from light
blue to dark blue, or from salmon to bronze. A back-
ground, again, may be entirely gilded, or silvered,
or coloui'ed to any desired shade. It is unnecessary to
gesso the panel for gilding or silvering unless a decor-
ated background is wanted ; in the latter case the
decoration is first moulded, or incised, on the gesso
ground and the whole is then coated with gold or silver.
FlQ. I
FIG. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
How to Malie Leather Furaea,
front pieces are then sewn together round the edges, the
flesh sides being innermost. The dotted lines D (Pig. 1)
represent the stitches. The edges of the purse should be
rubbed smooth, and a slit S (Fig. 1) made in the flap to
fasten on the stud or button. Instead of a stud or
button to fasten the flap of the purse, a piece of leather
1 (Pig. 3) can be sewn on, under which the flap F (Pig. 3)
Is pushed. Leather divisions can be added to these
purses if desired.. Fig. 4 shows a different shape of
purse. To make a purse that opens wide, a piece of
thin leather. Pig. 5, is sewn to the sides and bottom.
Executing Designs In Gesso.- Those attempting
gesso work for the first time should, to get familiar
with the work, colour a panel of wood green with
metallic colours. Brush ttie gesso upon the green
ground and model the design ; let it dry, then sUver
it, adding touches of gold to bring out the pattern. Or
the design may first be sketched on the panel, the
gesso laid and modelled, then the background laid in,
^'pu, lastly, the gesso silvered and gilded. This is one
of the simplest styles of panel that can be executed.
+1? V "¥*^ ^°^ designs may be obtained from some of
the best Japanese papers. Large scrolls, arranged on
decorated backgrounds, look well. Let the treatment of
it fWect be bold, and free, and strong. Gesso is not
ntted to the carrying out of minute details. When a
little experience has been gained, a slightly more
advanced exercise can be attempted. Cover a paael of
wood with gesso, and rapidly sketch the design. Now
°J°del on the background a set pattern in low relief,
alter the style of old illuminations or figure pictures.
The design may be silvered, copper glided, or gilded.
The indentations may be accentuated with colour.
Again, the design may be tinted with one or more colours
relieved or not according to fancy, with gold, silver,
or copper gold. It will be seen that greatly varied
effects can be produced in gesso decoration. To make a
profit on picture frames executed in gesso work, great
facility in rapidly producing decorations must be
attained. Amateurs are more given to perfecting details
than to attending to the general effect, which, after all,
is the main point in decorative arts. The outlines
should be kept true and sharp, but the modelling of the
foliage wm not need the amount of care and labour
bestowed on it as would be wanted on a figure or a jpauel.
The work can be quickly done either with or without
the aid of cotton-wool. Workers of little experience
often suppose that high relief is effective. To a certain
extent it is, but the purpose of decoration must be
borne in mind. There is-no true art in subordinating
the picture or photo, which should be the centre of
interest, to the ornamentation of the frame ; therefore
the design should be kept in rather low relief, and the
colouring should be quiet in tone. The latter is more
important if the photo is coloured: for etchings, too,
the colouring of the frame should be subdued, but for
plain photos a bright frame is often desirable.
Red Facing Bricks.- Bed facing bricks should be
made from a clay or marl containing sufficient Iron to
give the colour on burning. To make a red brick from
blue clay, mix with it very carefully 5 to 15 per cent, of
ochre or red oxide of iron (red hematite) finely powdered.
262
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
Slopes, Batters, and Gradients.— In speaking of the
slope o£ a bank, the expressioi; 1 in li means that the
slope is in the proportion of a rise or 1 vertical for a
dlstimce of U horizontal ; th\is, if the bank is 10 ft. hi^h
with a slope of U to 1, or 1 iu IJ, tlio width at base will
be loft. For sloping walls the slope is called a batter ;
tluis the steepest bank being, saj^, .i to 1, a wall at the
same angle would be said to batten) in. per foot, meaning
that the top is set back in. tor every 1 ft. in height. A
gi-adient is a very ilat slope such as the longitudinal
surface section of a road or railway, where the gradient
may be from 1 in SO in the former case, to 1 in 2,000 in
the latter, meaning 1 vertical to 30 or 2,000 horizontal.
Damp-prooflng Walls.— Various methods have been
recommended at different times for preventing damp
showing on the inside of a defective wall, one of the
most effective being covering the wall with lead foil
before papering. At best, this is only a temporary ex-
pedient, the plaster in time disintegrating, and having
to be renewed every two or three years. The best method
is to deal with it from the outside. A few coats of wash
made as thick as cream with neat Portland cement
and applied on the outside will do much to keep out
tlie damp.
Hints on Retouching Negatives.— Shadows may be
deepened in a photographic negative, and opaque
(or light) lines removed by scraping with a sharp knife
as shown in the accompanying sketch. Its edge is
ttu'ned over slightly so as to scrape away a thin layer
of film. The negative must be thoroughly di-y and
should be warmed slightly, or the film may tear. A
much better light is necessary for the use of the knife
than for pencil work. Scrape only the least possible
amount at each stroke, producing a slight grating sound ;
the effect should not be visible till after a few strokes.
For this work remove the ground glass from the desk.
Decided white lines are due to working too heavily or
using too soft a lead. Avoid touching the eyes— that
is, the iris and pupil. View the effect of the work
from all angles by turning the negative round. For
■:fr..,....llttUiiiullMJiMMUimM,WiiiMM,J^S!a
Tool for Retoucliing Negatives.
thin lines the point may be used, but for broader
spaces use the side of the blade. The easiest plan is
to stipple in the part with water colour. Mix crimson
lake, ultramarine, and blaclc to match the photo-
graph. Soak some lumps of gum arable in water and
melt by warming. Mix well a few drops with the
paint; the surface should then have on drying the
^mme appearance as the surrounding parts. It is well
to have a cup of thin gum water at band to dip the
brush in occasionally. Keep the touches as even
and close together as possible. Another good plan
for deepening the shadows is to rub them down with
a leather stump dipped in alcohol. For large patches
resort to chemical reduction (hypo and ferricyanlde of
potash).
Particulars of Ivory.— Ivory differs from bone in
Its finer structui-e and greater elasticity, and in the
absence of those larger canals which carry blood-
vessels through the substance of bone and appear
upon it as specks or streaks according as the bone
is cut lengthways to or across the grain. On ex-
amining the cross section of a tusk cut at a distance
from the growing pulp, Its middle is seen to be oooupiod
by a darkish spot of different structure ; this is the last
remains of the pulp roughly calcified. The outer border
ot the tusks consists of a thick layer of cementum
(commonly called "bark"), with which the whole tusk
is coated, and the rest is ivor.y. The different ivories are
the mammoth, found in Siberia; African, Indian, Ceylon,
and Desert, found in the sands. The best ivory is
African. The largest quantity comes from Africa; less
than one-fourth comes from India. African ivory is
closer in the grain, and has less tendency to become
yellow by exposure than Indian ivory. When first cut
it is semi-transparent and of a warm colour, and as it
dries it becomes much lighter and more opaque. Ivory
also shrinks considerably during the drying process, so
that it is necessary to season it like wood when such
things as box lids are to be made from it. In buying
ivory, it is not always possible to judge its (juality before
the tusk is cut up. The tusk should be smooth and
polished and of a deep copper colour, and should not
show any large cracks. As about one-half the length of
titusk is hollow, when cutting one up great care must
be taken to cut it up to the best advantage. With age
ivory turns yellow, and various recipes have been given
for restoring Its whiteness, but they mainly depend on
the removal of the outer surface, and no more satisfac-
tory method is known than exposing It to the light.
Ivory may be made flexible by submittin g It to the action
of phosphoric acid ; when washed and dried It becomes
hard, and when moistened again resumes its flexibility—
but at the sacrifice of many of its properties. Ivorv
takes dyes well without interfering with the subsequent
Ijolish of its surface. Of other ivories, the canine teeth
of the hippopotamus furnish an ivory harder and whiter
than that of the elephant and less prone to turn yellow
The tusks of the walrus furnish ivory of a dense and
rather imperfect consistence. The spirally twisted tusk
of the narwhal, the teeth of the sperm whale, the ear-
bones of whales, and the molar teeth of the elephant
are also made use of as sources of ivory, whose quality
of course, varies greatly. '
Particulars of Ammonium Tartrate and Potassium
Phosphate.— Ammonium tartrate is made by neutralis-
ing a solution of tartaric acid with ammonia and then
evaporating to dryness. Potassium phosphate may be
obtained by adding carbonate of potash to a solution of
acid phosphate ot lime (superphosphate) until it ceases
to effervesce. The precipitate is filtered off and the
liquid evaporated until the salt crystallises out. The
apparatus required would be wooden tubs or vats, a
large wooden frame with cotton stretched over for
filtering, a large shallow pan, and a boiler or fire for
evaporating the solution.
Use of Watchmakers' Turns.- In using a pair ot
watchmakers' turns when putting a new cylinder in a
watch, the cylinder must nave a brass ferrule affixed
to it by shellac. It is rotated by means of a light
whalebone bow about 9 in. long, strung with a horse-
hair. The motion given by a bow is backward and
forward, therefore cutting is only done on the forward
or down stroke, the graver being held slightly away
from contact with the work during the up stroke— that
is, the backward motion of the bow.
Affixing Leather to Band-saw Wheel. — The
leather should be stretched previous to being secured
ASlxlng Leather to Band'
Wheel.
to the wheel. Leather bands are not made endless
and sprung on, as are rubber bands. The ends of
the leather should be cut aslant, as shown at A, and
small holes made in the rim of the wheel to receive
wooden pins. Warm the rim of the wheel, and give it a
coat of good glue. Place one eijd of the leather on the
wheel, and drive a pin in the hole P j pull the leather
tight, and press it firmly on the rim of the wheel as it
is passed round. Butt the ends, as at A, and drive the
wooden pins, previously dipped in glue, into the holes D.
Allow the glue to set hard ; then remove all surplus glue,
and cut off the pins close to the leather. Now place the
wheels on the machine, and set them running. Whilst
they are In motion, press on the bands for a minute or
two a piece of coarse glasspaper. The wheels will now
be ready for work. Well glue the ends of the band
where it butts.
Substitutes for Ivory.— Substitutes for ivory are
bone, xylonite, and a French celluloid. The two latter pro-
ductions may be obtained in sheets from ^ in. to 2 in. m
thickness, and in blocks to order. They ate subject to
considerable shrinkage, but can be cut, carved, pressed,
moulded, and polished, and are highly inflammable.
Information on working celluloid is given on p. 98.
When bone is intended to take the place of ivory, only
the best cuts are used, and a higher finish is given to the
manufactured article.
Packing for Plunger of Fump Piston.- A simple
and good packing for a piston can be obtained by
using three leathers. One, at the centre, is a simple
disc, and on each side of it is a cup leather that nts
the bore of the pump barrel. One of the cup leathers
Is placed against the end of the plunger, and the other is
kept in place by a thick washer, a set-screw piissing
through the centre of the leathers and threading into
the plunger. The whole is pulled up tight by means of a
nut bearing on the face of the washer.
Fixing Water-colours.— To prepare water-colours so
that they will not run when washed over a second time,
rub the colours up in a soMition of gum dammar in
alcohol, instead of in water ; they should not then run
when used for lines. For ordinary washes, there ougm;
to be no difficulty when they are rubbed up in water,
if the colour is allowed time to soak into the gram oi
the paper.
Cyclopsedia of Mechanics.
263
Filling In Joints in Bamboo Work.— Badly made
joints in 'baraboo work can be filled in with a mixture ot
sawdust and hot glue made to the consistency of thin
easte, all surplus filling being cleaned off before it dries.
racks in baraboo can also be filled with shoemakers'
heelball. A lighted taper is apnlied to the heelball, and
sufficient allowed to drop into the flaw. After it has set,
rub with a clean cloth nntU the surface is perfectly level.
Making Cyanide of Gold for Electro-plating.— To
make cyanide of gold for electro-plating, dissolve 1 oz. of
oure gold in aqua regia (a mixture of hydrochloric and
nitric acids) , evaporate to dryness, dissolve the residue
in 15 pt. of water, and add 51 oz. of cyanide of potash.
Chloride of gold may be used, but about 14 oz. would be re-
quired. The amount ot cyanide of potash may be varied.
Mixing Pyro Developer.— In mixing up pyro solution,
some prefer to dissolve the pyro Immediately before
use, as, owing to its affinity for oxygen, it rapidly decom-
poses in water. This is, however, a somewhat tedious
method of working, and often vei-y inaccurate. As the pyro
is extremely soluble, a small quantity of water only need
be used, which, it previously rendered acid, allows of
considerable storage. It a solution of pyrogallio acid
and water be allowed to stand in a measure exposed to
the air it will he noticed that, although the top of the
solution actually coming in contact with the air rapidly
oxidises and turns brown, the remainder is unaltered,
proving that if the solution can be kept from the air it
will keep considerably longer. An authority has sug-
gested that the pyro bottle be fitted with an oxygen trap
in the manner shown in the accompanying sketch. The
sulphide), and 30 parts of luminous calcium sulphide.
Vwlet : 42 parts of varnish, 10-2 parts of barium sulphate,
^"8 parts of ultramarine violet, 9 pai-ts of cobaltous
arsenate, and 36 parts of luminous calcium sulphide
Yellow: 48 parts of varnish, 10 parts of barium sulphate,
a parts ot barium ohroraate, and 34 parts of luminous
calcium sulphide. YellowisTn brown : 48 parts of varnish,
10 parts of barium sulphate, 8 parts of auri pigment, and
di parts of luminous calcium sulphide. White : 40 parts
of varnish, 6 parts of barium sulphate, 6 parts of calcium
carbonate, 12 parts of white ziac sulphide, and 36 parts
of luminous calcium sulphide.
Hydraulic Gradient and Sewage Irrigation.— The
hydraulic mean gradient of a sewer or water pipe is
the line which would be assumed by the surface ot an
open stream when the discharge at the bottom was equal
to that ot the sewer or pipe, the cross section ot the stream
being assumed to be equal to the section of the pipe outlet.
In the example shown in the figure, when the outlet at B
IS discharging at its fullest capacity, and there is an ample
supply ot sewage coming in at the other end of the sewer
to maintain this discharge, the hydraulic mean gradient
will be in the position shown by the dotted line B 0. The
vertical height between A aind is the head ot water re-
quired to drive the sewage through the pipe at this par-
ticular rate, and measuring down from the hydraulic
mean gradient to the pipe in any portion of its length,
the vertical heights give the pressure tending to burst
the pipe at that point. So long as this full discharge is
maintained, the liquid will rise in the manholes to the
height of the hydraulic mean gradient, and will conse-
quently overflow at the weirs fixed at that height Sup-
posing now that the supply of sewage were to diminish,
and only a trickle come down the sewer, ib is obvious
32B0 FT
Hydraulic Gradient and Sewage Irrigation.
Mixing Pyro Developer.
pyro is kept in A and drawn off from the bottom as shown.
The jar B contains a strong solution of pyro and sodium
sulphite, both ot which readUy absorb oxygen. The air
that enters the jar B has to pass first through the
solution, and a large proportion of oxygen is taken up.
Both sulphite of soda and meta-bisulphite of potash are
used as preservatives for pyro on account ot their affinity
for oxygen. The latter is four times as strong as the
former, but is more expensive and liable to make the
pyro too acid. Another plan is to fill a number of small
bottles with a 10 per cent, solution of pyro and seal the
tops with paraffin wax.
Kecipes for Luminous Paints.— In the manufacture
of luminous paints commercial varnish containing lead
or manganese must not be used, as it would destroy
the luminosity of the paint. A suitable varnish is made
by a process patented by Schatte, of Dresden. Three parts
otmolten Zanzibar or Kauri copal are dissolved in 12 parts
of oil of turpentine ; the solution is filtered and then
mixed with 5 parts of pure linseed oil, which should have
been heated and allowed to cool previous to mixing with
the solution. It is this varnish that is referred to in all
of the following recipes, and in all cases after mixing
together the paint ingredients as specified below, they
should be run through a paint mill. The latter should
not contain iron rolls, as the particles of metal, liable to
be detached, would affect the luminous properties of the
paint. BVue : 42 parts of varnish, 10-2 parts of sulphate of
barium, 6-4 parts of ultramarine blue, 5'4 parts of cobalt
blue, and 46 parts ot luminous calcium sulphide. Grey:
15 parts of varnish, 6 parts of barium sulphate, 6 parts of
calcium carbonate, 0-5 part of ultramarine blue, and 6'5
parts of grey zinc sulphide. Green: 48 parts of varnish,
10 parts of sulphate of barium, 8 parts of green oxide of
Chromium, and 31 parts of luminous sulphide of calcium.
Orange: 46 parts of varnish, IT'S parts of sulphate of
barium, 1 part of Indian yellow, 1-5 parts of madder lake,
a°a. 38 parts of luminous calcium sulphide. Bed: 60
parts of varnish, 8 parts of powdered sulphate of barium,
i parts ot madder lake, 6 parts of realgar (red arsenic
that the sewer would gradually fill up to the horizontal
line AB, and then as soon as a trifling head of water had
accumulated at the end A, the liquid would overflow at B.
In this case the hydraulic mean gradient would be very
nearly horizontal, and the sewage would not rise in the
manholes sufficiently high to overflow at the weirs. For
this reason the sluice valve is provided at the manhole at
B. By shutting down this sluice to the required extent,
the outlet can be made smaller, so that the water backs up
in the sewer, and rises to the height of the weirs. The
discharge will be very small compared with the discharge
in the first case, but the hydraulic mean gradient will be
in the same position. Reverting to the simile ot the open
channel on the line of the hydraulic mean gradient, it
will be recognised that with a head equal to the distance
between A and C there would be a large discharge if the
channel were of a size equal to outlet of the pipe ; but if
the channel were of a cross section equal only in area to
the diminished outlet when the sluice is partly closed,
the same head ot water will be required to drive a much
smaller flow through the channel. With respect to the
sluice valve near the top end of the sewer, if its position
is at 240 ft. on the horizontal line it can be brought
into use, as it will be below the highest position of the
hydraulic mean gradient. The letter references not
already described are as follow. D, hydraulic mean
gradient; E, pipes 30 in. in diameter; F, pipes 24 in. in
diameter ; G, open channel ; H, manhole ; J, manhole
and sluice valve ; and K, weir. It is obvious that the
illustration is merely a diagram ; it is not drawn to
even approximate to any scale.
Extracting Zinc from Tin.- The following have been
given as methods ot extracting zinc from tin. (a) Baise
the mixture to the vaporisation point of zinc ; this
involves great waste of tin. (h) Granulate the mixture,
and immerse it in a solution of sulphuric acid, when the
zinc wiU be dissolved, (c) A method employed to re-
move zinc from plumbers' solder is to melt the latter
and stir in ground sulphur; the sulphur rises to the
surface, and brings the zinc with it. This method of
introducing sulphur might succeed with tin in place of
the solder.
264
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
Electro - silvering Tin Teapots. — These are in-
structions on silvering the inside of a tin teapot.
Well soour the inside with powdered Bath brick or
Trent sand until quite bright ; then well rinse in potash
water, and fill, whilst still wet, with a good alkaline
coppering solution. Connect the teapot by a copper
wire to the negative pole of the plating dynamo,
and suspend a strip of copper in the pot by a wire
connected to the positive pole, and see that this
wire does not touch the vessel. In a few minutes the
inside should be coated with a thin fl.lm of bright copper t
then pour out the coppei-ing solution, and substitute a
silver-plating solution, and a strip of silver instead of
the copper strip. Deposit silver in the teapot until of
the required thickness; then pour out the silver solu-
tion, rinse with hot water, scratch with a soft wire
brush, and polish lightly.
Rendering Tracing Paper more Transparent.— To
render tracing paper more transparent dissolve i oz. of
gum mastic in 6 oz. of best turpentine, and apply this
to the paper with a brush and hang up to dry. Or take
2 parts of Canada balsam and 3 parts of turpentine and
add a few drops of sweet oil j sponge or brush on to the
paper while slightly warm, and hang up till dry.
Making and Upbolsterlng Fender Stool.— Fig. 1
shows a portion of an upholstered fender stool. In its
construction maybe used any thoroughly dry, seasoned
wood, preferably mahogany, walnut, oak, or beech. The
stool may be i ft. 3 in. long by about 6 in. high. The
framework should be 2 in. or 2i in. deep by2in. wide,
material and allows it to fall through flexible chutes
which deliver it in even layers over a floor, where it is leti
to cool. The carbon, when cool, is passed through
grinding mills, either vertical or horizontal ; the latter
resemble the burr-stone mills employed In grinding grain.
The powdered carbon is separated into different grades
in a set of bolting machines, the coarser grades being
afterwards reground. Following the bolting process
the material is delivered to a number of steam-heate(i
revolving iron barrels or boxes, in which the carbon
powder is incorporated with the binding material ; this
IS prepared by a special process and is ground and
bolted in much the same manner as is the oarbon.
Being suitably mixed, the material is got ready for
the moulding or forcing process. In the shaping of
the arc-lamp carbons and battery plates, one of two
processes is followed; one is known as the moulding
process, and the other as the forcing. In the former
the material is carefully weighed, and then placed in
the moulds, which consist of grooved plates of steel
containing from twelve to eighteen forms, depending
upon the diameter of the pencils to be moulded. The
material is carefully packed and adjusted, and then
smoothed off with a straightedge, and the second or
upper part of the mould is then pressed upon the lower
one. The filled moulds are placed on endless chains, which
convey them In the direction of the hydraulic presses.
Before reaching the latter they are led over a slow-run-
ning conveyer which passes through a gas-heated furnace;
on emerging from this the moulds are placed upon the
head of the vertical plungers of the presses. After
having been subjected to great pressure, they are
Making and Upholstering Fender Stool.
carefully framed at the corners. If desired, a moulding
may be fixed round the bottom edge, as Fig. 2. Strips of
webbing are nailed on the top, and over this canvas. On
the canvas the stuffing, which should be curled hair, is
upholstered. Over this place the covering, which may be
tapestry, leather, velvet, cretonne, or any suitable
material. This is fastened by strips of leather or gimp to
the sides of the stool, being fixed by ornamental brass
nails. Fig. 3 gives four patterns for the feet of the stool.
Restoring Colour of Gold Chain.— To restore the
colour of a 9-carat gold chain that has been burnt black
and blue, swill it in a warm solution consisting of
1 part of sulphuric acid to 20 parts of water ; then rinse
in clean warm water. If the colour appears too pale,
swill again carefully in a warm solution consisting of
Ipart of nitric acid to 10 parts of water; then rinse in
clean warm water, dry by rubbing in hot sawdust, and
polish with rouge. If the chain is badly burnt, it may be
necessary to electro-gild it.
Making Carbons for Electric Lamps and Batteries.
—Coke, the material from which the ordinary lighting
and battery carbons are made, is usually a by-product
of the process of petroleum oil refining, being the solid
that remains in the stills after the oils have been
evaporated. Coke carbon obtained from other sources
can of course be employed for the purpose. The coke
is in the form of irregular chunks of black porous
material, somewhat lighter than coal-coke, and is
ground in a vertical bark mill to what is known as
pea-size, and, by means of belt elevators, is taken to
large iron storage tanks above the retorts, being drawn
from there into small iron cars which run along the
top of the retorts, and discharge their contents directly
into the calcining ovens. Here the coke is subjected to a
high temperature by the burning of coal gas, the ovens
being kept closed ; all the volatile matter and other
impurities are consumed, the residuumbeing pure carbon.
After cooling to a certain degree, the doors are opened and
the material is hauled out ; it falls into a metal trough in
front of the retort, a link belt conveyer in the trough
conveying the carbon to an elevator. This raises the
released and the formed pencils, which are held together
by a thin web of material, are removed and placed on a
corrugated pan. The moulds must be oiled before
refilling. The pencils are held straight on the corrugated
pan until cool, when they are broken apart by hand and
fed one at a time into the strippers, which automatically
draw them through very rapidly and shave off the por-
tions of the web that may adhere to the sides of the
pencils. The scrap Is returned to the mills to be ground
and treated again. Before describing the baking process
through which the pencils next pass, the forcing method
of forming the pencUs must be touched upon. The
mixture of powdered carbon and binding material is
hydraulioally pressed into compact cylinders, and these
are fed, one at a time, into the Jumbo presses; in
these large cylinders are plungers, which force the
material through dies, upon the size of which must
of course depend the size of the resultant pencils. The
material is forced out inio grooved trays and broken off
into lengths of about i ft. When cool, these are passed
through a machine and further cut to the desired lengths.
Pencils produced either by the moulding or the forcing
method are baked in the same manner, being carefully
piled in the firebrick furnaces In regular rows; a small
thickness of carbonising material is placed between
each layer of pencils. When the furnace is full it is
covered with a kind of clay that vitrifies in the baking
process and, covering the bed with a scale, prevents
the gas employed as fuel coming in contact with the
carbon pencils. The baking lasts for eight or ten days,
at the end Of which time the top of the oV6n is removed
and the pencils, when cool, lifted out with implements
resembling hay-forks. The pencils for the electric
arc lamps are then sorted and tested for straightness,
being allowed to roll down an inclined steel plate. Any
crookedness is made apparent by light rays between, the
pencils and the steel plate. After being sorted into
about three qualities, the pencils formed by the forcing
process are pointed in machines. Cored carbons are
filled with the special preparations by machinery, the
material in the form of a thick metallic paint being
forced into the cavity of the carbon by hydraulic press-
ure.
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
265
Composition for Blackening Face. — To make a
composition as used by minstrel troupes for blackening
the face and hands, place some good corks, champagne
tor preference, on an iron plate over a bright fire, when
they are thoroughly burnt, remove them from the Are,
crumble them up, mix Into a paste with a little water,
or beer, or glycerine, and place in a gallipot. To use,
take a little of the black In the palm of the hand, and
add a drop of the liquid previously employed j rub up,
and apply to the face. The black can easily be removed
with warm water and soap.
Taking Cross Sections of Large Kiver.— It is sup-
posed that a method is required of taking cross sections
of a tidal river. Soundings must be taken from a
boat, with a lead plummet having a round plate above
to rest on the mud. The position of each section will
be marked in turn by two station poles on the same
bank, so that the true line can be sighted from the
boat, but the position of each sounding must be ob-
tained by observing the bearings to, or angles between,
certain fixed and permanent points, as a chimney
stack, steeple, tree, house, etc. Two observations at
each point wUl generally be sufBcient. By noting
entered on the plan^nd then sections made in any
required direction, when the angle has been taken
between the fixed stations Instead of their bearings, the
method of plotting is different and also more complex.
In the present method, if the bearing from the sounding
to chimney is 345°, that is north 15° west of the magnetic
meridian, or north 15 + 16 = 31° west of the true meridian,
the bearing or direction from the chimney to the sound-
ing will be the reverse of this, or south 31° east.
Mailing Vinegar.— To make vinegar proceed as fol-
lows. To 3 bushels of malt add 2>i gal. of water at a tem-
perature of about 170° P. I after stirring well for about
half an hour, strain off the clear liquid and pour on
another 20gal. of water, followed by about lOgal., when
the malt will be exhausted. The liquids are mixed
and cooled quickly to 70' F. ; then the yeast is stirred in
and the vat covered. After fermenting for from twenty-
four to thirty-six hours, the wort must be carefully
strained and run Into barrels (three-fourths full) set on
their sides in a cool, airy place. Holes about 2 in. diameter
are bored in both ends of the barrels to allow a free cir-
culation of air. The acetlfication will require several
months, and the vinegar must be filtered before being
used. There is also another method of converting the fer-
mented wort into vinegar, known as the " quick " vinegar
process. For this an apparatus similar to the sketch
below will be required. It consists of a large wooden
vat A havlr.3 a wooden partition B bored with holes.
bl.
-Oof
Apparatus for Ma.lriiig Vinegar.
Tairing Cross Sections of
Large River.
the time of sounding and comparing with the time
of high and low water, the proportion between the
total rise and fall and that which had then occurred
will be found. The actual height of each tide must be
recorded at a tide gauge on shore as long as the survey
lasts. The following is a sample of the entries :—
No. of Section, 5. High water, 2 p.m.
i
.^
^
i
1
•B
■&
^
t
c
. Q
te;
41
2.15
6i
Chimney 345. Tree 87
12
2.25
9
360. „ 7J.
43
2.40
111
10. „ 60
Chimney to tree 520 ft., bearing 101°, that is east of mag-
netic north taken with prismatic compass (mag. var.
« iv '■ '^^^ accompanying figure shows the plotting
of these three soundings with the construction lines left
in. After the soundings are all corrected they can be
Besting on this partition is a pile of beech shavings, and
above the shavings is another partition also bored with
holes. To prevent the vinegar passing through too
quickly, in each hole Is fitted a piece of glass tube pro-
jecting upwards an Inch or two, so that this level of
liquid remains on the partitions. To conduct the liquid
down, each tube has a piece of loose cotton lampwick
projecting both above and below, and through this the
liquid is drawn by capillary attraction. The tube D is
for drawing off the liquid as the bottom of the vat fills
with vinegar. Near the bottom six or eight holes are
bored to allow air to enter. Boiling water is first poured
through the vat until the liquid comes away quite
colourless. A little hot vinegar is then run In, the
apparatus is allowed to stand a few days, then fermented
wort is run slowly through and put back a few times
until it begins to smell of vinegar ; after a time the
vinegar plant or ferment wUl grow vigorously on the
shavings, and good vinegar will be obtained by the one
operation only.
Methods of Testing Drains.— To tell whether a drain
is properly or improperly laid, exposing it only at two
points, the following tests may be employed, (a.) Put a
measured quantity of water in at the top end and see
if the Slime quantity escapes at the lower end. (b) Allow
water to flow through, and then look through the drain
and note if all the water has passed away or whether some
is retained in bagged parts. At the same time note if the
drain is " like a gun-barrel " or crooked, (c) Float apples,
small potatoes, or something similar, through the drains
to test if there are any obstructions that would arrest
floating matters, (d) Float a cork with attached cord
through the drains, and by such aid drag a drain-bobbin
through, (e) For fall, place levelling staffs on the inverts
at each end and use a sighting level on the surface, or a
straightedge and pocket level can be used; or (f) bends
and upright pipes can be temporarily connected to the
ends, the whole filled with water, and the depth at each
end measured. This would also test the soundness of
the drain.
266
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
Hydrometer for Soap-making Lye.— The strength
of a soap-maklug lyo Is often given in degrees Tw. ; this
refers to the density of the lye as indicated by a Twaddel
hydrometer, the instrument generally used for the
purpose in soap-maMng. The hydrometer is immersed
in the lye, whose density can then be read off from the
scale at the top of the instrument. Twaddel hydrometer
degrees are oonrerted into speciflo gravities by multi-
plying by '005 and adding 1. Thus the specific gravity
of, say, 6.yTw.,is: (65 x 'OOS) + 1 = 1-335.
Oval Top Wooden Box.— The accompanying drawings
thow a method of constructing a strong oval top
iron, 1 oz. of powdered gum arable, J oz. of powdered
white sugar, and 1 dr. of powdered cloves; macerate
for an hour or two. (2) Powder and mix together 3 lb
of Aleppo galls, 1 lb. of copperas, i lb, of gum arabiol
and i lb. of white sugar. For use, dissolve 2 oz. of tha
powder in 1 pt. of boiling water. (3) Pulverise and mix
thoroughly 50 parts of logwood extract and 1 part of
bichromate of potash. Add 6i parts of indigo blue
(4) Pulverise and mix together 16 oz. of nutgalls, 7 oz.
01 copperas, and 7 oz. of gum arabio. Add two or three"
powdered cloves to each pound of powder. (5) A simple
method of preparing Ink powder is to reduce soluble
nlgrosin to an impalpable powder by grinding. (6) Tnfc
Oval Top Wooden Box
Fig. 3
wooden box. The sides, ends, and bottom should
be of wood about tin. thick, jointed together as at
Pigs. 1, i, and 5. The top of the lid may be formed of
two ^-in. boards bent and glued together and nailed to the
end pieces (see Fig. 2) i or strips i in. by about 24 in. wide,
jointed and glued together, may be used (see Pig. 3).
The principal dimensions are given in the illustrations.
Two or three coats of paint will be more serviceable than
a covering. In the Illustrations, Fig. 1 shows a front
elevation ; Pig. 2, an end elevation ; Pig. 3, an alternate
method of forming the lid ; Pig. 4, a general view of the
box ; and Pig. 5, the method of joining the side to the front.
Recipes for Ink Powders.- Keolpes for ink powders
are as follow. (1) Add 1 qt. of water to a mixture of
1 oz. of powdered galls, 1 oz. of powdered sulphate of
paper, which serves the same purpose as tli?,P°^fci'
made by saturating sheets of paper with anihne waoK,
andthenpressing themlnto a compact form. -BOTUse.
a little pifioe of the paper is torn off, and steeped in a
small quantity of water.
Cutting Fur Skln.-A large fur that is to be reduced
to half its original size may be cut i° .t°e '°"°i.W|
manner. First prepare the pattern to which the sm is
to be cut. Place the skin, fur side down, upon ™e 'aoie,
arrange the pattern on the skin, and mark out wiin
pencil, chalk, or crayon. Then out with a sharp *mie
tseissors must not be used, as they will spo^l Kt VSu'
being careful that the knife cuts only throngh the smn
and not the underlying fur. ^ Keep all the jjimbs ror
corners or places which the pattern does not quite cover.
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
The Terms Man-power and Horse-power.— A man
can do from one-flfth to one-ninth the work of an
average horse, the proportion depending on the nature
of the work ■, one mechanical horse-power (33,000 ft.-lb. of
work per minute) equals the power of ahout four and a
half horses. There is no exact definition of the term
man-power.
How to Make a Studio Camera.— A studio camera to
take 12-in. by 10-in. plates may be made of |-in. mahogany.
First construct the baseboard (Pig. 1) of the size shown in
the Illustration, by tonguelng together. Then make two
strips E and P (Fig. 2) 16 in. by I in. by t'jiu., and glue
ii nd screw these in the Bpace3AandB(Pig. 1). They will
then be Jin. apart, and extend 2in. from the edges, and
stand i\m. A strip I 2iin. by 16in. Is next strongly
attached, as in Fig. 2, with a J-ln. slot for a clamping rod
running from ajbout 2 in. or 3 in. from each end. A simi-
lar slotted rail is then made to come over and D (Pig. 1).
Next form the extension frame (Fig. 3) to run freely
In the grooves of the baseboard rails. Pit the focussing
screw J (which may be purchased ready prepared for about
te.) by screwing down the bolt G to the baseboard, and
the nut to the end of the extension frame at H. Con-
struct the sliding frame (Pig. i) by dovetailing four pieces
267
The focussing screen frame is formed as In Pig. 10. The
tongue X engages with the groove TJ (Pig. 9) , and the r's-in.
rebate Y is for the focussing ground glass which is
held in by narrow strips of brass across the corners.
Attach the screen frame to the reversing back by
double hinges at ZZ (Pigs. 9 and 10).
Rusty Nickel-plated Surfaces. — All electro de-
PO?its of metal are slightly porous, and so when a
thin deposit of nickel on steel or iron is exposed to
moisture the tiny drops penetrate these pores to the
metal beneath and cause rust. A thicker deposit offers
a better protection, or better still is a coat of copper
deposited on the parts and well burnished previous to
being coated with nickel.
. Needles Breaking in Sewing Machine.— The needles
in a teiuger or other sewing machine break either be-
cause the needle-bar is bent, causing the needle to strike
9? *",? Sfide edge of the hole in the needle-plate ; or
the shuttle, or shuttle race, or both, may be worn, thus
allowing the shuttle to fall forward sufBoiently to get
°?A"® Y'^l^f ^^^^ °f *'^^ ueedle-that is to say, the point
or the shuttle passes on the outside of the needle instead
or the inside. If the ba.r is bent, straighten it by striking
Fig, 8 P
How to Make a Studio Camera.
10-
each 16 in. by 3 in. Inside this fit a frame K If in. wide,
flush with the front edges, and screw across two grooved
pieces L for the rising front, 3 in. by 16 in. The rising
front board may next be got out, with the two rebated
rails for the sliding front ; this is sufficiently explained
by Fig. 5. The sliding front or lens board is shown in
Fig. 6. Wow make the back frame (Fig. 7), giving about
(in. slope to the top and bottom to allow jof swing.
These four pieces, 14} m. by 3 in., are dovetailed together.
Then sink the nuts for the thumbscrews B= and the
pivots A''. Inside the framework fit carefully a frame-
work M exactly fin. from the back edge, and lin. wide;
cover it with velvet on the near side. It is an advantage
to bevel the frame towards the centre to allow of central
expansion of bellows when closed. Proceed to fit the
clamping rods N (Fig. 8) . These consist of along screw and
nut, but the thread O need only extend about 1 in. P Is a
circular pla'Jj to grip the side rail, Q a washer, and B the
thumbscrew or clamping nut. The bellows may be ob-
tained ready made from dealers in photographic
materials. Gflue the front of the bellows to the frame-
work L (Pig. i) and the, back to the frame M (Pig. 7), and
'?4?'<'6 under pressure till thoroughly dry. The fixed frame
iig.ll, side view) is prepared 16 in. by 3Jiu. The back
jrame IS fitted with the pivots to the fixed frame at V, and
the whole is then made up and screwed firmly to the back
^.tne extension frame. Wow make the reversing back
(Dig. 9) by first joining up a frame of four pieces, and
across them glue and screw two strips S and T li in. by
I4in„ with iiu. groove at V. A further strip may be
fitted across between the two at w (not shown) to form
a stop for the slide. This must all be done in rV-in- stuff
to make the frame exactly i in. thick when finished.
fl
at ite highest point with a light hammer while in the
machine. If when this is done the needle dips down
in the centre of the hole in the needle-plate correctly,
and the shuttle can be moved with the fingers enough
to strike the needle instead of passing without touching,
either a new shuttle must be procured or enough of the
point of the old shuttle, if not badly worn, must be
rubbed off on a piece of emery-cloth to allow it to
clear the needle.
Gilding Figured Oak.— In gilding figured oak with
gold leaf, having planed up the surface of the wood, well
glasspaper it if a smooth finish is desired ; for a rough
finish, glasspapering is not necessary. Evenly apply
with a camel-hair brush two or three coats of spirit
varnish or brush polish to prevent suction. When the
varnish is dry, the gold size should be evenly applied. It
required to dry very quickly, say in half an hour or less,-
japanners' gold size may be used. But the better plan ii
to coat with oil gold size one day and apply the gold leaf
the next. The oil gold size can be bought ready pre.
pared. Or the two kinds of size may be mixed in varying
proportions according to the time allowed for it to acquire
its proper tack. The use of gold leaf on transfer paper
is advised, as it is easier to handle and avoids waste.
"When the gold size has acquired its proper tack it
should have a nearly dry pulling feeling on pressing
the finger knuckle against it. In applying the gold
leaf, press well down with the ball of the thumb or soft,
clean, chamois leather. If the tack is right the paper
will lift, leaving the gold with a bright surface. Take up
each leaf of paper as the gold is pressed home, and allow
the next to overlap at least i in.
268
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
Black Inlay for Mandolines, Common clue strongly
impregnated with lampblack or vegetable black, or even
Une ebony sawdust, is sometimes used tor inlaying cheap
mandolines. Black sealing-wax is also effective. A harder
substance closely resembling sealing-wax, Itnown as
beaumontage, is made by melting together shellac 3 oz.,
resin 1 oz., and beeswax ^ oz., with sufficient lampblack
as required. Roll into sticks. Both substances are run
in by pressing against a hot iron. Another useful filling
is made by melting together resin 3 parts and wax 1
part with sufHcient black to colour. It may be kept in
melted condition by gentle heat, and can be pressed
where required with chips of wood cut wedge-shape.
Making Firelighters.— Figs. 1 to 8 show a few simple
forms of firelighters. If firelighters are to be made tor
the purpose of sale, care must be taken not to in-
fringe existing patents. The pattern shown by Fig. 2
is the subject of a patent. The pieces in Fig. 3 are
joined by a wooden peg. In Pig. 4 a string or wire
binding is employed to keep the various pieces in posi-
tion. Fig. 5 consists of thi-ee or more sets of sticks, as
It is supposed that an article, the polish of which has
gone dull, requires freshening up. Use a mixture com-
posed of lime water, raw linseed oil, and turps in equal
quantities. The two former are first well shaken tUl
thoroughly incorporated, and the mixture is then thinned
out with turpentine. It is applied rather liberally to the
article by means of wadding j rub well to clean away any
dirt or sweat, and afterwards wipe off with a piece of
rag. Then take another piece of rag, fold it up firmly
till it presents a face free from creases, sprlnWe this
with methylated spirit, and press well in till it presents
a fairly moist (not wet) surface. TVith this rag give the
article a smart polishing; apply lightly at first, and
exert a little pressure as the spirit evaporates. The
second pad, containing spirit only, is for finishing the
article ; take care to clear away any trace of oil with-
out disturbing or breaking up the lac surface, to which
continued friction has imparted a polish. In the case of
goods on which It is impracticable to use soda water for
first cleansing, it will generally sufBce to wipe over with
henzoline. This is sometimes used at the finishing
stage, with the object of kUliug any grease ; instead of
Firelighters.
shown, the interior being filled up with shavings or
otheii combustible material, . and the whole bound or
nailed at the corners. In Fig. 8, in a block.originally solid,
a hole is pierced through the top, and a wide groove
made along the bottom. These' recesses are filled with
tow, shavings', etc. Most firelighters are dipped, par-
tially or wholly, into a hot solution of resin and tur-
pentine. Crude paraffin aud crystal oil, carbolic acid and
r(»sin oil, and even tar and pitch, are also used ; but
generally preference is given to some form of resin.
The Use of Frencb-poUsh Revivers.— The secret
of success in the use of French-polish revivers lies
in the ability to clear off any trace of oil that may
be used, and in making the polished surface free from
grease and dirt. Some revivers combine the two
qualities, and act as a cleansing and restoring agent.
Should the article be very dirty, it should oe first
cleansed with warm soda water— half a small teaoupful
of common washing soda dissolved in 1 gal. of water will
answer. The same procedure may also be required in the
case of goods on which creams and pastes with a wax
basis have been used. Good results cannot be obtained
from revivers containing oil, vinegar, or spirit if used
on a surface previously cleansed with wax. Furniture
creams or pastes, or even the old-fashioned beeswax and
tiirpentine, will, in skilful hands, give good results.
this may be used a reviver made of vinegar, oil, and
spirit, to which is added a very little butter of antimony
as a grease kiUer. Failure may result from the flrst
attempt, but the fault may be in the mode of appli-
cation, or in the fact that the original polish has so sunK
into the wood, or perished, that there is really no goott
lac surface left which can be revived.
Keclpes for Stovlng Enamels.— The home manufac.
ture of stoving enamel to be applied to metal is ?ot
advised. The utensils employed must be free from all dirt,
and the ingredients must not contain traces of im-
purities, or a good-surfaced enamel will not be produoea.
For a dead white enamel, melt together 1 part of calcine
(2 parts of tin and 1 of lead calcined together), 2 parts oi
fine crystal or transparent glass fmt, and a very smau
quantity of manganese. Pour the fused mass into clean
water, dry, reduce to powder, and again fuse, repeating
these operations three or four times, taking care to
prevent the enamfl being contaminated by smoke, ttiJL,
or oxide of iron. A superior white enamel is made oy
treating 1 part of washed diaphoretic antimony ana
3 parts of fine glass perfectly free from lead as before.
For a black enamel, mix together 12 parts of ealcmea
iron (protoxide) and 1 part of oxide of cobalt, injs
mixture is fused with an equal amount of white nnx or
enamel, made as in the flrst recipe above.
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
269
staining Poplar to Walnut Colour. — Below Is
explained how to stain poplar a walnut colour. In
a jar place one pennyworth of Vandyke hrown and
two pieces of common washing soda the size of large
walnuts. Pour in gradually, stirring the while, 1 pt. of
boiling soft water. Strain through muslin or coarse
flannel to ensure thorough mixing. Apply the solution
whilst still hot with a brush, working the way of the
grain; rub well in, and wipe off the surplus with rag.
SeTcral coats ma3' be given tUl a good depth of tone is
gained. When quite dry, smooth with fine worn glass-
paper, then wipe over with raw linseed oil. The work is
then ready tor polishing. It the article is small, grain
fillers may be dispensed with. On close-grained woods it
will generally suffice to apply one or more coats of spirit
varnish as polishing proceeds.
Constructing a Covered Midden Stead, — The
accompanying illustration shows a midden stead
lOIt. long and 7ft. wide, with 9-iu. brick walls, 2 ft. 6 in.
high round three sides. The end is left open, so
that a cart can be backed in, and the roof is kept
high enough for the same purpose. The floor should
be covered with flags laid with a fall, as shown, and in
the end wall a perforated grating allows the liquid to
run through a pipe Into the pit. The pit is 5 ft. deep,
and for the body under coating body varnish, putting on
a medium coat only. After standing for three or four
days It is ready for flatting, previous to the last coat of
varmsh being put on. Be careful not to flat it more than
If necessary to remove any email nibs, etc., as the more
It IS flatted oJC the more absorbent the under coat he-
comes, in a measure taking up the gloss of the finish-
ing coat; wash off thoroughly, and give a good full
coat, being sure not to get runs or fulness in any corners.
U se iinishing body varnish for the body and pale carriage
varnish for the underworks. Let the cart stand at least
two weeks.before using it, sponging it in the meantime
with plenty of water so as to harden the varnish.
Action of Self-lighting Incandescent Burners.— The
active material in most of the self-lighting incandescent
burners is the metal platinum in some form or other,
and the reason for its employment depends on the
lact tnat it is capable of condensing either on its surface
or m Its pores a large amount of oxygen, the latter being
derived from the air ; the result of this is that when
a gas such as hydrogen is brought in contact with the
metal the two gases unite and in time chemical action
ensues. Now coal gas contains, roughly speaking, about
60 per cent, of hydrogen by volume, so in allowing a
stream of coal gas to impinge on a pellet of specially
6 ft. long, and 4 ft. wide. It may be covered over with
4-in. flagstones. The sides are of 9-in. brickwork, cement
rendered, and the bottom is of cement concrete laid
with a fall to one corner, so as to make a sump for a
Cham-pump, which should be fixed high enough to pump
the liquid into a tank cart for carrying to a distance.
Painting and Varnishing a Dog-cart.— The hody
? ^.doe-oart, to be painted blue-black, should be well
teced down with pumice-stone and water (it cracked,
rub down to the flUing-up coats) and the under parts,
to he painted red, cut well down with No. 2 sand-
paper. The red parts should have a coat of flesh colour,
mixed with driers, linseed oil, and turps, a small por-
tion or purple-brown or rose-pink heing added to give
It tone. The hody should have a coat of dark lead
colour, made as described above, but adding lampblack
instead of the rose-pink. Let it stand for two days, then
Ughtly sandpaper oft and stop up any small places. It
the body IS to be blue, give it a ooatof Prussian blue, and
alterwards two coats of ultramarine, the first and second
coats being so mixed that they will dry rather sharp, the
last coat being glaze colour. This is made by adding about
one-thivd varnish to some of the colour already mixed.
U the body is to be black, apply a coat of dead black, to
dry in about four hours, followed by a coat of japan.
Liet this stand for a day, then flat down with pumice dust
md water, thoroughly wash off every particle of dust,
and give another coat. The under-parts having been
papered down and stopped up, give them two or three
coats ol carmine o. vermilion, bound with gold size and
carnage varnish and thinned with turps, and made to
diy as described tor the blue. It the wheels, etc., are to
be lined out, first flat them to give an even surface and
prepare them for varnishing. , It two coats of varnish are
to be given, tor the carriage use hard drying carriage.
prepared platinum the heat generated is sufficient to
Ignite the gas. The form in which the platinum is
usually employed Is that known as spongy platinum, and
is obtained by dissolving metallic platinum in aqua
regia (nitric and hydrochloric acids), which converts it
into perchloride of platinum (PtCl.) ; the solution is
then mixed with chloride of ammonia, which combines
with the perchloride of platinum to form a yellow in-
soluble salt (ammonio-chloride of platinum). This pre-
cipitate is collected on a filter, washed, and then heated
very gently in a stream of coal gas as long as any fumes
of hydrochloric acid are evolved. The spongy platinum
thus obtained can then be used in the form of pellets,
either alone or mixed with other substances.
Softening Snake Skins.- To soften snake skins soak
them in water for a night; they should then be soft
enough to unroU. Soaking should be carried far enough
to enable the skins to be opened without force, but
must not be prolonged. By using warm water, about
an hour's soaking may suffice.
Cleaning Rust from Iron.— In cleaning iron that
has gone very rusty, coat it with paraffin and then
scour while wet with coarse sand. A wire scratch-brush,
it at hand, wlKhelp to remove the rust more readily.
When all the rust is off, wash in strong soda-water and
silver sand. If the iron is very rusty go over it with an
old file before putting on the paraffin.
Renovating Leather-covered Furniture.— In re-
novating faded leather - covered furniture that is
slightly worn in parts, first wash the surface of the
leather with warm water in which a little washing
soda has been dissolved ; this will remove grease, etc.
Now dissolve i oz. of Bismarck brown in 1 pt. of
methylated spirit and add i gill of French polish.
Make up a cotton-wool rubber, soak in the solution,
and lightly rub the leather all over ; if the colour is not
deep enough, go over the surface again. Now take 1 pt.
of furniture cream and i pt. of linseed oil, slightly warm
them separately, then mix well together. Put some of
the mixture on a sponge or soft woollen rag, and apply
to the leather ; finally, polish off with a soft dry cloth.
270
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
MaklDg Ammonia.— Ammonia may be made by
heating an intimate mixture of sal-ammoniac and
slaked lime and passing the gas evolved into water
until the latter is saturated, but the method would be
very expensive. Ammonia is now made in large ciuan-
tities by distilling gas-liquor, liquor from coke ovens,
or washing waters used in scrubbing the gas from
blast furnaces, with lime ; ammonia can be bought so
cheaply that it does not pay to malte a small quantity.
White Faint for Plant Labels.— To make a white
paint as used by gardeners for plant labels, grind equal
weights of zinc oxide and barytes with the smallest
possible quantity of pale gold size and thin with tur-
pentine. A cheaper method of painting the labels is to
coat them first with milk of lime (i.e. tnin slaked lime),
and then, when dry, with silicate of soda diluted with four
times its bulk of water. Finish with fine sandpaper.
Apparatus for Bevelling Frames,— A vertical
spindle moulding machine, with a cutter block similar
to that shown by the sketches below, is the simplest
thing to use for bevelling the frames, and for
cutting out the curved part B (Fig. 1). If a spindle
machine is not available and large quantities of frames
the above is added for sensitising as required potassium
bichromate solution in the proportion of 12 drops per
ounce. This solution is made by dissolving i oz. of
potassium bichromate in 5 oz. of water, and adding
about i dr. of liquor ammonia. Allow the gelatine to
soak for a time, and dissolve by heat in part of tlie water
Dissolve the sugar in the remainder, and add gently
whilst stirring. Various colours may be used, but
Chinese ink is a favourite with workers in a small way
Allow this to soak till it is ina thin paste, then add to the
jelly until a piece of paper floated upon it and drained
appears quite opaque when held against an ordinary gas
jet. Stir thoroughly when adding the pigment, and put
m only a little at a time. Any pigment may be used
which IS in a fine state of division.
Setting Up a Surveyor's Level.— In setting a sur-
veyor's three-set screw level lirst see that the parallel
plates are about parallel, and the screws just up to
their work; set the legs open a convenient distance,
and stand between two of them, with the left hand
grasping the tripod head. Place the telescope across
the direction of the leg at the right hand, and
move the leg backward or forward to bring main bubble
central. Then place the telescope in line with this
are to be made, a strong lathe-head could be fixed in a
vertical position to a strongly framed wooden table, and
a cutter block and two irons fitted. The diameter of
the block, with the irons, would have to bo twice the
breadth of the splay, as indicated by the dotted circle at
Fig. 1. Fig. 2 is a front view of the block and irons. Pig. 3
an end view of the same, and Fig. 4 is a conventional
view of the block.
Preserving Bait for Fishing.- The only way to keep
the true colour of roach that are to be nsed as bait
for jack fishing is to preserve them alive. Make a
wooden box 2 ft. 6 in. long by 1 ft. 4 in. wide by about 9 in .
deep. This will hold from twenty to thirty fish. The
joints of the box should be put together with thick
white lead. The water should be changed about once a
fortnight, or ottener it the full number of fish is kept.
The tank should be looked over daily and dead fish or
ice removed at once. Dead flsh may be preserved as
follows. Wipe them dry and drop them into a wide-
mouthed bottle containing glycerine or spirit of
wine. Cork up tightly and cover the cork with melted
wax.
Making Carbon Tissue and Supports.— The follow-
ing formula for stock jelly for carbon printing can be
highly recommended. Nelson's opaque gelatine 4oz.,
Coignet'a gold label gelatine loz., loaf sugar li oz., water
1 pt. Heinrich's emulsion gelatine may be substituted for
Ooignet's if the latter cannot be procured. These are
harder than Nelson's opaque. Gelatine that has been
artificially hardened with alum must not be used. To
leg, and move it in or out to bring the bubble again
central. This is the leg adjustment common to all
forms of level and theodolite, and should never be omit-
ted. The fine adjustment for a three-screw level will then
be as follows. Place the telescope parallel with two adja-
cent screws and bring the bubble central, by turning
them " thumbs in " or " thumbs out," as thp case may be.
Then move the telescope round so that the object glass
is central between these two screws, and the eyepiece
over the third one, and adjust the third screw to bring
the bubble central. The bubble ought now to remam in
the centre of its run for any position of the telescope.
By mea s of a cross level on the end the leg may be set
approximately true for both directions in one operation,
but it is more useful on the four-screw instrument.
Ethereal Solution of Gold.— An ethereal solution
of gold is made thus ! Dissolve 1 dwt. of pure gold m
1 fluid oz. of warm aqua regia (3 parts hydrochloric acid,
1 part nitric acid, and 1 part water), evaporate the liquia
until it appears like red syrup, then make up to 4 pt.
with hot distilled water. Pour this into a pint glass-
stoppered bottle, add a fluid ounce of sulphuric etlier,
and well shake. The ether will take up the gold from the
acid, and float above it when at rest. This solution la
applied with a camel-hair pencil, and on bright iron ana
steel it forms a fairly adherent coat, which may be ligntiy
burnished. It will also deposit its gold on other metals as
the ether evaporates j but it must always be regardeo as
a kind of gold paint. As it is highly volatile, and is
affected by light, it should be kept in a closely stoppered
bottle in a dark place when not in use.
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
271
Glaze for Finishing Farnlture.— To make a glaze for
finishing furniture dissolve 8 oz. of best gum benzoin in
1 pt. of methylated spirit ; keep it warm and frequently
shake till dissolved. Carefully strain and store away,
tightly corked; it improves by keeping. This glaze
Imparts a final brifhtness in place of spiriting out, but
has no body for polishing purposes.
Instrament for Locating Leakage of Water.— Here-
with is a sketch of a stopcock key and sounding tube
combined, which can be made easily and at a small
outlay. An instrument similar to sketch has been In
use for more than thirteen years at a large waterworks in
the South of England, and has been found very valuable
for the detection by sound of waste ; by using this
instrument at the surface considerable success has
h-(l-i— -»•
Inetrmaent for Locating Leakage
of Water.
been met with in localising underground leaks. The
letter references in the illustration are explained as
follows. A, face of earpiece ; B, J-in. brass tube slide,
18 in. long ; c, socket packed between brass bush D and
nipple; E, iron tee; P, stopcock cover hook, Siin. long,
screwed to fit loosely for convenience ; G, section of j-in.
iron barrel; H, soldered joint.
Working and Polishing Alabaster. — Alabaster,
although considerably harder than Bath or Caen atone,
18 worked, like those stones, with toothed saws and
steel drags of varying degrees of fineness, first the
coarse and then the fine being used. The surface
left by the drag is rubbed with coarse sandpaper to
remove the marks of the drag, and then with fine sand-
paper, all these operations being done in the dry. The
surface is next grounded with stone grits and water, as
in marble polishing, but the grits in this case are used
flat instead of on edge. The grits mostly employed are
seconds and snake (water of Ayr), which are sometimes
pounded up and used on a worsted wad or boaj, the
seconds grit first, and then the snake. Then mix in
ecinal proportions powdered sulphur and French chalk,
and use on the boss moderately moistened with water,
•working uniformly over every part, and finally finishing
with putty powder (oxide of tin). A little sweet oil
rubbed on afterwards brings out the veins, and renders
the polish brilliant and lasting. The beginner should
practise on waste pieces of alabaster before attempting
to polish anything of value.
Fitting up a Set of Specimen Woods.— The following
IS a suggestion for fitting up about forty specimens of
different woods. The specimens might be arranged as
shown by the accompanying illustration. The fronts of
all the pieces are in line as at C ; but any single piece may
be taken out by being pushed back near the top at A, '
when it will assume the position B. The fronts should be
Fitting up a Set of Specimen Woods.
polished. If the pieces are thin they may be backed up
to the proper thickness (as at C) by commoner material,
in which case only half the front should be polished—
preferably a diagonal half.
Winding-in Watch Mainsprings.— In using a main-
spring winder for watches, place the eye of the spring
on the hook of the winder. With the left hand take the
barrel and hold it to the centre of the spring, guiding
the spring in the barrel as it is wound up by the right
hand. The left hand must grasp the barrel and spring
together firmly to as to prevent the spring slipping out
as it is wound in. The outer end goes In last with a click.
Moulds for Brass Casting.— Sand, with an almost
equal composition, only varying in the size of grain,
should be used for moulds for making clean brass cast-
ings. It should be composed of about 9i parts of silica,
5 parts of clay, and I part of iron oxide. The bulk of the
mould may be sand from the new red sandstone forma-
tion. The face of the mould should be covered with a
mixture of 8 parts of charcoal flour and I part of fine
sand, or may be dusted with peaflour ana then with
the charcoal mixture.
272
Cyclopsedia of Mechanics.
How to Braze Band-saws.— By one method of braz-
ing band-saws it Is necessary to provide an iron, shaped
as in Pig. 1, the two arms of the forlt being at least
li in. long by J in. wide, and welded and attached to a
handle of i-in. or t-in. round iron, about 2 ft. long. A
cramp (Fig. 2) is also required ; it is made out of J-in.
by i-in. iron, and is thioliened at the ends to take |-in.
set bolts (see Pig. 3). File each end of the saw for the
length of two teeth, and fix the ends in the ci-amp as
shown in Fig. 2, taking cai-e that the saw is quite
straight. Twist one loop of iron binding wire round the
splice to hold it in place i then bind about a foot or
more, according to the width of saw, of soft brass
brazing wire round the splice. Moisten the whole with a
saturated solution of borax, heat the iron (Pig. 1) to a
bright heat (technically known as a spurtling heat) , and
Blip it oyer the saw so that the splice comes between the
jaws. When the brass wire melts and runs into the
splice, remoTe the iron, let the saw cool to a dull red,
and then quench in oil, afterwards filing up the braze.
Perhaps the most simple and reliable method is to use
bright-hot tongs and black-hot tongs. File the ends of
the saw taper for the length of two or three teeth, so
that when lapped one over the other they will be the
thickness of the blade. Damp the ends, then place a
little powdered borax and brass spelter between the ends
that are being lapped. Heat a pair of heavy tongs in the
fire until bright-hot, then close them tightly on the joint
until the spelter runs, which will occur. If the tongs are
properly hot, in less than a minute. While slipping this
pair of tongs off, another pair, made black-hot, must be
guicklj' slipped on by one who has been holding them
in readiness, and closed tightly on the joint. Eemove
solder on the dial, and heat to redness with a blowplpt
jet. The silver solder wiU run, and, on cooling, produce
a solid joint without having displaced the foot. The
copper dial blank is prepared for enamelling by being
cleansed in dilute sulpnurlo acid, and it is then flatteneo
on a die with the aid of a spatula, and slightly raised to
the shape of a lunette, white enamel for copper dials
may be made by incorporating, in a molten state, 14
parts of silver sand, 10 parts of borax, 18 parts of red-lead
2 parts of nitre, 12 parts of oxide of tin, 1 parts of flint
glass, and s'b part of binoxide of manganese. Utmost
care in selecting the materials, and great cleanliness in
using them, are essential, and in most cases watch-
makers find it desirable to purchase the enamel ready
made. A small quantity of the enamel is put in a mufile
furnace, removed when red-hot, and immersed in cold
water. It is broken up with pestle and mortar until
it is as coarse as sand, uniformity in the size of the
grains being essential tor successful results. The
enamel is mixed into a paste with water, and applied
with a spatula to the dial blank, which, after having
been tapped to level the enamel, is laid aside. When
dry, apply the enamel to the other face of the blank,
which snould be laid on a block covered with soft wax.
When dry. the dial is fired ; on cooling, it is carefully
examined, spots picked out with a graver, and its surface
is ground. A shining surface is imparted by a second
firing, the blank having been washed and dried pre-
viously. For painting the figures, the white, as the dial
blank is now known, has its surface pencilled into divi-
sions while it is attached to a division-plate which has a
movable radial rule. The paint used for the figures is a
black enamel, capable of fusing at a lower temperature
'i , i 1 Fia 3
-j : mmi
these, hammer the joint tightly, and clean up with a
single-cut fiat file. To set the teeth, lay the blade of the
saw on a small steel anvil, the edge of which is bevelled.
The teeth must overhang the bevel, and every alternate
tooth is struck with a small hammer. When this is done,
turn the saw, and treat the remaining teeth in like man-
ner. To correct any irregalarity in the set, the teeth
should be side-jointed. This is done Tdf placing a top-
ping file longitudinally against the Bides of the teeth,
and lightly passing it over all the teeth on each side. A
rest for the saw can be made from a piece of fiat iron,
as shown in Fig. 4, where R is the rest. The part H may
be held in a vice, or secured to the end of a bench with
a clamp. The saw is placed on the rest, and held In
position by means of four small clamps 0. These clamps
are tightened on the saw and rest by turning the little
thumbscrews T. Pig. 6 is an enlarged view of one of
the clamps. These may be made from tVIu. or }-in. flat
iron ; the rest is made from V'n-iu. or l-ln. flat iron, and
must be perfectly straight. When brazing, keep the
back edge of the saw fair with the edge of the rest.
Making and Enamelling Copper Watoh-dlals.—
Briefly, the processes involved in making and enamelling
the copper dial of a watch are as follow. The blank,
from which the dial is to be made, is prepared by
placing a small sheet of copper on a steel die and
making a hole in the centre with a conical punch.
This produo s a conical pro.jectlon, the top of which
is then filed off, and the hole is broached out to
accord with the hole in the steel die. The copper is
then trimmed to a disc form, sufftcient being left
on it to form a rim to retain the enamel, and after
having its rim thinned down, the blank is laid for a
frame and the positions of the feet are marked. The
feet may be brazed on with spelter : or, preferably,
they may be soldered on with silver solder. To do this,
moisten in the mouth a piece of wire having a flat-
tened end, and with it place in position a small piece of
than does the white enamel already applied. The black
enamel is finely powdered and worked to the proper
consistence with oil of spike lavender. The hour num-
bers are drawn in roughly, dried by a gentle heat, their
ends cut off with compasses having an ivory point, with
which the figures are then ruled true. The rest of the
figuring is painted in with a fine brush, and the dial is
again fired. Whilst still hot, it is placed on a flat ring
of fireclay, and, with the aid of a pair of spatulas, is
made quite straight and flat. The edge is then smoothed
with files and with water-of-Ayr stone, and is then gilt.
A hole is cut in the dial to receive the sunk disc that
forms the seconds dial, and the edge is bevelled from
both of the faces so as to assist the solder in holding
the seconds dial in place, the latter having its edge
shaped to correspond with the groove in the larger
diar To solder in the seconds dial, run in from the
back an alloy (fusible in boiling water) of 6 parts of
tin, 3 parts of lead, and 8 parts of bismuth, and after
applying a flux a clean and reliable joint will result.
Determining Diameter of Pulleys.— To obtain a
close approximation to the diameter of pulley required,
multiply the diameter of the driver in inches (say) by
its speed in revolutions per minute, and divide by the
speed in revolutions per minute required from the driven
pulley. Assuming the pulley on the engine-shaft to be
22 in. in diameter, its speed being 220 revolutions per
minute, and that the speed of the driven pulley is to be
110 revolutions per minute, the diameter of the driven ,
pulley should be 22 x 220 _ ^jjj_ jj ^jje required speed
were 300 revolutions per minute, the pulley should be
about ^^^ = 16 In. (say). For greater exactness the
thickness of the belt should be known ; in making the
calculation this should be added to the diameter bt the
driving pulley and subtracted from the quotient to
obtain the diametor of the driven pulley.
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
273
Paint for Markings Glass.— For ordinary purposes
glass may be stencilled with an ink made by grinding
lampblack to a paste with gold size or boiled oil. If
the paint is to stand heat, grind to a paste red oxide of
iron with fluid silicate of soda, and apply as above.
Rubber stamp inks might be made to serve the same pur-
pose if a mineral colour, such as red oxide, .were added.
Stripping Gliding from a Silver Chain.— Sometimes
the gold wears off in patches from gilded silver and
other chains, and it is desirable to remove the rest of
the gold, though regilding the chain is generally pre-
ferable. To remove the gold, proceed thus: In a basin
put a tablespoonful of nitric acid and three table-
spoausful of muriatic acid with an equal (luantity of
water, and make the whole warm. Carefully swill the
chain in this, and well rinse in clean water until all the
gold has been removed ; then dry the chain and polish it.
Design for Woodeu Bedstead.— A wooden bedstead,
as illustrated, may be made from sound ash or birch,
and, for a full-sized bed, should measure 6 ft. 6 in. by
■Ift. 6in. over all. The post and rails should be about
2i in. square, and the toot and head boards iiu. thick
dynamo, the next a three-cell accumulator; and among
primary batteries the next best would be four J-gal.
Bunsen cells. Anode plates of pure copper must be em-
ployed ; these are connected by No. 16 S.W.O. copper
wire to the positive pole of the generator. If the plates
do not dissolve freel.y, but become encrusted with a
green slime, a small quantity of potassium cyanide and
of liquid ammonia should be added to the solution.
The sui-faces of all articles to be copper-plated by this
process must be cleaned and prepared. Iron and steel
articles may be cleaned from rust by steeping and
swilling in a pickle composed of 6 fluid oz. of sulphurie
acid and i oz, of muriatic acid in each gallon of water.
They must then be rinsed in clean water and immersed
in a pickle composed of 4 lb. of American potash dissolved
in each gallon of hot water. If the surfaces have been
pitted, the corroded parts must be polished with emery
held on a mop in a polishing lathe, after which the
articles must be well swilled in the hot potash pickle to
free them from oil and grease. All surfaces must be
well polished before the copper is deposited, because the
thin coat will not permit much polishing afterwards.
Articles made of lead and tin, or their alloys, must be
first scoured with sand and water, using a hard brush for
Design for Wooden BedsteaS.
when finished. The height from the floor to the side
rails should be 1ft. 2 in.-; the total height of the foot
3ft. 2in., and the head 3 ft. 8 in. If the bedstead is fitted
with a wire mattress, laths or cords will not be required
for the bottom.
Electro-plating with Copper.— The metals on which a
coat of copper is deposited by electricity are lead and its
ailoys ; tin and its alloys ; iron, tinned ii-on ; zinc ; and
steel, when articles made of these metalsare to be silver-
plated, nickel-plated, or gilded, it is always advisable and
sometimes necessary previously to coatthem with copijer.
ihis cannot be done in a copper sulphate solution
because that dissolves the metals. Various solutions
have been used ; but for the most successful one dissolve
copper sulphate in hot rainwater. When cold, add
strong hquid ammonia in small quantities and stir well
with a stick each time. At first a green precipitate will
be obtained; then, on adding more ammonia, the green
precipitate will dissolve and form a clear azure-blue
solution. To this add one of potassium cyanide until
V, }% 8'Ssuraes an amber tint, when rainwater should
De added. The usual proportions are : Copper sulphate,
loz. ; potassium cyanide, 3oz. ; liquid ammonia, loz. ;
rainwater, 2qt. Distilled water may be used instead of
mnwater, but spring and river waters are not suitable
because of the earthy matters held by them. The
solution should be held in an enamelled iron vessel. If
it IS kept supplied with free cyanide and free ammonia
It may be worked cold at from 6 to 8 volts ; but the
deposit may be improved by heating the solution to
from 150 F. to 170' F., and the vat may then be worked
at trom 4 to 6 volts. The best generator is a plating
18
the purpose, to free them from oxide ; tlien rinsed in the
hot potash pickle ; again scoured with finer sand to
polish them; wired with short lengths of No. 24 ^J.W.G.
soft copper wire ; again rinsed in the hot potash jiickle,
and transferred direct to the plating vat. The potash
pickle will prevent rust forming on iron and steel articles,
and will clear oxide from lead and tin and their alloys ;
but it is advisable to transfer the articles quickly to the
plating vat, and not to rinse them in water on the
way. Zinc articles are cleansed in a similar manner;
but very fine sand or finely powdered bath brick must be
used in scouring. If articles are bright and free from rust
or tarnish, only a light brushing with a vegetable fibre
brush in the potash pickle will be necessary to prepare
them. Each article must be attached to a short length
of copper wire, which suspends it in the vat. Use No. 2i
S.TV.G. for small articles, and No. 18 S.W.G. for heavy
ones. Each article should be held by the slinging wire
during the final rinse, and the free end of this wire is
bent over a brass rod on the plating vat, attached to the
negative pole of the generator. Move each article to
and fro with a rinsing movement when placing it in tlie
vat, to remove any air bubbles on the surface. The
current should be regulated by a resistance, usually a
long length of German silver wire furnished with a
switch. The resistance can also be increased by diminish
ing the surface of the anode exposed to the plating solu-
tion, and by placing the anode further from the article
being plated. If the current is too strong, the deposited
copper will be dark in colour and loose in character, and
this will also happen it the solution contains too much
copper. Movement of the articles whilst being plated
will assist in securing a bright and smooth deposit.
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
Some gas is given off from the articles whilst deposition
is going on, but this should be regulated by adjusting
the cniTent. Ouly a tew minutes is reiiuired for platiuj;
each article. The plated articles should be rinsed iu
plenty of clean water to free them from cyanide and
copper salts. If the surface is to remain coppery, the
article should be rinsed in hot water, placed at once in
hot bran or hot sawdust, and moved about therein until
quite dry and bright. Pure copper readily tarnishes in
the air when damp, but may be brightened with a
scratch-brush. If the surface is to be nickel-plated the
articles must be rinsed and transferred at once to the
nickel-plating vat. If a thicker deposit of copper is
desired, use an electrotyping solution, after depositing
a thin film of copper in the alkaline solution above men-
tioned. If the plated articles are to be gilded, get a very
thin and bright deposit of copper, or brighten it with a
scratch-brush ; then rinse and transfer at once to the
gilding vat. If they are to be silver-plated, coat with a
thin film of mercur.v before placing them in the silver-
plating solution. The solution is made by dissolving
I oz. of mercury in very dilute nitric acid, say 1 part acid
to 10 parts distilled water, then making it up to 1 gal. of
solution with distilled water. Give a brisk swill in this,
and then rinse in clean water.
Making Small Silk Tassels.— The following particu-
lars are on making silk tassels for banners, etc. On a
table lay a large and rather heavy book A (Fig. 1). Place
the reel of silk B at one end of the book, and keep the silk
C straight, by passing it under the book. Now take the
end of the silk in one hand, and in the other hand
of the air which is exerted on the surface of the
mercury in the short limb, and in order that it may
do this the short limb must be open or a hole must
be blown iu its side. The indicator is a metal pointer
which is moved to the upper surface of the mercury
from day to day i it simply shows how the barometer
stood the day before. Usually there is a dial on this
form of bai'oraeter, and a pointer that moves round the
dial; the pointer is actuated by a string and a weight
in the shape of a glass rod, which rises and falls on the
surface of the mercury in the shorter limb.
Electro -bronzing. — Electro-bronzing can be done
with an alkaline coppering solution made as follows,
"Dissolve 2 oz. of copper sulphate in 1 quart of hot water;
add this to i gal. of rain-water containing 4 oz. of
potassium carbonate ; then add 2 oz. of liquid ammonia,
and stir until the green precipitate has been dissolved ;
mi-f this liquid with a solution of 6 oz. of potassium
cyanide in J gal. of rain-water, and filter for use. This
solution is best worked at a temperature of 100° P.,
but can be worked cold, with current at a pressure of
from 6 to 9 volts. It deposits a bronze-coloured copper
at low temperatures with the higher voltage. The
bronze tint may be deepened by rinsing the coppered
goods in a solution of sal-ammoniac.
Construction of Photographic Studio.— The accom-
panying illustration shows a photographic studio and
the manner of fitting it with blinds A and B and a head
screen C. The blinds A are frames covered with muslin,
and run In grooves. Two rows of blinds of different
Fig, 2 P'G
Making' small SUk Tassels.
— 2.0 — —
Construction of Photographic Studia.
have a pair of scissors. Draw the silk from under the
book, and cut off as many equal lengths as are re-
quired, when doubled (see Fig. 2), to make the tassel.
The last piece of silk that is drawn should be tied
round the centre of the other pieces (see rig. 3). Then
make a second knot a little higher up. Now place
close to the first knot a small hard ball, such as a pea,
bean, or marble, and cover this with the strands of
silk. Tie the ball tight and neat to form the top of
tha tassel ; shake out the strands, and trim off. For
more elaborate tassels, machinery and wood moulds are
necessary.
Fireproofing Fabrics.— To render fabrics fireproof
steep them (a) in a solution of sal-ammoniac and
plaster-of-Paris. Other preparations are : (6) Borax
12 parts, Epsom salts 9 parts, dissolved in 80 parts
of warm water, (c) Sal-ammoniac 2 parts, sulphate of
zinc 1 part, water 15 to 20 parts, (d) Alum 1 part,
phosphate of ammonia 1 part, water 20 parts, (e)
Phosphate of ammonia M parts, sal-ammoniac 7 parts,
water 80 parts, [ft Alum 6 parts, borax 2 parts, tung.st;ite
of soda 1 part, dextrine dissolved in soap-lye 1 part;
the dextrine is for the purpose of causing the
chemical salts to adhere to the substances being
treated. Ul) Sulphate of ammonia 8 parts, carbonate
of ammonia 2j parts, boraoic acid 2 parts, borax 1} parts,
starch 2 parts, water 100 parts.
Particulars of Fltzroy Barometer. — The baro-
meter known as the Fltzroy has one limb about
33in. to 36 in. long, the other limb being 2in. to 6 in.
long. This tube is inclined and filled with boiled
mercury, and on inverting it the mercury falls, leaving
a vacuum several inches in length in the upper pai't
of the long limb. There should be iiin. or 3 in. of
mercury in the short limb to prevent air getting into
the tube. The mercury rises and falls with the pressui-e
material may be fitted and arranged so as to overlap so
that perfect control of lighting may be obtained. The
blinds B are on spring rollers, and pull down from the
roof. The head screen C may be swung at any angle or
from side to side and fixed with thumbscrews. There is
no advantage in having both sides of the studio glazed,
though it is sometimes useful in taking Rembrandt
pictures, or when tiie studio faces east and west. About
3 ft. from each end P may be left opaque, as the ends are
never required. It is most important to be able to take
the left side of the face when looking away irom the
light. Much, however, depends upon the situation ami
surroundings. The curtains D and B run loosely on a
brass rod. The ventilators are shown at H.
Fixing a Loose Endstone In a Geneva Watch.—
"When the bottom endstone of a Geneva cyhuder
watch is " fixed," it is set in a small plate of brass and
held by a screw to the " chariot." To replace the fixed
endstone by a loose one, push out the fixed stone from
its setting, hollow out the setting from the inside a little
with a round-faced chamfering tool, to cut away tiie
sharp, rough edge, and pick out a loose endstone tnai;
will lust lie flush in the hollow. Then place the loose
endstone (shaped like a minute plano-convex leus) witii
its fiat on the jewel hole and the round side up, lay tno
small piece of flat brass over it, and screw it down as
before. The brass plate will then hold the endstone
tightly a:.,'ainst the .fewel hole. No cement of any kiua
is required.
Making Electro-gilding Solutlons.-Eleotro-gildin!!
solutions are made with cyanide of gold dissolved m i
solution ot cj^anido of potHssium. Use 3 dwt. of goio
cyanide in each quart of distilled water, and addjusi
enough potassium cyanide to dissolve the gold. woi»
at 15U° P. with a 2-volt to 3-volt current, using a puie
gold anode.
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
275
Dlgtlngnishing Pebble Lens from Glass.— PetWe
lenses may be distinguished from common glass spec-
taole lenses in the following mannei-. If the tip of the
tongue be placed on a piece of glass it will feel
rather warm and smooth, or woolly ; but if the tongue
be placed on a piece of auartz it will be 'cold, with a
peculiar crisp feeling. Another test is hardness; a
crystal of quartz will readily scratch glass, but the
crystal will run over a pebble without leaving any
scratch. A natural stone is a much better conductor
of heat than any glass, and so to the tongue will feel
cold ; and being a variety of cjuartz, it will not be
scratched by another crystal of quartz. If the pebble is
supposed to be, say, a topaz or a raby, then, being harder
than quartz, it will In its turn scratch quartz. It the
pebble is a diamond, then it will scratch a ruby or
sapjihire. Another rough and ready method of testing
hardness is to pass a small flue-cut file over the edge of a
bit of glass; thefe will be a somewhat dull, cutting
sound emitted. If the file be passed over a bit of quartz
the sound will be clearer and sharper.
Permanence of Toned and Untoned Prints.—
An untoned print is not so permanent as one that
has been toned; indeed, the object of toning is to
protect the easily affected silver in the print by coating
it with a metal that is better able to resist adverse
influences. The vahie of toning may be demonstrated
by the following experiment. Prepare some sulphuretted
hydrogen water (SH2) by placing a small piece of iron
sulphide in a test tube A (see sketch) , half filling it with
water, and adding a little sulphuric acid. Pit a corli B,
bored to talie a length of glass tube 0. Fit up a glass
Apparatus for TeBting: Fhotographic Prints.
flask with tubes D and E, and nearly fill with distilled
water. Connect D and with a length of rubber tubing.
Now warm the test tube in a gas flame, and the gas will
readily be driven off through the tubes, and eventually
bubble through the water in which it dissolves. Allow
the action to continue spontaneously for an hour. This
operation should be performed out of doors. Cut in
halves two prints— one that has been toned a decided
blue, and the other untoned. Place one half of each
print in the SH2 obtained fi-om the flask. Both pieces
will become lighter, and will be altered in appearance,
as will be seen on comparison with the untreated
halves. On removal from the SH2, the toned print will
be found to have faded equally with the other, hut will
be less altered otherwise.
Solution for Whitening Electro-plate.— For whiten-
ing letters engraved on electro-plate, dissolve 5 dr.
of silver nitrate in i pt. of distilled water, and add
enough potassium cyanide solution to throw down
the silver in white curds, and then to dissolve these
curds. Procure a strip or a stout wire of pure silver,
wrap a few folds of cotton rag round one end to form
a small mop, and connect the other end to the silver
or copper plate of a Smee or Walker battery of one
or two cells. Connect the engraved plate to the zinc
plate of the battery, soak the mop in the silver cyanide
solution, and pass it along each line until all the lines
are nicely silvered.
Determining Contents of Cylindrical Vessels.— To
Ima the contents of cylindrical vessels in cubic inches,
square the diameter of the vessel in inches (that is, mul-
tiply it by itself), and then multiply by -7854 and by the
htight m inches. To flnd the contents in cubic feet, take
all airaeusions in feet. Knowing the contents in cubic
inches, divide by 277-274 to flnd the contents in gallons.
Dividing the contents in cubic feet by -leCHfi answers the
same purpose. Shorter methods wUl suggest themselves ■
trom the following. A cylinder 1ft. in diameter and I ft.
long will hold 4'89gal.,and a cylinder lin. in diameter
and 1 ft. long will hold •031 gal. Also, capacities vary
with the lengths of the cylinders and with the squares
of the diameters. Thus a cylinder I ft. in diameter would
hold 12 X 12 = 144 times the contents of a cylinder of
equal length but lin. in diameter.
Encaustic Paste for Photographs.— Encaustic paste,
used for polishing photographs, has the following
composition. Pure wax, 500 parts j gum elemi, 10 parts ;
benzole, 200 parts ; essence of lavender, 300 parts; oil of
spike, 15 parts; apply this paste after the print is
mounted.
A Simple Oil Filter.- A simple oil filter may be made
from two clean meat tins placed one above the other ;
in the upper tin, with a bradawl, punch a number of
small holes, and over these spread a piece of flannel.
Hard Soldering with Silver Solder.— In hard solder-
ing with silver solder, flrst flle or scrape the parts bright,
and cover them and the solder with a paste of borax and
water. Heat gently at flrst so as to harden the borax ;
then continue to heat by blowpipe until a red heat is
reached, at which the solder will run. The secret is to
blow continuously until the solder runs, and not to stop
half way.
An Enlarging Camera.— These are brief instructions
on fltting up a camera for enlarging to whole-plate, using
a J-plate Instantograph lens. The camera consists 01
a light-tight box E with rails H, along which runs a
whole-plate printing frame G, grooved to flt. The
camera I is placed upon the level platform A sup-
ported by B, and racked out to the correct extension.
The negative C is then placed in the position usually
occupied by the focussing screen. An image is pro-
jected through the lens D on to a sheet of bromide
An Enlarging Camera.
paper placed in contact with the glass P, the frame
having been adjusted to the correct distance from the
lensalongthe rails. If a flxed focus camera (which willbe
found very inconvenient to use) is preferred, the box
need only be fitted with a hinged and light-tight door, on
which the bromide paper is pinned. If the focus of the
lens is 5in.the box must be 15in. longif flxed, or 17 in.
with the frame and the small camera extended 7Jin.
Procure a whole-plate frame and make the box to flt. To
focus, place a sheet of ground glass in the printing frame.
American Clock Striking Wrong.— When an Ameri-
can clock, after being wound up, continues to strike until
it runs down, the remedy is this. Take off the hands
and dial and watch the clock strike. It will be seen
that at each blow of the hammer a wire bent at a
right angle and hammered to a thin edge drops into
the spaces between the teeth of a large wheel on the
left of theclock. In this wheel, at irregular intervals,
are deeper slots. First see that the wire drops cen-
trally into these and does not touch either side. This
can be adjusted by bending the wire. If this does not
i-emedy the fault, look to the next wheel. On its axis
there is ft circular brass plate with a slot in it. When
the wire first mentioned drops into a deep slot in the
large wheel, another wire arm should drop into the slot
on the next wheel and so stop the striking train. Allow
the clock to strike very slowly by checking the fly with
the fingers, and observe very carefully whether the wire
lever last mentioned drops properly into the locking
slot. If it does not go deep enough, bend it down a trifle.
Re-sollng Rubber Shoes.— A fresh layer of rubber
may be attached to the soles of a pair of rubber sand-
shoes in the following manner. Put the shoe on a last,
and rasp the old sole all over till it is quite clean and
rough. The new sole must also be treated in the same
way, and the dirt and dust brushed out. Now give
both the old and new soles a coat of very thin solution,
and when dry give another coat (or two if required) of
slightly thicker solution. When tacky, heat both the
sole and the bottom of the shoe, so that the spirit left
in may evaporate ; then place the two together,, drawing
the sole a shade tighter, so as to eive it a little tension.
276
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
Soldering Britannia Metal.— Britannia metal may
be soldered with pewterers' solder, which may be made
of 2 parts of bismuth, 1 part of lead, and 1 part of tin.
Such a solder is usually obtainable o( any dealer in
metaJ-workers' sundries ; or it may be made by melting
tiie lead iu a plumber's ordinary ladle, and adding
the tin and bismuth. A little resin should be sprinliled
on th'e surface to prevent oxidation of the molten alloy,
which should then be well stirred, and poured into an
Iron mould. When using the alloy, with a sharp knife
first scrape the metal where it is to be soldered, and
then rub a little tallow over the cleansed pai-t. Melt
some solder from the stick upon the part to be soldered,
and, with a fine jet from a blowpipe, blow gently on the
solder until it flows over the parts to be joined.
Making Conical Bellows for Camera.— Imitation
leatlier and black twill joined with thin glue and flour
paste are suitable materials for the conical bellows for a
camera. The paste should consist of i parts of thin glue to
1 part of flour, the latter rendering the paste less likely to
crack. Two thicknesses of twill should be used. Take a
piece of leather and a piece of twill, each 1 yd. by i yd. , and
join and pin down on a board, inside upp_ermost, having
first well rubbed the board with chalk. Draw a line A B
in the centre at the bottom, say 7i in. long, and from the
centre of this erect the line C D, and at 18 In. from D
draw the line E F parallel to A B, say 4i in. long, to fit the
rising front. Now join the points AE and BF. Now
place the blunt point of the compasses at B and with any
radius describe an arc of a circle ; then with the point G
where the arc outs B F measure the distance G H, and
with the same radius mark off at K and draw a line
from B through K 7Hn. long. This gives the angle for the
to correct it is by adding oxygen to the water meohanl-
cally by causing a circulation of water, either by a foun-
tain playing and thus entraining air among the falling
drops, or by allowing a stream of water to pass through
the tank. A cruder method would be to suspend a lesSc,
ing vessel above the tank, thus allowing water to fall
taking air with the drops. A natural method would be to
add growing water-weeds, and thus allow them to give
oxygen to the water. In some cases lime in the water
has been held to be a cause of the powdery appearance,
but lime Is not a necessity to fungi. The affected fish
may be quickly cui-ed by placing them in a vessel into
which water la constantly dripping from a tap.
Removing Fur from Kettle.— A simple plan for re-
moving fur from a kettle is to boil some common whiting
in the vessel (watch carefully, as it soon froths over)
and wash out. If necessary, repeat the process and
then scrape out the softened fui-. This does not damage
the vessel as ch^^elling is apt to do. A wire should be
passed up and down the spout until clean.
Making a Postage Stamp Damper.— To make the
damper, fit in a small jam jar a sponge. Now from a cigar
box make a box (Pig. 1), which can be polished or var-
nished, the bottom being in two pieces; the extreme
bottom E (Pig. 2) has a keyhole cut in the centre before
Conical Bellows for Camera,
Bides. The other sides are marked out in the same
manner. The fourth side is divided into two, so that the
join may come in the centre of the bottom. An extra
piece I, i in. wide, is provided for joining. Now rule a
series of lines iin. apart parallel to the base lines. The
folding and creasing lines are thus marked out, the thick
lines representing the under and the thin ones the upper
lines. A convenient plan tor ruling the lines is to fasten
the material loosely to the board with a drawing-pin at
o. The material may then be swung round at an angle,
a T-square being placed parallel m each case to the
longer thick line as M, N and so on, or parallel alternately
to AB and AP, the other lines being ruled on each
side iu the same fashion. The diagonaliines are put in
with a set-square, so that the angles marked are 45', the
other lines being parallel to them. Cut off the surplus,
join up, and crease into shape with the fingers. The
heavy lines are best put in with the stylus, which will
show them on the reverse side in white chalk. It is
advisable first to practise the ruling and creasing on
some brown paper. Bellows can be purchased ready
made very cheaply.
Keeping Fish In Tanks.— In a fish tank, its size,
the number of the inhabitants, the presence or absence
of snails and vegetables, and the source and nature
of the water supply, are important factors. Several
gold fish and carp would in a small tank soon exhaust
the supply of oxygen, while their products would
fctill further impoverish the water. If a white powder
covers the bodies of the fish it is of fungoid growth,
but the cause has been much debated. Still, it is
generally agreed that nitrogen is necessary for the
growth of every kind of fungus, and therefore it is
reasonable to say that nitrogenous matter in solution
must be in excess. This may be the result of the
decomposition of animal matter, and the beet way
Fic i
Fostage Stamp Damper.
fitting together. A groove is out tor a screw head (paseiiig
through the keyhole) to run in ; and by means of a screw
inserted in the table on which it rests, the box is easily
locked or removed. First nail the two sides B and
front of the box to the bottom D, then bevel off the
corners with the chisel or knife, so that two corner
pieces A can be fitted on flush. Nail on the top, which
must overhang slightly at the front and sides ana
which must have a hole rather smaller than the inaida
of the jar, through which the sponge in the jar protrudes.
Fit the two corner pieces on, and chisel them to shape as
at A (Pig. 2) after fixing. The jar can be easily with-
drawn through the open back for re-filling.
Bending Brass Tube. — A piece of IJ-in. brass tube
may be bent in the following manner. First carefully
anneal the tube, and when it is cold, tie browD
paper over one end, and insert this end in sand.
Now melt enough lead to fill the tube, and pour it into
the tube from a plumber's ladle. In a flrtnly flxea
bench out a hole a little larger than the tube, and
chamfer the sharp edge round the hole. Bemove tne
paper at the end of the tube, and pass the latter through
the hole in the bench to the desired position of tne
bend. Pull the top end of the tube over against
the rounded shoulder at the top of the hole ; pass the
tube a little farther through the hole and again bend,
and repeat until the desired curve is obtained. Bniises
in the throat of the bend may be worked out with a
. round-faced hammer; then re-heat the tube until the leafl
flows out and leaves the interior clear.
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
277
Pitcli of Heavy Cart Wheels.— The pitch is gOTerned
by the dish of the wheels; thus, a wheel having li-ln.
dish would lay out more than a wheel having only i in .
The general rule when setting out the wheels is that
the face spokes in the bottom halves shall be parallel
with each other— that is, square up from the ground line,
no matter what dish there is. To obtain the length of
the axle-tree, having set the wheels out to the required
width for the track, hold a short straightedge on the
hack of the nave, parallel with the spoke, measure the
distance from the straightedge to the hack of the tyre,
and deduct twice this measurement from the inside
width of the track ; this will give the length of the axle-
tree at the shoulders.
Repairing Flushing Cisterns.— To remedy the con-
stant flow of a small stream of water down the side
of a water-closet basin, first empty the cistern hy
pulling the chain. If, while the cistern Is being re-
filled, the flow of water continues, the plug (or valve)
A in the bottom of the cistern requires a new washer.
In repairing, cut the wire G and lift out the plug A.
Unscrew the nut which secures the washer to plug A,
and replace the old washer by a new piece of thick
leather of the same size as the old piece ; replace the
nut, and screw up tightly. Put new wire in place of
G. Should the flow cease' while the cistern is being re-
filled, lift (with the hand) the ball B ; if by so doing the
cock (in the tap hy which the cistern is filled) is
closed, there is water inside the ball B. If cock C is not
closed hy lifting the ball, it requires a jiew ruhber washer.
To insert the washer, remove the pin ]? (which secures arm
D to lower part of 0) , and remove D from ; slide the part
E (which holds the washer) off D ; this is in two parts.
■he ground as perfectly as they can he filed. Before
taking the saw out of the sharpening machine, give
each tooth a light wipe with the emery wheel ; this will
remove a portion of the burr and any little hardness
that may have been caused in grinding. By omitting
this trifling detail, great difficulty is often experienced,
and expense incurred, when topping with a file.
Casting Brass.— To judge when melted brass is at the
proper temperature for pouring is a matter of experience.
If the metal be too hot, porous castings will result ; it too
cold, the mould wUl not be perfectly filled. A useful guide
Is to draw the pot immediately the metal gives off bluish
white puffs of vapour, which is volatilising zinc; the
latter is a part of the alloy. The heat of the metal will
vary according as the castings are wanted large or small,
The smaller the casting, the hotter is the metal.
Lantern for Enlarging Fhotograpbs.— An ordinary
lantern for 3i-in. slides could be used for enlarging
negatives of that size or smaller, but the condenser
should always equal in diameter the diagonal of the
plate. For vignettes, where only the centre of the
-negative need be evenly illuminated, a smaller con-
denser can be used. Artificial light enlargements, espe-
cially those made with a condenser, are always inferior
to daylight enlargements, as the working up of the
negative is always made more or less visible, and there
is, besides, a certain amount of hardness and granularity
app»r<)at. The illustration shows a method of fitting up,
the negative being projected on to the bromide paper in
the same way as slides are shown. It is essential that
the negative and bromide paper be exactly parallel. To
ensure this, make a hoard A 40 in. long, and screw down
EepairlDg Fluslung Cisterns.
Lantern for Enlarging FhotographsL
Unscrew the cap (containing the washer) from the under
f)art. Remove the washer, and replace it by a new piece of
nsertion sheet rubber. Screw parts of E together and
fix lever, etc., in old position by means of pin E.
Iiacquerlng Brass.- Lacquer for brasswork is made by
dissolving best pale shellac in cold spirit of wine, and
colouring It with gamboge, saffron, or dragon's blood,
according to the tint required. The articles to be
lacquered are first thoroughly cleaned by dipping In
diluted sulphuric acid and rinsing in clean water, so that
the colour of the metal is fnUy exposed. They are then
laid on a stove (a sheet o'f iron with a gas-jet beneath
It being sufficient for small articles) and heated, but they
should not be made so hot as to colour the metal. The
lacquer is then carefully applied to the hot metal with a
small soft brush.
Bronzing Lead.— Lead can be bronzed by coating it
with spirit varnish or with lacquer, and then rubbing
over with bronze powder before the varnish dries hard.
Or the lead can be painted any desired colour and then
tjronzed. A mock bronze is produced by painting the
lead of a yellow colour and then, when dry, with a
green or brown of the desired shade, some of the latter
being wiped off to partially expose the first coat.
Sharpening Circular Saws.— When sharpening a saw
with an emery wheel, apply the wheel to the face of the
tooth whose set points from the operator. If the saw
la ground against the set, that is to say, with the set
pointing towards the operator, there will be some
tejnng, and consequently a less keen cutting edge.
iu\ '""PSe or burr caused by filing or grinding indicates
that the face or top of the tooth, as the case may be,
"as been filed or gi-ound to a keen edge ; this burr, after
a little work, disappears. If desired, the burr may be
removed by a light touch with- the topping file. The
writer prefers to top the saw teeth with a second-cut
topping file ; this is better than topping them with an
emery wheel. The faces of the .teeth cannot be filed as
accurately as they can be ground, and the tops cannot
parallel rails on which an upright board 13 ih. by 11 In.
may run. Screw a block B to fix the lantern also parallel
and central. The distances between board and slide
may be marked out in inches and fractions of an Inch.
An achromatic lens or one corrected for photography
must be used, or the enlargements will always be fuzzy,
even if the extension is corrected for the chemical rays.
Use the full aperture of the lens, which may be about
1-in. or5-in. focus. To enlarge from 2in. to 12 in. by 10 in.,
the distances with a 4-in. lens will be. Prom slide to lens
stops, 4|in. ; from lens stops to bromide paper, 28in.
Carefully centre the light after setting the distances,
and insert the negative and focus sharply on the white
board. Then cap the lens and pin up the bromide paper,
and expose. Find the best exposure by first trying a
small piece of paper. Cover the lantern lest extraneous
light should reach the bromide paper. Develop, etc., as
usual.
Printing In Gold and Silver,— The printing is done
in the ordinary way, gold size or varnish being used
instead of ink, and then, whilst the impression is still
tacky, it is brushed over with a soft brush dipped
either in silver or gold powder. The sticky letters
retain enough powder to cover them, the surplus being
brushed off. Embossed letters are done in an embossing
press furnished with dies.
Rosewood Graining on Glass Signs. — Skeleton
letters, corresponding in shape and position, etc.,
with the carved or gilded letters of the sign, are
written in gold (burnished) on a piece of glass that
has been cut to the exact size of the sign. The
glass is then grained with water-colour, Vandyke brown
and drop black ground in beer, or oak or marble may be
used, when this is dry, the background, composed of
Venetian red ground in varnish, may be added with a
pencil, leaving the skeleton letters uncovered. When
the ground is dry, wash off the graining colour from the
letters, place the skeleton on the sign, and the carved or
gilded letters of the sign will show through the skeleton
letters.
278
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
Cleaning Old Pewtor Teapot.— An old pewter teapot
may be cleaned by boilinK in strong soda-water, well
brushing to remove dirt. Mix to a thick paste in good
sweet oil 3 parts of flour emery powder and 1 part of
crocus powder ; with this rub the teapot, and polish off
with dry rottenstone.
Making an Ornamental Bracket.— The bracket illus-
trated, when constructed, should be painted white and
then enamelled white or cream. The over-all dimensions
areSft. 9 in. by about 1ft. Gin. The back is in one piece.
The outline (see Fig. 1) can be cut with a bow-saw or
coarse fret-saw ; the latter must, of course, be employed
ornamental beading tacked round, thus forming fiames
A small oil painting treated in this fashion loolss well'
Fig. a is a section on line X X (Pig. 1), the two front under
pieces being indicated by dotted lines.
Protecting Corks from Chemical Action.- It i»
doubtful whether any treatment would prevent corks
used as stoppers for bottles or flasks beiu" acted
upou by chemicals. It is usual to treat coAs with
melted paraffin wax, the corks being kept in the melted
material for several hours. Cerasin wax is a better
material, and has a higher melting-point. For this pu-
pose, steep the corks for several hours in silicate of soda
solution (i part of silicate to i parts of water), and then
in lime water for several hours. They can be waxed
afterwards, it desired.
Strjength of Brick Arch.-Here are hints on finding
the strength of a brick arch by calculation, and also by
F^^.2
,90
1
2
3 1 + ; s 1 s : 7
/
4
^^
/
V
Fi^.4
FlQ.2
An Ornamental Bracket.
for the under part and details. The ordinary fret-saw
will do, as no turning is required. The two pillars, which
can be ornamented if desired, may be purchased.
The shelves and under-pieces A (Pig. 1) ai'e screwed on
from the back. The bordering, 7J in. long to the shelves,
Is glued on. The shelves are 1 ft. 3 in. long at the back, the
front and sides measuring 7i in. The under pieces A are
12 in. deep by 7iin. wide at the top. Two holes are cut just
above the top shelf, where they do not show, to receive
brass-headed nails for hanging the bracket, and a nail
is inserted at the foot to steady it. A mirror inserted
in the back is an improvement; or photos could be
covered with glass and placed in position, and an
Strength of Brick Arch.
construction. An example in which the span is 40ft. and
the rise 10 ft. is Worked thus ;—
Span M ft. and rise 10 ft. will give,
(i s pan)' 20;
radius = rise +rise = io_-f_10 = 25ft.
One rule for thickness of brick arch a1; crown = '4
^/radius = -l x V25 = 2ft., in this case = |j =53, say
six half-brick rings. Another rule for railway viaducts is,
number of halt-brick rings = ^P^^" i°/««t = *» = 6S to
6 or ( b or (
55, say six half-brick rings. Then draw the arch, as in
Fig. 1. From experience of the usual course ot a line oi
thrust under a distributed load in a circular arch, ij
may be assumed that at the crown it will be at tne'joinj
between the fourth and fifth rings, while at the abutmem
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
279
It will be between the second and third rings, so that
its whole outline will occupy the middle third of the
depth ol arch ring. Prom these points draw lines at
right angles to the thrust, and they will intersect at
the spot where the half load may be considered to be
applied. Before the i-eclprocal diagram of those forces
can be drawn, and the amount of the load ascertained,
tiie value of the horizontal thrust must be assumed ;
thus, suppose the maximum safe load to be 10 tons per
square foot on brickwork, then the mean pressure over
the whole depth of arch will be 5 tons per square foot,
or with an arch 2ft. Sin. deep, a total pressure per foot
run, through the arch, of 11'25 tons ; this will be the
measure for line 2—3 in the stVess diagram (Fig. 3) ; then
drawing 3—1 parallel to the thrust at abutment in Fig. 2,
and a verticai line for 3—1 to intercept it, the stress
diagram is made complete, and from this the value of
1—2 is measured off. This will be the load on half of the
arch, and double it will he the total distributed load on the
arch, including weight of brickwork. It should then be
checked by working the reverse way, starting with a dis-
tributed load, and finding the line of thrust and maxi-
mum pressure, as in Fig. i (stress diagram. Fig. 5) , where
the load on the arch is translated into cubic feet of
brickwork placed above it, and the area of each 4-ft.
width taken for weight on that part.
Kaking a Head for a Waggonette. — Below are
given instructions on making a waggonette head.
Fig. 1 shows a side view and Fig. 2 a back view of the
IJ in. thick, got out to Pig. 4, from which it will be
seen how the glass course is boxed out. The fence rail
of the door may be made in the solid, lin. thick, and
boxed out at the top part, or a piece gin. thick can be
screwed on and panelled to form the moulding. It is
cubtomary to have single or double sliding glasses in the
front. If double, they should work sideways, as in a
brougham ; if single, up and down, when suitable
provision must be made in the pillars. For fixing the
head, the same method as is employed for the seats
should do, the holes through which the key-bows pass
being got in the plates on the seats if possible.
Pearl Inlaying on Metal.-" Pearl inlaying " is the
name given to a process by which pieces of pearl
are attached to the surfaces of metal and sometimes
of papier-mlch(i. Mother-of-pearl, known also as pearl
oyster and white pearl, is chiefly used for the pur-
pose. It has a clear white surface covered with
minute grooves which decompose and reflect the
light, imparting a number of beautiful tints. Aurora
shell is used; this has a wrinkled appearance and
is known also by its various colours. It is made
from the shell of the mollusc known as the sea-ear or
ear-shell. Another pearl used for the purpose comes
from the green snail shell ; this is distinguished by its
glistening shades of green, yellow, and pink, blended
together. In preparing the pearl for inlaying, the rough
shells are cut with fine saws, the pieces being then
ground on both sides on a grindstone until of the
Fig. 1
3. D —
Fig. 2
Making a Head for a Waggonette.
Fia 4
head as finished, worked out to desirable sizes. Birch
seats, as shown at A in the section. Pig. 3, can he used,
the pillars being half checked into them, and the seats
being strengthened by light steel plates across. The two
standing pillars to form the doorway at the hind
part are IJin. wide, got out to the size of the door
pillars in Fig. i, and let in to the end of the seat,
having a IJ-in. half-round plate fixed on the top of
the seat and up the pillar for about 1ft. The four
corner pillars, 2 in. square, are got out to the
shape of B (Fig. 3) ; the four pillars to form the side
lights are 2 in. thick by IJin. wide, and when in place
should measure 1ft. 9iin. between. The cant-rails
(Pig. 3) are 2iin. deep by IJln. thick, and the front and
hind roof cross-bars 2Un. wide by l|in. thick ; these are
stoutly made, to give a good fixing for the iron eyes,
by which the head is slung up when not in use. In
panelling round, J-in. birch may be used at the bottom
part D (I'lg. 3), screwed to- the pillars and seats, the top
edge going above the bottom edge of the top quarter
panels i in., and being planed off on the outside to give a
level bearing. The top panels are of mahogany or white
wood full iin. thick, well canvassed on the inside, fixed
on with panel pins, and mitred together at the corners ;
the roof boards are of ^-in. yellow pine, covered over
with moleskin or prepared canvas, being brought
well over the edges and tacked; a l-in. wood cornice
IS afterwards put on to hide the tacks and give a
Si" V- 1 *°- prevent rain running down the sides.
J.0 hide the screws fixing the bottom panels, mouldings
liin. wide and fuEiin. thick are planted on, mitred at
the corners, and cleaned off level with the top panels.
The overhang (24in,) at the back of the body is taken
up by the thickness of the door pillar, but should it be
neoessary to make the overhang wider at this point a
niiet can be screwed on inside, or the door bottom can
oe made wider than the pillar. The door pillars are
requisite thickness. With a pair of ordinary scissors
the pearl is now cut into the form of leaves, fiowers, etc.,
or when many pieces of the same size and shape are
required, a die press operated by foot-power may be
employed. Another method by which a number of
similar pieces may be obtained consists in gluing the
several thicknesses together and, holding the composite
lump in a vice, shaping with a fine saw. Piles and drills
also assist in the shaping. Soaking in water will separ-
ate the pieces, from which the glue can then be washed.
To prepare the iron or other material to receive the
pearl, it should be well cleaned and then coated with
lampblack worked up with varnish. "When this is
thoroughly dry, a coat of black japan is applied, and
when this Is tacky the pieces of pearl are pressed on with
the finger. Being left two or three hours in a hot oven,
the japan dries, and then the whole is varnished and
again stoved, this process being repeated several times.
The varnish should be applied thickly, so as to bring up
the surrounding surface to the level of the pearl ; the
varnish is scraped off the latter with a knife when the
stoving operations are finished. The pearl is then
polished with pumice-stone and water, and the varnish
is rubbed smooth with very fine and wet pumice powder.
The article now has the appearance of being inlaid, if
the film of varnish applied is sufaciently thick. It is
obvious that the whole process is not one of real inlay-
ing. The next stages of the work can be successfully
carried out only by a person possessed of an eye for the
artistic. The pieces of pearl are made to assume the
forms of flowers, etc., their stems and leaves being
sketched in with a camel-hair pencil dipped in gold-size
or in a mixture of varnis'i and turpentine. When tacky,
gold-leaf is applied, superfluous gold being rubbed off
with a piece of silk when the size or varnish is dry. The
fiowers and leaves are further touched up with paint, and
the job is finished by coating with the very best varnish.
280
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
Covering an Octagon Dome with Sheet-lead.—
It the roof is already constructed, horizontal Hues
should be drawn between the hip roils at ecjual distances
(say 6 in.) apart, measured on the surface of the roof as
shown in the elevation half of Tig. 1. The lower halt of
the figure, and the vertical dotted lines, are drawn only
as aids to finding the true position in the elevation of the
hip rolls to the centre bay, so as to be able to measure
the width of the latter at all parts. Mimllar horizontal,
and a centre perpendicular, lines are to be drawn on
the piece of lead to be iised, and t le dimensions trans-
ferred one at a time from the roof to the lead, and the
Boiuts joined together by freehand, as shown by Pig. 2.
'utside the lines thus found, draw others 4 in. and 8in.
distant for the under-cloak and over-cloaK respectively.
The sides of the bay are then bossed upright ; or, it the
contour of the roof is very round or very hollow, they
Fig. I
can be doubled down flat until placed in position, and
afterwards worked up and dressed to the rolls. If the
bays are not very large, the nailing on the top end, and
also the undei'-cloaks to the rolls, will support them.
With a roof of this shape the grip of the metal on the
rolls will also help to support it. If the bays are put on
In two pieces, or it laced rolls are used between the hip
rolls, further support Is obtained without the use of
soldered dots. About three copper tacks can he used for
each bay to hold up the bottom edge. The covering for
the top should be bossed out of a round piece of lead,
and the bottom edge should lie on the roof about 6 in. to
9 in,, to cover the nailing and make it watertight at
that point. Copper nails should be used in preference
to iron nails.
Glazing Photographic Prints.— A good polish can
be applied to P.O.P. prints in the following manner.
A thoroughly clean piece of plate glass, which may be
large enough to take one or several prints, should be
dusted over with French chalk and then well polished
with a dry soft duster. While the print is btill In the
washing water, place the polished glass under it, get the
print into position, and then lift it out of the water. When
the surplus water has run off, a piece of blotting-paperis
placed on the print, and with the help of a roller squeegee
the print is pressed into close contact with the glass.
When thoroughly dry, the print will readily peel off the
glass. Floating the print on to the glass under water
ensures the absence of air bubbles. The prints will dry
quickly in a current of hot air. The polished surface ia
not waterproof, but the print may be backed with water-
proof paper, which should be pasted on the back of the
print while it is still on the glass slab, so that the two
may dry together. Photographs with a highly glazed
surface are still in great demand among a certain
section of the public ; nevertheless, there is a growing
preference tor platinotype, bromide, and albumen prints.
Enamelling is a process only suited to subjects rec[uiring
microscopic definition. It may be mentioned that it is
now acknowledged by photographic experts generally
that too much detail and too clear definition are not
desirable in a portrait.
Various Methods of Bleaching Ivory. — Many
methods of whitening yellowed ivory have been pro-
posed from time to time, and the more reliable of them
are given below in the order of their simplicity as
near as possible. In a few cases the ivory is directed to
he exposed to sunlight ; this should be done always under
glass, which prevents the formation of cracks. (1) Im-
merse the Ivory in a very weak solution of sulphurous
acid, and rinse in clean water. (2) Boil with a paste of
Fig. 2
Setting out Lead Eays for an Ogee Roof over a
Ventilator Octagonal on Flan.
burned pumice-stone and water; expose to sunlight. (3)
Expose to the fumes of burning sulphur. The air
should have free access to the ivory. (4) Immerse for
one hour in a saturated solution of alum in water, nib
with a woollen cloth, and wrap in linen to dry. (5)
Immerse in water containing a very little chloride ol
lime, or in water impregnated with chlorine. (6) Place
in a thin paste of lime and water. Gently heat, and
when white remove, dry, and finally polish. (7) Brush
with a solution of 1 oz. of nitric acid in 10 oz. of soft
water. Einse in clean water, and expose to sunUght.
(8) Wash with soap and water, and place, whilst wet, in
sunlight, continuing the washing two or three times a
day until bleached. (9) Eub with fine pumice powder
and water, and whilst still wet expose to sunlight. If
unsuccessful, apply the pumice powder again. (10)
Support the ivory a little above the bottom of a shallow
glass vessel by strips of zinc, pour in spirit of turpentine,
and expose to the sun for three days. (11) Kemove grease
by treating with a solution of common soda, and ini-
merse the ivory in peroxide of hydrogen, to which hqiJid
ammonia has been added in the proportion of 1 pt. or the
former to 1 oz. of the latter. Gently heat for from
twenty-four to thirty-six hours, remove, and dry slowly
in the open air ; rapid drying may split the ivory. (IJ)
The Artus process is to place the ivory for two days in a
solution of 23 oz. of carbonate of soda in 90 oz. of water
contained in a glass or porcelain vessel. Well wash in
pure water, and then immerse in a solution of atoz. oi
sulphite of soda in 91 oz. of water. In five or six days
time add to the solution a mixture of 2 oz. of hydro-
chloric acid and 11 oz. of water. Cover the vessel con-
taining the ivory for from twenty -four to tweuty-sii
hours, and then remove the bleached ivory, afterwaras
well washing it in clean water.
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
281
j lens for Photographic Portraiture.— A portrait lens
I is a lens so constructed as to give Jair definition with a
\ large aperture. Rapidity of working is ttie most import-
ant quality of a portrait lens, and to obtain this certain
sacriflees have to be made. Sharp definition, which is
'enerally undesirable, is obtained only at the expense of
modelling. Roundness of field is a defect common to
porti'ait lenses, but the newer and more expensive lenses
are a vast improvement on the older and cheaper kinds.
A good rectilinear lens is better than a bad portrait
lens. A single lens, or one halt of a rapid rectilinear
lens, makes a good portrait lens, but it is slow.
Design for a Round Footstool.— Fig. 1 shows an ele-
vation and Fig. 2 a plan looking from below of a foot-
stool that is strong and has a good appearance. Any
stone or water-of-Ayr stone. Particular care must be
taken in each ^process of gritting that the marks or
scratches of its predecessor are removed, so that when
the surface is "snaked" no scratches are visible,
ihenrub with a boss or pad of woi-sted material sprinkled
with flour emery and moistened with water, and finally
with a pad of felt sprinkled with putty powder (calcined
tin). The chief factor in producing a good polish is
persistent and attentive rubbing. An imperfect polish
may be due to the slab not being properly grounded
or gritted, which is the case if, on looking closely into
the polish, small scratches are visible all over the sur-
face; it must then be almost entirely repolished. If
the polish is dull only, then the slab has not been suffi-
ciently rubbed with the felt.
Replacing Broken Roof Slates.— To replace a broken
slate, the nails that fix it to the batten must be broken
or drawn by means of the slate ripper. The old pieces of
Fig. »
Fig. 2
Making a Round Footstool.
hai'd wood about J in. thick is suitable for Its con-
struction. The quarter-round fillets form a good
method of fixing the legs to the top.
How to Make Fly-papers.— Here is a recipe for making
"y papers. Add i oz. of syrup or treacle to 1 pt. of water,
and boil with 1 dr. of white arsenic. Steep squares of
moderately thick blotting-paper in the liquid and allow
to dry. The papers are to be kept damp while In use. It
need hardly be pointed out that white arsenic is a deadly
lioison.
Polishing Black Marble,— To polish black marble, the
wrought surface is I'ubbed with fine sharp sand and water
until all the marks of the chisel or saw are removed and
*° 6™>i face is produced ; it is then grounded— that is,
luDBed with grit stones of varying degrees of fineness,
commencing with the coarse or first grit, next the second
grit, which IS a little finer, and finishing with snake
Method of Replacing Broken Roof Slate.
slate will then easily slip out. A strip of lead about Sin.
long by 14 in. wide must then be nailed to the batten
that is near the bottom of the space to be covered by the
new slate, and will be seen through the .ioint of the two
slates immediately under, and then the new slate can be
slipped upwards until it reaches the proper position,
when the end of the lead strip can be bent upwards and
will hold the slate in place. The strip of lead is fixed
to batten as at A and turned up as at B, Figs, land 2;
C, Fig. 2, is the place the new slate has to fill, and the top
end has to pass upwards under DD. Fig. 1 is a section
and Fig. 2 a plan. Slates are fixed on to the battens by
nailing with two copper or zinc nails, the former pre-
ferred. The slate immediately above the one that is
nailed covers the nail heads, as shown by Fig. 3.
Removing Cores from Antelope Horns. — To re-
move the cores from a pair of antelope's horns, place the
horns In a warm, moist place, say inside a hot manure
heap, until the connecting tissues between the horns
and the bony cores become suPRcIently decomposed to
enable the horns to be pulled oft.
282
Cyclopsedia of Mechanics,
Acetylene Gas Generator.— The various patented
apparatus for making acetylene gas from carbide of
calcium have generally had the idea of working auto-
matically, so that as the gas is consumed a fresh supply
is made, and the plant thus made continuous. The two
methods generally adopted are either that the carbide
shall be added to the water or, what is perhaps better, the
water added to the carbide. Carbide, however, has such
a great affinity for water that it will take it from any
source, and couseqviently the manufacture of the gas
often goes ou long after the gasholders are full. The
chemical action is expressed by the following formula.
CaXji + H-jO = CjHo + CaO, showing that when carbide
of calcium (CaC..) and water (H2O) are mixed the
result is acetylene (CaHa) and lime (CaO). One pound
of calcium carbide will make 5 cub. ft. of gas. The
safest method of making an acetylene gas generator is to
follow the lines of a coal-gas making plant, and to have
a gasholder large enough for the daily consumption, and
to introduce so much fresh carbide as will serve just to
fill the gasholder each da;^. The apparatus is very simple
to make. It should consist of a rather deep sheet-iron
tank, so that both the gasholder and the retort may be
inserted in it, while the former may be allowed to travel
up and down inside the upper portion of the tank, which
will thus form guides for keeping the gasholder vertical.
As carbide gives off a considerable amount of heat when
acetylene is being formed, and as this is likely to prove
dangerous it Is best to have the retort, and the pipe from
it to the gasholder, under water. Such an arrangement is
shown in the sketch. The retort A is best made of cast-
octagon or oval in shape, and is 8 in. long (size when
new), with lin. at the Hat end. A peg-mark is then
chiselled at each of the corners. Four hardwood boss-
ing pegs (Fig. 4), Itin. long or more, and made true, are
then put one at each corner. A line is then put round
and the drafts are marked, then the punch, ll)-in. long
and made of IJ-in. steel either octagonal or oval in
shape, is used for removing all superfluous stone
Next the mason takes a slad axe or chopping axe, the
blade of which is about 7* in. by 2Jin., and tiie handle
about It) in. long, and chops all round the drafts, keeping
the axe in front of him. The patent axe is then usef A
four-bladed axe is used for the roughest patent-axe work ■
a six-bladed axe is generally used for ordinary work. The
box of this axe is in two parts, and there are four bolt
holes in each for screwing it up when the blades are put
in. The blades are from 2J in. wide, and the handle
about 16 in. long. After being sharpened on a grinding
stone, they are tempered and screwed in the box.
When once tempered b.y a good smith, they will stand
three or four grindings before being tempered again. A
patent axe may be four-cut, six-cut, eight-out, or ten-cut.
It is not often above ten-cut. After single-axing the
bed of the stone, take the six-cut and axe all round.
It eight-cut work is specified, take the eight-cut axe
over the six-cut work, as this leaves it fine for the
edges or arris. Next take the chopping axe and chop
down all the knots or knobs left from the punch.
Acetylene Gas Generator,
F,G. 7 Fia 2
Granite-worldng; Tools
iron, with a flange for fastening to the sheet-ii'on tank,
and a lid to be fixed on by a cross bar fitting into two
ears or lugs on the sides of the retort. The pipe for
supplying water to the retort is brought out from the
tank, and a cock p fitted so that it can be shut oft. The
supply-pipe 1) to the gasholder B is arranged in like
manner, so that when recharging the retort the cock
can be closed and the gas In the gasholder preserved.
E shows the gas outlet pipe. The water in the gasholder
tank will absorb a large quantity of acetylene gas until
saturated. Acetylene has approximately fifteen times
the lighting value of common gas, but only two and a
half times the heating value, so that it is not advisable
to use it for cooking or heating purposes where cost is
a consideration. Acetylene gas destroys ii-on burners
by enlarging the holes, etc. On most burners, after being
in use a short time, a soot is deposited ; this should be
removed by a tooth or other brush. The usual burners
consume 4 to J cub. ft. per hour.
Granite-working Tools.— The granite-working tools
used in Cornwall and in Devonshire are as under. Fig. 1
shows a hand hammer ; its shape varies, but it should be
stiff near the eye, as there is then less risk of its splitting
when driving plugs. Its weight is usually from 4i lb. to 5 lb.
It is made of solid cast steel, the hammer being about
5 in. long and the handle about 9in.long. Its chief use
is thus explained: "When a rough block of stone conies
from the quarry, the mason gets his mould for the bed,
marks its shape on the bed, and if there is only about
lin. or IJin. of waste stone, he takes the pitching tool
(Fig. 2) and hand hammer and pitches it off. If, how-
ever, the waste stone is in greater quantity, he removes
the excess with the spall hammer (Fig. 3). The spall
hammer weighs from 181b. to l^tlb., and is used for
hammering rough stones into shape. .Next the mason
takes a chisel that is made of best silver steel, is
When a nobbling pick is used, as it still is in Cornwall,
a stone can be left a little rougher from the punch ;
then, nobbled down, it comes easier for the tooth axe, as
very few granite masons punch fine enough tor a tooth ,
axe. A nobbling pick is a pick that, being wjrn down to
71b. or 81b., is no longer used for scappling. A soappling
pick, which is of the same shape as that shown in Fig. 6,
weighs, when new, from 12 lb. to 18 lb. It is of solid cast-
steel, and is used when there is rather too much for
punching and not enough for the plug and feathers. A
nobbling pick is very useful for tooth-axed work, to which
it gives a clean appearance. Good slad axes and tooth
axes may be made from short picks, but there must
be no flaws In the pick. The handle of the nobbling
pick is about 18 in. long. After the face has been nobbled,
a tooth axe, as illustrated,, is used. For work left after
this tool, called tooth-axed face, the axe is about 4 m.
wide, and the handle about 16 in. long (see Fig. 5).
Fig. 6 shows a cross axe, the handle of which is about
11 in. long, for axing hollows or scotias in mouldings.
A patent or bush chisel, with four or five blades, is used
for axing mouldings or places inaccessible tothe Dusn
hammer. The complete chisel is about 10 in. long, a,nd
the blades are about IJin. wide, and are bolted m with
one bolt in a groove into which the blades fit. In use it
is struck lightly on the head with a hand hammer.
The muckle (large) hammer is for chasing or making a
channel when splitting up the granite. The hand-drill
tor boring holes to split the granite has a }-in. hit, ana
is made all in one piece of solid cAst-steel (see I'lg. ()...
It is held in one hand and struck with the hand
hammer, turning alternately, to a depth of 3-in. holes
about 4 in. apart. Then the feathers and plug are P"t in,
the round side of the feathers facing in the hole the
way it is to be cut ; then the plug is driven in until
the granite splits. The plug and feathers are each about
4 in. long.
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics,
283
" Rotted " Brass.— Brass in course of time undergoes
a molecular change which renders the alloy very brittle,
and this action sometimes causes cracks to open in the
metal, particulai'ly it it is subject to variations of tem-
peratiu-e when moisture is present. Brass wlj'e when
subject to tension rapidly loses its working properties.
In either o£ the above cases the alloy is known as
" rotted " brass, and may be distinguished from new-
made brass by bending it sharply to an acute angle ; if
signs of partial fracture are quite absent, the metal may
be used.
Flash-fiue Washing Copper.— Compared with the
flash-&ue copper, the wheel-flue is a primitive and
costly arrangement. It, is much less easily heated, and
therefore reciulres more coal than a, flash-flue copper,
and, moreover, it cannot be cleaned out without taking
the brickwork down to get at the flue. Herewith are
UlustrationB of a flash-flue copper. In building the
copper, set the door-frame on the second course of bricks
and proceed as indicated in the illustrations. Set the
slab plate next to the door-frame, 4^ in. wide, and bars
driver and removed first. When the stem portion of the
tap has been removed, the small part that has the worn-
out washer on it will either come away with, or will be
found loose in, the body of the cock, and can be lifted
out with the fingers. This part is frequently called the
"jumper," and to this the washer is secured by a small
screw collar, which is easily removed with a screwdriver.
When the old washer is removed and tlie new one is
slipped on, this screw collar is i-eplaced ; it merely holds
the washer on. The jumper and other parts are then
replaced in their order. Washers of red rubber are more
lasting than ordinary white or gray washers.
Constrnctlng Magazine Back far Camera.— The
bag changing box is the most satisfactory form of a
magazine back to hold twelve quarter-plates in sheaths.
This changing box consists of a box A with grooves at
the front B to take a sliding shutter after the manner
of a dark slide. The back is removable to allow of
the Insertion of the block of sheaths D, and to it is
fixed a spring E that forces the sheaths together. A
bag P is fastened to G G ; this bag is made of flexible
material, and is of the shape shown. When
the box is fixed in the slide rails of the
camera, the shutter is drawn and the front
plate is exposed. The plate is changed by
f ripping, with the thumb and forefinger, the
op of the sheath H through the bag, with-
drawing the sheath gently and pushing it in at
FIG. 2 Fid. 4
Flash-fiue Washing Copper.
Constructing Magazine Back for Camera.
121n. long by 9 in. wide will be quite large enough for a
boiler of this size, which will boil in half an hour, with
much less coal than a wheel-flue, which would take two
hours to boil. When flash-flue coppers get choked up
at the bottom of the chimney, it is only necessary to
uft out the copper, clean it out, replace it, and point
round the top with a little lime putty j the copper is
then ready for use again. A 6-in. sanitary pipe makes
a good and cheap chimney for this size of boiler
furnace. It is best to cut either a stone or a firebrick
quarrel to fit round the top of the copper, which makes a
little projection, and sets the work oft a little. The
Ulnstrations represent, respectively. Fig. 1, front eleva-
tion; Fig. 2, plan; Fig. 3, transverse section; Fig. i,
longitudinal section.
Renewing Washers in Cold-water Taps.— The first
thing to do when renewing the washers of water
fJPs IS to shut off the service pipe leading to the tap.
it the pipe is from a house cistern, then the stop-cock
must be closed. If there is no stop-cock, the hole in
the cistern must be plugged with the pointed end of
a broom-handle. It the cook to be repaired communi-
i?: jiu'eotly with the main, then the main cock in
tne cellar, it there is one, must be closed. Or the water
company s cock in the pavement. Having cut off the
™ter from the main, unscrew the upper part, the
mittttle stem, of the cock with a spanner. Sometimes a
™ah ordinary screw wiU be found in the edge of the
Shoulder part; this must be unscrewed with a screw-
the back. The next plate in the sheath is thus forced
forward. A lever X is provided to lift the front plate.
Straightening Watch Hairsprings.— The straighten-
ing of a hairspring is a difftcult and tedious job. First
unpin the spring from its stud and place it on a watch
glass upon a sheet of white paper. Then with two pairs
of fine-pointed tweezers, one pair in each hand, proceed
to re-shape the faulty coils. Begin at the centre of the
spring, and follow it round with the eye until the exact
point of the first departure from trueness can be noted.
Eectity this and proceed, always working from the
centre to the outer coils. First get the coils concentric,
true, and at equal distances from each other. Then
pi'oceed to get the spring flat, working as before
from the centre to the outside. To act properly a
hairspring must be flat, true in the " eye," and all the
coils must be free of each other and at an equal distance.
The outer coil should pass freely between the curb pins
and, when the balance is at rest, should not touch either
curb pin.
Joining Bubher to Canvas.— In joining strips of
rubber to new canvas the latter is liable to soak np
much of the rubber solution. The only satisfactory
way of preventing this is to treat the rubber with the
solution (made as on p. 52) and, when the latter is
" tacky," to press the strip on the canvas. The canvas
would be rendered harsh and stiff it it were treated with
anything to prevent the rubber solution soaking in.
284.
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
Patterns for Tuyere Bend,— The tuyfcie bend, of which
Fig. 1 is a plan, is to be made in five segments, joined to-
gether witli angle iron, each segment being made with
four plates i in. thick. To obtain the pattern, first draw a
plan of the bend, as Fig. 1, and then the semicircle ad on
the end ol the tignre as shown. As the segments ol the
beud are to be each made in four pieces, the position of
the seams may be fixed by making a!) and c d each equal
to one-fourth of the end semicircle. Draw lines at i-ight
angles to A a" from the division points b c to give the points
o' and a' ; then, using O as centre and radius to a' and a%
draw arcs of circles to show the position of the seams.
Now divide the outer curve of one segment into any
number of equal parts, as A, B, C, D, and E, and also
divide the inner curve into a similar number of equal
divisions ; then join the points on the inner
curve to the points on the outer curve, as
A a', B b^, etc. To work the pattern for the
outside section of the bend, make the
radius, and a', b', d', e' (Fig. 4) alternately as centres
draw arcs of circles at the top of the figure. Now with
a' i)' (Fig. 1) as radius, and using c' (Kg. 4) as centre,
draw arcs of circles to out those already drawn, and to
give the points b', d' (Fig. 4). With the same length
as radius, and 6', a' as centres, cut the two remaining
arcs to give the points a', e'. Join a' a' and e' e" by
straight lines, and then draw a curve to pass through the
points a', 6', c', d', and e', to complete the pattern.
b
e
Fig 2
a" c' e'
b
c
Fig. 3
Fig 1
Patterns for Tuyire Bend.
Design for a Marble Clock Case.
straight line ACE (Fig. 2) equal in length to the outer
curve of the bend. From points A and E (Fig. 2) drop
perpendicular lines, and mal\0 them equal in length
to the arc of a circle be (t'ig. 1). Draw a line from
c (Fig. 2) parallel to AE to form the rectangle
for the pattern (Fig. 3). The pattern for the inside
section of the bend is worked in the same manner,
a^c'e^ (Fig. 3) being equal in length to the inner curve
(Pig. 1) , and b c (Fig. 3) being equal to b c (Fig. 2)^ the
rectangle is formed complete by the sami- method of
working. For the side pattern, take O a'' (Fig 1) as radius
and draw an arc of a circle a ' e' (Fig. 4) . Make a' e' equal
in length to the curve a' e' (Fig. 1), and then mark off on
the curve the divisions a^, b', etc. (Fig. 4), transferring
these from Fig. 1. Through o c- (Fig. 4) draw the line
c'c' on the pattern, and make the length from c^ to c'
equal to be (Fig. 2), or equal to one-foui'th of the circum-
ference of the end of the bend. UBing this length as
Design for a Marble Clock Case.— The accompanying
illustrations show a design for a clock cape. . The upper
is a front elevation showing the clock itself m position,
whilst the lower is a section. If the design is not wide
enough, an additional pilaster on each side may oe
added. The ornament in spandrils and tympanum
should be incised and gilt.
Hollowing Iron Cones. — Sheet metal cones are
usually hollowed before the seams are formed, by worK-
ing along the curves forming the top and bottom pai ts
of the pattern, and then in to the centre, with a block
hammer used on a beech block with holes cut in the ena
of a depth suitable to the curve of the work. Ir tne
cones are to be of galvanised iron, the zinc sc^es woma
continually peel off the iron during the hollowing
operation, so it would be advisable first -to make tne
cones of black iron, and then to have them galvanised.
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
285
Ring WelBhts on Safety Valve.— The recognised^
metliod of deciding on the number of ring weights re-
nuired to haiauoe a certain pressure in a dead-weight
safety Talve, the latter being fixed, is to put all the rings
on and, when the water is in the apparatus, to lift one or
more rings off until the valTe just leaks ; then put back
aeain the ring last remOTed to stop the leak. Some
tieople, after putting a ring back to stop the leaking,
nut one more on, to make sure. The rings generally
represent a pressure of about -lib. to 61b. per square
Inch but this depends on the weight of the ring and the
area of the aperture it closes. A 1-lb. ring bearing on an
aperture of 1 aq. In. area would represent 1 lb. per square
inch, and the pressure is increased by making the ring
heavier and the hole smaller.
Construction of Small Panelled Doors,— Joiners
and cabinet makers have different methods of con-
structing small doors. Eig. 1 shows part of the ele-
vation of a plain one-panel door, as made usually
by the joiner. Fig. 2 shows the ends with the stUes
in section, the dotted lines indicating, as in Fig. 1,
the positions of the panel and tenons. It will be seen
that the panel is in grooves worked on the inner edge
Fig 3
Fig 5
'U
having rinsed the skin, dip it for a minute in the warm
gruel. Then wash it clean with cold water, and dry it.
"When about half dry, stretch again on a board, and rub
with pumice. Small skins, when freahly ilayed, can be
cured bjr being soaked for a few days in a solution of
tan. This can be made by boiling oak bark or oak galls
in rain or distilled water, or by dissolving tannin in soft
water. Fill a pot with oak bark, and boil it in twice as
much water for three hours. Use the solution cold, and
take out and rub the skin as often as possible during
the process.
Circular Saw Bench.— The accompanying illustra-
tions show a bench with a small circular saw driven by
means of two toothed wheels tuimed with a hook-handle.
In addition to the toothed wheels, a shaft carrying a fly-
wheel F (Fig. 1) is shown. The momentum of this wheel
will greatly assist in the turnin g of the handle. As the saw
cannot be driven at a very high speed, the feed speed must
necessarily be slow ; a saw up to 8 in. in diameter will be
quite large enough for such limited power. A higher speed
could be obtained by having a greater number of toothed
Construction of Small Panelled Doors.
Circular Saw Bench.
of each piece of wood forming the frame, and that, once
together, the panel is fixed so that it cannot be removed.
Figs. 3 and 4 show the cabinet-maker's method j movable
panels are used, the inner and back angle of each piece
of wood forming the door being rebated. The panel can
then be removed by unfixing the beads shown in Fig. i.
It is obvious from this that the advantage of this con-
struction is considerable in French-polished articles. In
cases where a raised or boleetion moulding is used, as in
Pig. 5, no rebate is necessary. The mortises and tenons
of cabinet work are rarely cut through, as less exposure
to damp renders this less needful, and a better appear-
ance is secured when the ends of tenons are not visible.
Curing a Rabbit Skin.— To cure a rabbit skin, it
must be fresh flayed and cleaned of all fat and par-
ticles of flesh by scraping it with a blunt knife whilst
stretched, fur mwartfs, upon a rounded surface such
ag a baluster rail. Then steep it ia a, solution made
by mixing thoroughly together when dry i parts alum
and 1 part common salt, and then adding as much
warm water as will dissolve the mixture. The quantity
depends on the size of the skin. To ascertain when it
has soaked long enough, squeeze the liquid from it.
Then double it, with the skin side outwards, so as
to make a crease, and when the line shows white the
soaking can be stopped. The soaking usually takes about
forty-eight hours. Make a paste of flour and water, and.
wheels and arranging them diffeiently, but this would
mean a loss of power. In Fi.3. 2, which is a ^lan of the
frame of the bench, wheels, etc., in position, T is the large
toothed wheel, 2 ft. 6 in. in diameter, geared m a pinion P,
2 in. diameter, which is keyed to the saw spindle S. This
pinion gears in another pinion, or small toothed wheel
F 4iin in diameter, on the flywheel shaft H. On the
end of this shaft the flywheel r, 1ft. Sin. diameter, is
keyed. This wheel should have a fairly heavy rim. W is
the saw, and B the bearings in which the saw spindle and
wheel shafts run. The hook hanitle K is secured to the
end of the shaft that carries the large toothed wheel.
Fig. 1 is a side elevation of the bench complete ; B is the
bench which may be about 2ft. 6in. from floor to table,
and T is the large toothed wheel. The speed of pinion P
will be fifteen times the speed of the large toothed wheel T.
Re-pointing the Pivots of a Drum Clock Balance.
—In sharpening the pivots of a drum clock balance,
hold the axis of the balance by one end in a pin-
vice and sharpen the centre of the other end on an
oilstone, at the same time revolving the pin-vice rapidly
in the fingers with a twirling motion. This will keep
them circular and prevent flats being formed. Watch
and clock drills are also held in a pin-vice for sharpening
and carefully rubbed on the oilstone. An inspection of
a new drill will show the correct shape and angle for the
cutting edges.
286
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
Felt Hat Rovlver.— The tjest material for cleaning
telt hats of any colour is re-distilled henzine. After well
rubbing this into the hat, give it a good brushing to
remove the dirt ; grease-spots should be well rubbed
with a rag dipiied in the liquid. For grey hats, mix a
little light magnesia with the liquid and brush out the
powder after drying.
Applying Asbestos Paste. — In applying asbestos
paste to a boiler shell, hot- water pipes, steam pipes, etc.,
first nib some of the paste on the surfaces with the
hand or with a piece of cloth or canvas, leaving it quite
rough eo as to form a key for that which follows. The
first coat is rubbed on to ensure the whole having actual
contact and holding securely to the boiler. "When the
paste is dry, with a trowel apply the remainder in
about 4-in. layers, leaving the surfaces rough (except the
final one), and letting each coat dry before applying the
next. The surfaces treated should be quite hot whilst
the paste is being applied with the trowel; the heat
Bliglitly opens the pores in the metal, and this prevents
cracking or shelling afterwards.
Machine for Beading Brass Tubes. — A bending
machine for brass tubes consists of three small rollers,
which work simultaneously and are adjustable ; they are
in the form of a triangle, as shown in the illustration.
The tulje is passed between the rollers and is bent round
in a circular manner, and according to the adjustment
of the rollers so is the radius of the circle altered. Each
separate size of tube requires separate rollers. Very
thin tubes will require first to be loaded with sand
before passing them through the machine, otherwise
the walls of the tubes will buckle and so spoil the work.
Machine for Bending Brass Tubes.
The same machine framing will take any number of
diUerent sized rollers.
The Manufacture of Kid Gloves.— Ladies' kid gloves
are made from skins taken from a flve-weeks-old kid,
whilbt gentlemen's gloves are made from a stronger
skin coming from a two-months-old animal. Among
the glove leathers in general use are (1) glace kid, a
polished material coloured on the grain or hair side;
(2) undressed kid, coloured on the flesh side; aud (3)
castor kid, coloured on either or both sides after the
grain has been scraped off. From twenty to twenty-four
complete pairs of gloves can be made up from one
dozen skins, the actual number depending, of course, on
the size of the gloves; ladies' gloves range in size from
5.J in. to 7i in. round the palm of the hand, gentle-
men's from 65 in. to lOin., and girls' from iJin. to 64 in.
In making gloves, the first operation is the shaving of
the dressed skin, which is damped and laid out flat, grain
side down, ou a marble slab whilst a knife or shaver is
made to thin down the skin to the proper thickness; to
prevent the knife slipping flour is sprinkled on the
skin. After being stretched, the skins are cut by hand
into glove parts of the desired size, and then are riddelled
—that is, lines showing the shape of the fingers are made
with a stamp, eaclw size having a different stamp.
The thumb pieces are marked in a similar manner. The
epaces between the stamped lines are about double the
width of the fingers, so that when the leather is stretched
over the tough cardboard pattern, the lines may be
drawn more closely together. The glove patterns are
from 10,1 in. to 114 in. long, and from tj in. to 6J in. wide.
A separate pattern for the thumb and fourchettes is re-
quired (the fourchettes are the pieces between the
flngern). A pattern is placed on a table, the marked-
out end of the inece or leather is laid on the finger
end of the pattern, and the leather is stretched by hand
until the spaces between the lines are of the same width
as the fingers on the pattern beneath ; then the thumb
and fourchette pieces are done in the same way. After
a close inspertion the glove pa.rts are taken to the
cutting presses, in which are movable steel dies encircled
by sharp steel knives ; six thicknesses of glove leather
are placed over the die, then a strip of paper, and then a
piece of rubber. By pulling a lever, ah Iron plate U
forced down on the rubber disc, the leather being forced
over the knife edges and out as required. The thumb
pieces are cut in a similar manner, and then the backs
of the gloves are embroidei'ed by machine. Fourchettes
of suitable size are selected and cut, two at a time to
the desired shape by a die. In sewing together the
gloves with an over-seam stitch, the piece between the
thumb is sewed on first, then the thumb, and then the
fourchettes, and so on. A narrow strip of binding is
sewn on the inside to keep the leather from tearins
where the hooks or buttons are placed. Sharp-pointed
pincers are used to bring the parts together for
sewing, and the glove is lield in position by means ot
two circular pressers which revolve when the sewing
machine is at work and cause the glove to move for-
ward during the sewing operation. The sewn gloves
are placed in a damp cloth for about ten minutes and
then flattened and pulled into shape by hand rubbing on
a smooth table ; sometimes a wooden roller is used to
flatten them. Black gloves are given a lustre by being
rubbed by hand with a mixture of neat's-foot oil, soap
vaseline, and grease. To polish glace kid gloves, they
are distended on a piece of cardboard and pressed against
a plush-covered wheel about 12in. in diameter making 350
revolutions per minute. The gloves are then ready for
the buttons, clasps, etc.
Making a French ■Whlp-top.- To make the simple
wooden top here illustrated, all that is required is a
Fig. 3
fiG. 4 Fig 5
A French Whip-top.
piece of round wood about 2iln. long and about lUn.
in diameter ; a piece of a stout broomstick will answer
the purpose very well. It should be cut or turned to
one of the shapes shown by Figs. 1, 2, and 3, and a
small brass-headed nail driven in at the bottom as
shown at A in Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4. The top may be
roughly ornamented with bands of colour as shown in
Fig. 5. This gives a pretty effect whilst the top is
spinning. The body of the top is usually stained black.
'The lash of the whips used to spin these tops is generally
a strip of dried eel-skin, but a piece of tape tied to a
stick answers the same purpose.
Cleaning Animal's Skull.— The simplest method of
skeletonising an animal's skull is to boil the skuU until
all the flesh can be easily removed with pieces of bluut
wood ; but steaming the skull would be better if it could
be arranged ; these methods are liable to make the bones
very greasy-looking. Another method, though very dis-
gusting, is to macerate the skull in cold water, ana,
when the flesh hasputrefled, to scrape and scrub the
bones until clean. The whole can then be whitened By
soaking for about six hours in Igal. of water to wnicn
has been added 2 oz. or 3 02. of chloride of hme. Ohe skull
may be soaked in water untU the flesh and fibres are
soft enough to be scraped off. Special bone-sprai e i s are
used by professional osteologists, but for a single speci-
men a penknife would suffice. Olhe dirt can be removed
by well scrubbing with plenty of soap and soda, com-
bined with the scraping; and if, after soaking in the
chloride of lime solution, the result is not BatiBfaoiory,
wet the skull every morning and evening, a^d ^^^ave ii
exposed to the sun and wind until bleached. Two things
should be remembered-every particle of flesh, skin, ew.,
must be removed; also, the scraping, having been com-
menced, must be finished, or the skull placed baoK in
the water.
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
287
Design for a Small Tracery Window.— Figs. 1 and 2
are the plan and elevation ol a small two-liglit window
in tlie Decorated style (1300-1400), with a tracery head.
The size of the sill is 12 in. hy 9in. ; it is weathered and
etooled, and also holed to receive two saddle bars.
These are of l-in. wrought-iron. finished with tretoiled
heads as shown, and there are also to each window three
Double Sashes for Deadening Noise.— A window
sash frame with a double pair of sashes is employed often
FiG.
FiG- I
Design for Small Tracery Window.
■horizontal bars, all of uniform size. The jamb stones,
averaged, are 12 in. by 9 in., splayed and sunk as on plan,
and the splayed muUion dividing the two lights is 9 in.
oy 4^in. The radiating arch stones are of the same
section as the jamb stones, but are rebated to receive
the tracery head. A 3-in. moulded hood with returned
■ends IS turned over the arch as shown. Fig. 3 shows the
method of obtaining the centres and centre lines for the
'■''acery head by means of an equilateral triangle ; A A A A
■snow the centres for the tracery, and B the centres lor
the window arch.
Fig. 2
Double Sashes for Deadening Noise.
for deadening outside noise. The accompanying illus-
trations show such sashes and frames. Fig. 1 being a
vertical section and Fig. 2 part of a horizontal section.
288
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
Blackening Nickel. -The best methods of blackening
nickel are the first and third gireu on p. 65 tor blacken-
ing brass. Nickel may be blackened by placing for a
sufficiently long time in sulphuretted hydrogen gas.
Beading Spindle for Lathe. — The accompanying
Illustrations show the construction of a beading spindle
the fence. Pig. 5 shows the top part of the spindle ; anj
Fig. 6 one form of solid cutter for beading. The size can
be varied to suit circumstances.
Wax Filling for Engraved Plates.. The toUowine
are methods of filling engraved plates. (1) Fill up the
cuts with finely powdered sealing-wax of the colour
for .a woodworking lathe. The table standard with
bearings can be one casting as shown, and made to
fix to the lathe bed in the same manner as the rest or
headstock. A hardwood disc must be turned and secured
to the mandril of the fixed headstock as shown at A (Fig.
1). The beading spindle must be provided with a grooved
pulley, into which an indiarubber ring must be fixed
and pressed firmly to the disc A as indicated. Fig. 2 is a
side view of the table standard as fixed to the lathe bed.
Fig. 3 is a nart plan of the table and fence. Fig. i shows
the top with movable disc, and slotted for set-screws for
required, press down, and see that but little of the wax
is left on the surface of the plate. Warm the plate
gradually until the wax is melted, and put aside to oooi.
Then finish with a Tam-o'-Shanter stone to remove any
wax left on the surface of the plate, and polish with ou
and flannel. (2) Some engravers prefer grinding tne
sealing-wax in gold size, and, when the plate is nuea in
and set, polishing with alcohol. (3) Dissolve sufficient
black or red seiUing-wax in alcohol to make a tnics
paste, and fill the engraved lines. When the alconoi
18 evaporated the wax becomes hard
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
289
Preparing Watcb Plates for Gilding.— Watch plates
are prepared for gilding in the following manner.
Alter being ruhhed smooth with water-of-Ayr stone,
the plates are immersed for a second or two in a mixture
of 4 pajrts of hydrochloric acid and 5 parts of nitric acid,
looth at full strength. They are then thoroughly rinsed
and scratch-brushed, after which they are ready for
gilding. Sometimes the plates are heated before dipping
them in the gold solution i this softens them, but enables
a good colour to be got with a very little gold.
Trestles for Tea-tables.— Figs. 1, 2, and 3 show a
tea-table trestle with four legs, and Pigs. 4, 5, and 6 one
with three legs. Pig. 7 shows the joint most suitable
for connecting the legs to the top beam. These joints
or intonaco, Is compOB.ed of finer materials than are
contained in the first coat ; the second coat is floated
on in two coats, and is properly finished tUl the sui'f ace
Is true and of an even grain. If the picture is a large
one, only as much of the wall's surface as can be covered
in a day's work is prepared. While the surface of the
wall is still wet, but firm, a cartoon or tracing of the
proposed design is laid over the prepared poiilon of the
wall, and the lines of the picture are lightly indented
on the wall with a blunt bone or hardwood point. When
the intonaco is firm enough to bear the pressure of the
finger, the colour is put on. To hide the joinings between
each day's work, the painting is as far as possible sus-
pended at the folds of drapery or in the shadows. The
painting must be done q.uickly, and mistakes can only
Trestles for Tea-tables.
may be fastened with nails, but a stronger method is to
glue and screw them together. The leading dimensions
and sizes suitable for ordinary purposes are shown j
these, of course, may be varied to suit circumstances.
Fresco Painting. — There are two kinds of fresco
painting- that done when the plaster is wet is caUed
fresco buono ; that done after the plaster is dry is called
fresco secco. Dampness in the basis Is fatal to fresco
work. Freestone is a bad basis, and rubble is worse.
Brick is perhaps the best, and the brickwork must be
perfectly dry before the first coat of plaster is applied.
The first coat consists of 2 parts of clean sharp sand,
carefully washed to free it from aU impurities, mixed
with 1 part of best old lime. To prepare the lime, mix it
in a trough to the consistency of cream ; then- pass it
through hair sieves into jars, where it must be allowed
to settle, the water being poured off. The second coat,
19
be rectified by cutting out the defective piece and
applying fresh plaster. The colours for fresco work are
ground and mixed with water, but only those colours
capable of withstanding the action of lime must be
used. The following are a few of the suitable colours :
Vermilion, Venetian red, Indian red, burnt sienna,
aureolin, yellow ochre, terre verte, French blue, ultra-
marine, cobalt, burnt umber, Verona brown, Vandyke
brown,' Caledonian brown, raw umber, raw sienna, ivory
black, lampblack. It must not be forgotten that the
colours dry much lighter than they appear when freshly
laid on the wall ; the art of mixing the colours, there-
fore, so as to obtain the desired tone in the finished
work can be acquired only by experience. In executing
fresco secco the wall is damped before the colours
are laid on. It is, of course, a less tedious and less
troublesome process than fresco buono, but the result
is considered to be inferior.
290
Cyctopsedia of Mechanics.
Making AiOgwood Extract.— Extract of logwood is
made by grinding logwood under corrugated rolls to
reduce it to a coarse powder ; the latter is then boiled
with water under pressure to extract the whole of the
soluble ingredients. The solution thus made is then
evaporated to dryness in shallow or vacuum steam-
heated pans, and forms the dry extract. Logwood chips
instead of the extract may be used for many purposes.
Hood for Invalid Carriage— The method of fixing a
hood on an invalid carriage will depend on the shape
6,nd size of the body of the latter. Fig. 1 shows a
four-stick head made on a cod Iron A (Figs. 1 and 3),
welded into a frame B (Pig. 1) made of 1-in. by i-in.
flat iron. This frame goes round the body, being
shouldered down at the front end to slip into eyes made
as Pig. i. These eyes are fixed one on each side of the
body. The frame is secured at the back by two thumb-
screws or bolts, which are tapped into small boss plates
let into the body. At a convenient point, a prop, as Pigs.
5 and 6, is welded to the frame to take the head joint
(Pig. 1), small props, as Fig. 7, being fixed on at D and E
(Fig. 1) . The positions of these props are obtained by fold-
ing down the head, so that when the joints are on they
line with one another. The hoop-sticks P (Pigs. 1 and 2)
are secured to the cod iron by slat irons (see Figs. 1 and
3), being fixed from the inside by three screws in each
shoulders of the spokes, and fix a piece of panel-board on
the bench. With the length from the centre of the etock
to the shoulder uf the s.iokc as radius, describe on the
panel-board an arc large enough to reach to three
spokes of the wheel, and dress out, leaving the line fuU
on in the centre of the pattern, so that when the pattern
rests on the shoulders of the spokes it is slightly off the
end ones. Grauge the pattern round to the required
depth, and having got the felloes, face them up true and
straight on the face, get out the inner sweep or belly to
the pattern, and square ; then chop them round the back
Sin. wider than the width of the spoke and Jin. less in
depth. The felloes are now ready for cutting in. To do
this, turn the wheel face downwards on a tub, and cut
the felloes to such a length that each joint comes central
between each pair of spokes; thus each felloe should
reach to the centre of three spokes. The joint, lyhen
cut, should be slightly open at the top ; this can be
obtained by trying with a small bevel in the centre of
the felloe, marking alongside of the blade, reversing the
bevel, and altering until the desired joint is obtained,
cutting each end ofE to this bevel in the depth and
square across in the width. When all the felloes are
done, they should rest against the shoulders of the
spokes and just meet at the joints ; mark each side of
the tongues on the face of the felloes, number them in
rotation, and take them off to bore the tongue and
Fig. 3 mst i pg~[ '"te
Fig. 4 •--«
Hood for Invalid Carriage.
Fig. 5
Fig. 6
hoop-stick. In Fig. 3 the slat Irons are shown straight,
to give a clearer view of their fixing ; but when the head
is being fitted, they must be bent sideways a little
to bring the hoop-sticks level on the outside. When
fitted up, a brass washer should be placed between the
irons to ensure clear working. The height given is only
approximate: it is the rule to allow 3ft. 6 in. clear from
the seat to the top of the lining, but in a head of this
description circumstances must be the guide. The hoop-
sticks may be of hickory or ash, i- in. thick, and should
be purchased ready bent. Enamelled head leather is best
for the covering, tliough stout American cloth or water-
proof sheeting might be used. When the head is covered,
a valance plate of iron or of border leather should be
fixed on the face of the front hoop-stick to prevent rain
running inside, and to hide the tacks used in securing
the cloth and leather.
Putting New Felloes on Old Wheels.— Generally
speaking, wheels that require new felloes all round are
worn a little at the shoulders of the spokes. Having
split oft the old felloes and knocked out the wedges
from the tongues of the spokes, carefully examine the
tongues. If they are at all worn through working in
the old felloe, and the shoulders are worn down, cut
all the shoulders down to make them alike. To do this,
rest one end of a strip of pine about i in. wide on the
face of the stock close to a spoke, pass a bradawl through
at such a point as is required for the shoulder, and mark
all the spokes by this. When cutting down, leave the
mark on the front of the spoke, which fits better on the
felloe when finished. See that all the tongues are of the
came size by trying them with a fitter. The fitter is
usually made by boring, with a bit the size of the tongue,
two holes about 1 in. apart and cutting out the centres ;
this will give an elongated hole the diameter of the
tongue. It a pattern has to be made for the felloes,
measure the distance from the centre of the stock to the
dowel holes. If the wheels are dished considerably, it
is necessary to bore the holes for the tongues slightly
forward to bring the sole of the felloes square with the
ground line; but in a good ordinary wheel, bore the
holes square through, so that the felloe will project
beyond the front ot the t.poke k in. The dowel holes are
bored rather towards the top in depth and central in
width ; care must be taken to bore them parallel with
the face of the felloes and horizontal in length. The
felloes are now rounded up. Drive them on, a little at a
time (of course, first putting a dowel in each right-hand
end when the face is to the right ot the worker's Mm),
striking the far side ol the tongue from the joint. When
they are nearly down on the shoulders, put a wedge m
each tongue, noting that the wedges are. a trifle narrower
than the tongue hole. Go all round the rim, gradually
working the felloes down into place by giving a wedge a
blow, and then a felloe, and so on. When all the feUoea
are down and of a good fit (if not correct at flrst, the
spokesshouldbekerl'ed in withapadsawattheshoulaers),
face the wheel rouml on the front, gauge oft fulljin. tor
the round of the fat-e, then the width of the tyre, round-
ing up the front and back to these lines j clean off the
joints in the belly of the felloes, and round over to meet
the rounding on the lace. Clean ofli any unequal places
on the sole, file up and nandpaper, and the woij is reaw
for painting. If the ends of the spokes come flush wioh
the back ot the felloe, they should be slightly gouged
out before the tyring is done.
Preservatives for Paste.— Certain substances are
added to flour pastes, liiaiid glues, etc., to prevent tnem
turning mouldy. Alum in a moderately good preservative
for paste, though not itbaolutely protective ; the paste
should be kept in a dry place in a closed bottle. Avery
small quantity ot oil of cloves, carbolic acid, or
corrosive sublimate will iirevent mould forming; use
only a mere trace of these, as they are poisonous.
Cyclopsedia of Mechanics.
291
A Letter-box In Sbeet Metal.— The letter-box sbown
by Fig. 1 is made of tin-plate of the thickness known
as D A X X. Set out the pattern {Fig. 2), punch holes
along the edges tor the screws that fasten it to the
door, and cut out the piece A either to the size given
or larger if preferred. On a hatchet stake, set off
at rignt angles the four ilanges represented by the
outer dotted lines. Now bend backwards oyer the
same tool the two sides and the bottom along the
inner dotted Unes. The top is bent in the same
manner, but lastly, owing to the taper. Bee that
the corners mitre correctly, and then solder them
strongly from the inside. The door (Fig. 3) should first
be cut about 1 in. wider and 1 in. longer than the rect-
angle A (Fig. 2). It is then notched for the hinges, and
at the corners, and an oval piece, or a diamond if pre-
ferred, is cut from the centre. Wire the door to the
dotted lines, and bend two straps of tin (out to fit the
notches) over the exposed wire at the notches. These,
when sunk over a sharp-edged tool or in a crease-iron,
will form the hinges. To ascertain where to cut the key-
hole, hold the look at the back of the door at iin. from
the edge, and press well to the door. The look pin over
which the key fits wUl thus mark the position of the key-
hole, which should be punched larger than the barrel of
the key and finished with a small file. The lock can now
be soldered in position. A rectangular piece of glass
smaller than A (Fig. 2), yet larger than the oval in Pig. 3,
impoi-tant operation. The granite should be of good
quality, hard and durable, with good weather-resisting
properties, and should be broken to pass a li-in. ring.
The pieces should be angular ; anything of a flat, chippy
nature should be avoided, for it cannot be rolled into a
compact mass, and the trafllc very soon wears it away to
sludge. Give the road a uniformly thick (2 in. to 3 in.)
coating of this material; then run the roller on the
sides, and work to the centre. The next material re-
quired is the binding, which must be chosen carefully.
One of the best binders is a fine sandy gravel, and one of
this to six of material is a fair proportion. This having
been spread on the road, water It freely, brush well in
with stiff brooms, and fill up aU slack places as the
rolling proceeds. When the surface has begun to assume
a mosaic-like appearance, and the binding begins to
accumulate on the top, it should be swept into the
channels. Fine granite chippings are rolled in at this
stage, for the purpose of iilling up all intei-stices between
the larger stones, but it J-iu. angular stones were used
for this purpose the road would be much more free from
sludge, lor on any road on which the trafttc is heavy
the thin chipping must very soon be ground to dust.
Making Roll-shutter for Roll-top Desk,— The accom-
panying illustration shows a good form of section for the
Fiq. 3
A Letter-box in Sheet Metal.
is required. Fix this to the back of the door with four
small tabs, which must have been soldered on previously.
Lay the door over the hole in the letter-box, adjust so
that the lock will answer satisfactorily, and then solder
the hinges to the box. For a bead frame for the box
door, cut two strips of tin i in. longer than the length of
the door, and two i in. longer than the width, each to be
I in. wide ; sink them half round in a crease-iron, mitre
the corners, and solder them to the letter-box around
the door, so that it wUl drop in freely. Scrape and file
off superfluous solder, clean well with emery cloth, and
then paint and varnish the box to suit the door on which
it is to be fitted.
Making a Macadam Road.— One of the essential re-
quirements of a good road is a solid foundation, and
without this it is impossible to keep the contour and
the surface In good condition. After the excavating
has been done, good hard stone pitching should be packed
edgewise from 9 in. at the channel to 15 in. in the centre
of the road ; see that these stones are packed close. Gro
over the pitching with nobbling hammers, knocking off
any prominent pieces of the stone. Put on the top a
quantity of small scappling or hard bricks, and break
these up, so as to fill aU open spaces. A coating of good
chnklng cinder, rolled in with a heavy horse roller, will
make a good compact foundation for the macadam.
Iron ore slag or copper slag, if available in the district,
will serve admirably for the next coat. Spread a coating
of either of these materials, or of granite to pass a 3-in.
ring, from 3 in. thick at channels to 6 in. in the centre of
the road, and then traverse the work with a steam roller.
Lne road will now be ready for top capping, a moat
Section of Roll-shutter
for Roll-top Desk.
roll-shutter of an American roll-top desk. Bach strip of
wood is moulded to the section and firmly glued to a
backing of stout canvas. Before gluing, the edges which
are in contact should be rubbed with linseed oil to
prevent any glue adhering i do not oil the part that is
to "be glued. The sections shown are actual size.
Sizing and Varnishing a Papered Room.— Below
are instructions on revarnishing the walls and celling
of a room covered with sanitary paper. Well wash the
ceiling and walls with warm water and ox-galls— 4 pt. of
the latter in I gal. of water. Then give a covering of
glue-size (ilb. of best Scotch glue in 1 gal. of water),
applied with a sponge. The size should be allowed to
dry for twenty-four hours before applying the varnish.
Do not use crystal or paper varnish. For the walls, get
i gal. of good kauri varnish, 1 qt. of turps, and 1 qt. of
raw oil. For the ceiling, use turpentine varnish.
Making Zinc Yellow.— Zinc yellow Is a chromate of
zinc mixed with oxide of zinc. To make zine yeUow,
boil separate saturated solutions (I) of 29 oz. of sulphate
of zinc in water and (2) 20 oz. of chromate (not bichro-
mate) of potash in water ; mix, boil for one hour, collect
the precipitate on a filter cloth, wash several times with
water and dry at a low heat. Another method is to
dissolve 12ioz. of bichromate of potash in hot water;
mix 6 oz. of zinc oxide to a cream with water, and stir it
into the bichromate solution. Allow to stand for twenty-
four hours, boil for one hour, then filter, wash, and dry.
292
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics,
Varieties of Marbles.— The table of the better-known
marbles giyen below has been compiled chiefly from
Lee's "Marble and Marble Worlcers," though other
authorities have been consulted as well. Mai-bles may-
be classified in different ways, but perhaps the most
convenient method Is to divide them Into seven colour,
groups — black, brown, green, grey, red, white, and
yellow. A sharp division line between these colours
cannot be drawn in all cases, but the classification holds
good for most practical purposes.
PredomiTiant
mience
Name,
Colour,
Obtained,
Ashburton
Grey
England
Bardllla
Grey
Italy
Belgian Black
Black
Belgium
Belgian Fossil
Grey
Belgium
Belgian Grand Antique
Grey
Belgium
Belgian T
Grey
Belgium
Bianco e Nero Antico
Grey
Algeria
Bird's Eye
Brown
England
Italy
Black and Gold
TeUow
Black Vein
Grey
Prance
Blue Beige
Grey
Belgium
Breccia Sanguina
Eed
Algeria
Br^chePortor
Yellow
France
Br^che St. Antonin ...
Tellow
Prance
Brocatelle Jaune
Yellow
France
Brocatelle Violette ...
Eed
France
Comblanchien
Brown
France
Connemara
Green
Ireland
CoqulUe
Grey
Belgium
Derby Black
Black
England
Derby Fossil
Grey
England
D'H^ohette
Grey
France
Dog Tooth
Brown
England
Dove
Grey
Italy
Drayeot
Eed
England
Duporth
Green
England
Emperor's Ked
Eed
Portugal
Florence
Frenoli Black
Grey
Belgium
Black
France
Genoa Green
Green
Italy
Giallo Antico
Yellow
Tunis
GiaUo Avorio
Yellow
Algeria
Giallo Canarino
Yellow
Algeria
Grammont
Yellow
Prance
Grand Antique
Grey
France
Griotte d'ltalie
Eed
France
GrisdeBarse
Grey
Belgium
Historique
Grey
Belgium
Iberian Agate
Irish Blacl:
Eed
Portugal
Black
Ireland
Irish Fossil
Grey
Eed
Ireland
Isabelle
France
Istrian
Brown
Austria
Jaune Lamartine
Yellow
France
Jaune Oriental
Brown
Belgium
Jaune Oriental
Grey
Belgium
Jaune St. Beaume
Yellow
France
Jaune Victoria
YeUow
Germany
Joinville
Brown
France
Kilkenny
Grey
Ireland
Languedoo
Eed
France
Lllas
Grey
Belgium
Luma Chelle
Grey
France
Lunel
Brown
France
Lunel Fleuri
Brown
France
Malplaquet
Eed
Belgium
Maddux
Yellow
Prance
Napoleon
Brown
France
New England
Brown
England
Onyx
■White
Algeria
Pavonazetto
Yellow
Italy
Pavonazzo
Yellow
Italy
Penraon
Brown
England
Pettit Tor
Grey
England
Purbeck
Green
England
Ked Ogwell
Eosa Carnagione
Eed
England
Eed
Algeria
Hose
Eed
France
Hose Bnjugeraie
Eed
Prance
EossodiLevanto
Eed
Italy
Eouge Acajou
Eed
France
Eouge Antique
Eed
France
Eouge duVar
Yellow
France
Rouge Etmsque
Eed
Algeria
Eouge Fleuri
Eed
Belgium
Eouge Griotte
Eed
Belgium
Eouue Eose
Eed
Belgium
RetnarTzs,
Dark veins on grey ground.
J Darkly veined ; hard, brittle, often contains holes, and is
( easily broken whilst working.
Very hard ; is the best black marble.
White spots and markings on grey ground.
Large white veins on black ground.
Brownish red patches on grey ground.
White veins on black ground.
Brownish grey with spots of lighter colour.
Large yellow and white veins on black ground.
Large white veins on black ground.
Sound ; white veins on grey and black.
Light red patches on deep red ground.
Greyish black; finely pencilled with brown and yellow.
( tJnsound, but polishes well ; red and brown patches on yellow
( ground.
Brown and white veins on yellow ground.
Grey and yellow patches over purplish red.
Light brown; good texture.
( Grey and black patches and veins on green ground ; contains
( holes.
White spots and veins on black ground.
Deep black, close texture, and takes good polish.
White fossils on grey ground ; hard, and takes good polish.
White veins on greyish black ground.
Keddish brown fossil marble,
f Lavender or dark grey slightly veined j resembles Sicilian, but
( is harder.
Hard, but does not polish well ; red conglomerate.
( Soft and easily worked, but does not take good polish ; mottled
\ green.
Bright red and takes good polish.
Dull grey fossil marble.
Of poor quality ; spotted.
Dark patches, white and grey veins over dark green,
f Close texture and takes good polish; reddish yellow of many
\ shades.
Pink and yellow markings and red veins on cream ground.
Pink and red veins on yellow ground.
Eesembles MMoux, but less yellow and not so finely marked.
Black and white markings in sharp contrast.
( The best of red marbles ; black veins and white shells on deep
( red ground.
Brownish red markings on reddish gi'ey ground.
Black ground with white veins and iossils.
Yellow and brown markings on purplish red ground.
Deep black and fairly easy to work.
Dark grey ground.
Pawn spots and greyish green veins on dark red ground.
Even texture ; weather-resisting ; cream colour.
Elch y^ellow, finely pencilled with red and brown.
Eeddieh brown, mottled with grey, red, and pink.
Eeddish grey ; hard, and takes good polish. .
Pine red and brown veins on yellow ground.
Dark yellow with fine red, purple, and white spar veins.
Light fawn colour mottled with brown and red.
Dark grey patches and white fossils on black ground.
Large white veins on bright red ground.
Greyish brown and slightly marked.
Patches of fawn colour tinged with red on grey ground.
Light fawn colour with few markings.
Light fawn colour fiowered with dark brown.
Grey and white veins over brownish red.
Brecciated, with black, red, yellow, and white patches.
Eed and brown veins on light fawn ground.
Grey veins on purplish brown ground.
J Semi-transparent, with yellowish white tinge ; sometimes
\ veined.
Purple and black veins on yellowish white ground.
( Purple and black veins on yellowish white ground ; coarser
\ veins than Pavonazetto.
Light brown mottled with grey, and dark brown.
Hard, and takes good polish.
Obtained in small blocks ; mottled greenish grey.
Pine markings over red.
Yellowish patches and red veins on flesh-colour ground.
Black markings over red ; sound, and takes good polish.
Pearly grey patches and bright red veins on red ground.
Light veins on deep purplish red ground j contains holes.
Mottled rose red ; takes high polish.
Dark red ; obtained in small blocks only.
Irregular patches of red and white on yellow ground. .
J Ground of dark red having brown veins and spots touched witn
( bright yellow ; takes good polish.
White flowered veins over dark red.
White veins over dark red ; best of Belgian red marbles.
Grey and white veins on red ground.
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
293
Katm.
Predominant
Colour,
Whence
Obtained.
Remarks.
Rouge Royal
Eusset
St. Amande
St. Annes
St.Btet
St. Sylvester
SarrancoUn
Sicilian
Sienna
Statuary
Statuary Vein
Vein ,..
Verde Antique ...
Verde di Levanto
Verde diPegll
Verde diPrato
Verona Ked
Vert d'Arriege
Vert Isabella
Vert Maurin
Vert Moulins
Victoria Bed
Waulsort
Bed
Brown
Grey
Grey
White
Ked
Red
White
Yellow
White
White
White
Green
Green
Green
Green
Bed
Green
Green
Green
Green
Bed
Brown
Belgium
England
Belgium
Belgium
Prance
Portugal
Prance
Italy
Italy
Italy
Italy
Italy
Italy ,
Italy
Italy
Italy
Italy
Prance
Prance
Prance
Prance
Ireland
Belgium
Grey veins and white patches on red ground ; contains holes.
Deep brown, mottled.
Dove colour with reddish tint.
( Sound and ot close texture : grey and black, flowered and
( veined with white.
Very pure, hut inferior to Carrara statuary.
Sound and takes high polish ; flesh-colour ground with dark red
\ and white veins and light brown and white patches ; very
(. handsome.
Pawn and dove markings over red.
f Hard and white, with bluish cast : best quality bears exposure
( well. •
) Ground ranges from white to brown through all shades of
( yellow J purple and black veins.
Rarely obtained quite pure ; the best Comes from Carrara.
Por statuary work ; more or less veined.
White, with veins.
White veins on deep green ; the best of the Genoa marbles.
Purple and red veins on green ground.
White veins on green ground ; contains holes.
( Obtained in small blocks only, and takes high polish ; dark
\ spots and white veins over deep green.
Pawn-colour patches on light red ground.
Light and dark green veins on white ground.
Green and white veins on fawn-colour ground.
Sound, and obtained in large blocks ; white veins on dark green.
Green patches and veins and white spots on red ground.
Mottled light red. -
I Pairly sound and takes good polish ; dark brown with patches
\ of white, black, red, and pink.
Cutting and Polisliing Diamonds.— The processes
through which a piece of carbon passes in the course of
its conversion into a natural diamond are not known to
man ; all that is known is that the carbon crystallises.
The natural home of the diamond is supposed to be a
rooky matrix; but this is theory only, there being no
evidence that a diamond has been discovered so situated.
The mountains that supply the debris in which the
gems are contained are composed of schistose rocks
intermixed with quartz, sandstone, brescia, flinty slate,
limestone, etc. All that is actually known concerning
the original position of the diamond is that the only
rock in which it is found in the mountains is the
limestone brescia. Of course, as discovered, the rough
gems are quite dull and lustreless, and it is necessary
to cut and polish them ; there must be principal planes
or faces, and around these a considerable number of
smaller ones placed at correct angles, so that by
refraction a blaze of light, whose every ray is in
harmony with the rest, may result. The facets must
be so cut that light, in passing through, is refracted in
such a way that a maximum of brilliancy is obtained.
The diamond being the hardest of known substances,
its own dust is the only available material with which
it may be polished and worked. The dust is obtained
by grinding up worthless diamond particles in a steel
mortar, the minute fragments obtained in the working
of the diamonds also being saved for the purpose. Bort
diamonds, black or grey carbon partly crystallised and
found in conjunction with the ordinary diamond, are
also used, these being just as hard as the clear diamond.
By rubbing two diamonds together, they are mutually
abraded or worn away; hence, a valuable diamond is
out by rubbing it with a comparatively worthless black
one of equal hardness. Both clear and black or bort
diamonds are fastened in the ends of sticks of cement,
the black one having its cutting angle so placed that it
may be used to the best advantage. The workman holds
the clear stone in his left hand, and rubs it with the
black one held in the other hand, the dust produced by
the abrasion falling into a double metallic box whose
Inner receptacle has a perforated bottom ; the coarser
particles left in this receptacle must be powdered in
a steel mortar for use as a diamond polishing medium,
whilst the powder that has passed through the perfora-
tions is already sufBciently fine for the purpose. Diamond
cutting is slow and tedious work, and requires the
utmost care and skill. It Is possible to split or divide a
diamond if advantage is taken of its grain or cleavage
plane. Sometimes a Targe piece is split off a stone, and the
{""eandexpense of aprolongedabradingprocess avoided;
"^t the splitting operation is a risky one. The stone is
studied closely, and its line of cleavage is ascertained ;
It IS then cemented to a suitable support. The sharp
eage of a razor-like chisel is carefully adjusted to the .
une of cleavage, and a smart rap vrtth the hammer is
given to the chisel. If the splitting is successful, much
W?"^.^, ■'vill have been spared; if unsuccessful, it is
^ely that the diamond is spoiled, and is comparatively
worthless. In the polishing of the cut stones use is made
of a turn-table. In Holland, which for many years
monopolised the diamond cutting and polishing In-
dustry, ponderous machinery was employed, the wheels
being braced and wedged like the running-gear of a
sawmill. Since 1870 or so much interest in the Indus-
try has been awakened in America, where a lighter,,
more compact and serviceable machine is in use. It is
a small iron-top table having solid iron supports and
double bearings, so that the polishing wheel in the
centre revolves hoi:izoutally with its surface flush wit.
that of the table ; perfect steadiness is obtained with
this machine. The cut stone to be polished is flxed in
soft lead heaped conically in a copper ctip, and the flat
surface of the wheel is charged with a paste of diamond
dust and oil. The copper cup holding the diamond is
placed in a heavy iron clamp, in which it is held inverted
above the polishing wheel, which is then made to revolve
at the rate of about 1,500 revolutions per minute. Nothing
but the diamond presses upon the wheel, arather musical
sound being produced by the contact if the wheel is
doing its work. When one facet has been polished, the
wheel is stopped, the lead in the copper cup melted, the
diamond reset, and another portion of the diamond Is
worked. Most careful measurements and experiments
are necessary in polishing a diamond, so that accuracy of
angular proportion in the facets is obtained.
Chemists' Show Bottles.— The following supplements
the information given on p. 13. In filling show bottles,
first put in sumcient distilled water and add the
concentrated colouring solution, made as below, so
as to give a tint which, with a light behind it, shows
up better than a decided colour. The greater pro-
portionately the diameter of the bottle, the less
colour will be required. Por a blue liquid, dissolve
1 oz. of blue vitriol in J pt. of water, and add sufficient
ammonia water to dissolve the precipitate first formed -
A green liquid may be made by adding bichromate of
potassium to the above blue one ; if turbid, add am-
monia water. Por purple, dissolve 1 gr. of salioyUc acid
in 2 fluid drachms of alcohol and 2 oz. of water ; add 30
drops of tincture of chloride of iron dissolved in 2 oz. of
water. Por red, dissolve i dr. of Iodine by means
of 4 dr. of iodide of potassium in i pt. of water, and
add loz. of muriatic acid. An orange tint is obtained
by dissolving bichromate of potash in water. Por
yellow, dissolve 3 parts of bichromate of potash and 2
parts of carbonate of potassium in water. To prevent
the bursting of the bottles by freezing, alcohol or
glycerine should replace a part of the distilled water
used for thinning the colouring Bftlutions.
Making Imperial Yellow.— Imperial yellow is a sul-
phide of arsenic, and the materials employed in making
it are very poisonous. Three parts of white arsenic are
mixed with 1 part of powdered sulphur, and the mixture
is heated in an iron pan provided with a cover, into
which the sulphide sublimes in a solid mass. The pig-
ment is simply coarsely ground, as its colour is not
improved by fine grinding.
294
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
Purifying Zinc— The method generally adopted com-
mercially of purifying zinc is to melt the metal in a
reverberatory furnace having an inclined bed, in which
the metal collects, and the lead, being of heavier speelflc
gravity, falls to the bottom. This allows the impurities
to oxidise and form a scum on the top of the metal. 01
course, the metal is kept just at melting point, other-
wise a large loss of zinc by volatilisation results. It is
practically impossible to purify zinc on a small scale. A
plan that might be tried (although its success cannot
be guaranteed) would be to melt tne zinc under a thick
layer of flour charcoal. Should there be any bismuth
or arsenic in the metal, these impurities might be driven
off, as they volatilise at a much lower temperature than
zinc. Lead, which would be the largest impurity, would
separate out and would be poured last, so that the major
portion of the zinc would be comparatively pure.
*
Wells System of Measuring Distances.— The accom-
panying figures show the wells apparatus used by
surveyors for judging distance when taking trial levels
without chaining the horizontal distances. It ma,y also be
used as a check upon chained measurements. The appa-
ratus consistsofaneedlepointA attached tothe diaphragm
of any levelling telescope, and movable in a vertical
direction so that its distance from the horizontal cross-
hair or wire may be regulated by the micrometer screw
Index Y
.$ pointer
FRONT VIEW
/- - '^y of needle
SIDE ELEVATION
A
Wells System of KeaBuring Distances.
B, the top of which is graduated, as shown in the plan, to
serve as a reference in setting the needle point. The
index-pointer to this graduated circle is fixed upon the
front of the telescope over the eye-piece, as shown in
front and side elevauon. The needle, which is worked
up and down by the micrometer screw B between the
limits marked " traverse of needle," travels in the same
vertical plane as that in which the cross-hairs are fixed.
To set the needle, measure any distance, say 100 ft., upon
level ground, set up the level so that the telescope stands
over one end of the measured distance, whUe the staff is
held at the other end. Focus the telescope accurately,
and move the needle-point A in the diaphragm by the
screw-head B until exactly 1ft. of the staff image is
enclosed between the- needle-point and the horizontal
cross-hair in the diaphragm. In this way a datum
distance reading may be obtained, from which other
•distances of varying lengths can be easily calculated.
The divisions upon the top of the screw B (see plan),
where the index-pointer touches, should then be noted
for future reference.
Crazy China-work.— Jars decorated by crazy china-
work, or china patchwork, form useful and ornamental
vases, pot-pourri jars, etc. Take an ordinary brown
earthenware stew-pot, together with its lid, thoroughly
wash them, and allow to dry. Cover the outsides of the
jar and lid with putty to a thickness of i in. or so. This
putty is the ordinary material, to be obtained at any
oilshop, and may be made by well mixing 2 lb. of sifted
whiting with J lb. of dry white lead, and then making
into a stiff paste with raw linseed oil. After standing
for a few hours, work it up in the hands, and then it is
fit for use. The miscellany of odds and ends with which
the jar is decorated includes broken china, bits of
crockery, coloured glass, buttons, shells, little pieces of
flint, etc., and all these must be washed thoroughly ana
allowed to dry before being applied; they shoul'd be
broken up so as to be not more than | in. in diameter
and are embedded in the putty just as fancy dictates •
it is not desli-able to make any attempt at producing a
pattern. If the putty is allowed to bulge out between
each two pieces of china. It should be touched up with gold
paint when dry. It is a matter of taste; but, in many
opinions, gold paint does not improve china patchwork
Instead of the ordinary putty, a cement made as followa
may be used. Stand a stone jam jar halt filled with
melted glue in hot water, and stir in whiting until the
mixture is of the consistency of cream, and with this
coat the article to be decorated, and allow to di-y
Thicken the composition by adding whiting whilst hot
and apply the paste to the already coated, but dry'
articles. The china fragments are then embedded ; this'
ground is affected by water. Besides vases, such articles
as drain -pipe umbrella stands, flower -pots, plaques
(having a papier-mftoh6 or tinplate base), photograph
frames, jai-dini6res, etc., may be decorated in crazy
china-work. In cases where the base is a very porous
one, as, for example, an unglazed flower-pot, a coat of
common varnish may precede the application of the
putty.
Drilling Holes in Glass.— In order to drill a hole in
glass, it is necessary to have a hard and well.tempered
steel drill. This may be prepared by heating to a dull
red, and then plunging into mercury so as to become
hard. It is, however, necessary to temper the shaft of the
drill. Imbed the point of the drill in a piece of lead. The
temperature of the shaft of the drill can be raised by
means of a blow-pipe till there is a blue colour nearly to
the point. The drill and lead together are now immersed
in cold water, when the first will be ready for work.
This tool, when mounted in a holder and with the point
moistened with turpentine, attacks glass rapidly. Do
not press too heavily when working the drill, and, if
possible, work from both sides of the glass successively.
To enlarge a hole thus obtained, use a rat-tailed file
soaked in turpentine. A steel drill may be hardened',
when at a red heat, by dipping it into any cool lictuid.
Another method is to saturate commercial muriatic
acid with zinc— do this in the open air. The drUl should
be ground before hardening, when at a red heat, dip it
in the solution to harden ; or a spear-shaped drill, heated
to a red heat and hardened in mercury, and then
sharpened on an oilstone, may be used. Still another
method is to forge a drill at a low temperature and
harden it in water. The drill is firmly rotated at
the desired spot with an alternate motion, and lubri-
cated with a saturated solution of camphor and spirit
of turpentine. Dilute sulphuric acid may also be used
as a lubricant. A very simple tool for boring glass is a
drill made by heating an old three-cornered file, which is
then cooled slowly in ashes. The end is filed to a conical
shape and again heated, and then hardened by plunging
into water. The drill is fixed in a brace and rotated, tu!'-
pentine being used as a lubricant. To remove the drill
from the hole, rotate the drill in the reverse way.
A reliable method of drilling holes, in which a tube is
used, is as follows. Make a drill from brass tube of the
required diameter, and into the non-cutting end drive a
piece of wire to project somewhat, and file the projecting
part to fit a drill-stock. The cutting end of the brass
tube is next to be slotted with a few saw-cuts running
parallel with the tube's length : the inner ends of the
cuts must terminate In holes drilled, before the slots are
cut, at right angles to the tube's length. The number of
slots required depends upon the diameter of the tube
used. Two pieces of wood, measuring, say. Sin. wide,
} in. thick, and long enough to span the piece of glass,
are screwed firmly together with ordinary wood screws
passing through near the ends, whilst through both
pieces of wood a hole is bored large enough to admit
the drill freely. This hole through the wood is to be
countersunk at both ends. The two pieces of wood are
next separated, by partly removing the screws, and the
glass is placed between them to be held as in a kind oi
clamp, the hole for the drUl being brought exactly over
the spot where the glass is to be bored. Some 90 or
120 grade emery powder mixed with water is then placed
in the countersinking to act as a grinding agent, ine
drill may be worked as fast as possible, though not so
quickly as to splash out the wet emery. When the arm
is half-way through the glass from one side, a hole
should be started from the other side and completed, to
prevent the chipping of the edges. Holes from tin. to
Sin. diameter can be bored with this appliance. It taKes
about four minutes by this method to drill holes up to
\ in. diameter in a sheet of glass i in. thick.
Making Artificial Oilstones.— One way of making
artificial oilstones is to mix finely powdered sand witn a
small quantity of shellac ; heat the mixture, then place
it under great pressure in a mould and allow to db-
come cold.
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
295
Use of Sensitometer In Photography.— A eensito-
meter (or actinoniBtei-, as it is sometimes called) is
an instrument for measiiriDg the senaltiTeness to light
o£ photographic plates and paper. lu certain printing
processes in photography, aiirh as the carbon and
the dusting-on processes, the action of light does not
cause any -jisible change iu the sensitised material
exposed under the negative, and the latent image has to
he developed alter the exposure has been made. In
these circumstances, there! Te, it is important to adopt
some method by which a correct exposure may be
ensured. Although the sensitiveness of the paper may
be known, two unlsnown factors, namely, the density of
the negative and the actinir power ot the light, render
any calculation to ascertain the correct time of ex-
posure impossible. It is to overcome this difficulty,
therefore, that the sensitometer has been devised. The
sensitometer consists of a series of tiny negatives of
different densities; under the negative that matches
the working negative is placed a strip of any printing-
ont paper that prints a visible image, and when this
test piece ot P.O.P. is printed to the required depth, the
print from the other or working negative is also suftt-
ciently printed. A simpler form of sensitometer consists
of a small box inside which a strip ot printing-out paper
is coiled ; a portion of this paper is brought beneath a
piece of coloured glass and exposed till it reaches a
standard tint painted round the glass. Experience alone
teaches how to allow for the difference in contrast in
the negative and the print and for the variation in
light. Carbon, tor example, is proportionately more
sensitive than silver when the light is dull ; and, if the
light is particularly rich in ultra-violet rays, the silver
chloride would have an advantage. A sensitometer is
sometimes used in platinptype printing, but in this case
the faint primary image itself acts as a sensitometer and
is a good guide to an experienced printer. A rough form
of sensitometer may be made by pasting a number ot
strips of tissue paper one on the other, each successive .
strip being about iia. shorter than the preceding, thus
forming a scale ot density. An almost equally satis-
factory plan is to utilise as a scale different parts ot a
negative having a good range ot density, using, ot
course, a strip of paper suiHciently long to allow of the
frame being opened without moving the paper. Sensito-
meters for testing the speed ot bromide plates and
papers are formed on somewhat the same principle.
Renovating Piano Keys.— In removing scratches from
piano keys, first find out whether the key coverings are ot
ivoiT or celluloid by wiping them over vrith methylated
spirit ! if they ai'e of celluloid, a strong smell ot camphor
will be emitted. The scr.atches, it deep, can only be re-
moved by taking a thin shaving off the surface of the key ;
if not deep, polishing with fine grade pumice powder and
benzoline may be tried. If it is necessary to remove the
upper surface, the keys should be dealt with one at a
time by placing them on a block, on the face of which
has been naUed two strips ot wood to form a groove.
If a suitable iron plane is not available, a finely set
smoothing plane may be used, though good work can
be done with a cabinet-maker's steel scraper and glass-
paper. It the key coverings are of celluloid, use,
instead of a plane, No. 1 and No. glass-paper, held
tightly over a cork pad. When aU scratches have been
obliterated and the surface of the keys is quite level,
and the sharp edges are removed by gentle rubbing with
woi'n paper, the polishing may be done. Polishing pads
are made by tightly stretching several thicknesses of
woollen cloth or a piece of felt across a smooth board,
and by its side a piece of chamois leather ; cloth and
leather should be so secured that the nails cannot get
in the path of the keys. Ivory keys may be polished by
liberally sprinkling the cloth or felt with methylated
spirit, then rubbing whiting on till a thin paste is
formed. The keys should be done one at a time, turned
face downwards. Eub briskly to and fro till a fair polish
is gained. The surplus moisture is wiped off with a
piece of rag, the final polish being imparted with the
chamois pad, on the face of which has been sprinkled
some dry whiting, or, better still, some putty powder.
Celluloid keys are similarly polished, except that finest
grade pumice powder and benzoline should be used
instead ot whiting. As the nature ot celluloid varies.
It may be necessary to use putty powder and oil in
order to gain a first-class polish ; iu that case, use a sepa-
rate pad. Benzoline, owing to its inflammable nature,
should not be used near any source of artificial light.
. Making a Prolecting Swinging Sign,— The project-
ing swinging glass-faced sign affords a permanent
advertisement, and is made easUy. The design should
nrst be drawn in every detail. Next get a deal board
ao.out iin. thick and of the width and height of the
shield, or whatever shape determined. Lay a paper
pattern of the design on the board, mark round with
a pencil, and with a keyhole saw cut out the shape,
taking great care not to crack any of the corners or in
any way damage the cui-ves in working. Bound this
shaped board is put a li-in. rim of thin hoop-iron,
having holes punched in the centre in various places, as
well as two holes to screw in the hooks for hanging, as
shown partly in the accompanying illustration. Then
bend the rim round the wooden shield and fix with
round-headed screws. When this is overlapped at the
top about lUn. tor strength, there will beiin. of rim
on each side, which is ample for glazing. Next take
the paper template and cut off about iin. bare all
round, and have two glasses cut to this size In 15 oz.
clear glass. Try them m the shield frame, and. see that
they fit easily and do not pinch at any of the corners.
Then set out the wording for the sign, which must
be put on the back of the glass and backwards. The way
to do this is to make the drawing upon tracing paper,
which, when turned over, presents the lettering back-
wards and ready to place beneath the glass i then trace in
the colour desired. The enamel-paints sold in small
tins would do well for this work, and, being supplied in
many varieties of colours, afford a choice and scope for
arrangement. Ot course, in choosing colours tor an
advertisement, striking contrasts, not too glaring, are the
A Projecting Swinging Sign.
best, as they draw attention. Using white letters with a
chocolate background, or black letters with white or sky
blue background, and so on, any number of different
arrangements can be applied, and it remains with the
worker to choose the colours so that the projecting
sign, when finished, wUl not look unsightly if compared
with its surroundings. Get a small brush called a vfriter,
and trace in all the letters in the desired colours, taking
care to keep the colours properly thinned with turpen-
tine and not to get a thick body of colour on that will take
a long time to dry. When all the lettering or design is
traced in, put aside for a day or two to get thoroughly
dry and hard, and then paint in the background with
an ordinary sash tool. Of course, there wUl be two
glasses to do, one for each side ot the sign, and
different wording can be arranged, so that there will be
two announcements on one sign. When both glasses
are finished they are ready for glazing. The putty tor
this should be mixed with a little colour, making it the
same, or nearly the same, as the colour ot the back-
ground. Lay the glass in the frame and putty round.
The bracket is made with three pieces of iron. The
upright, to be screwed to the wall, is a piece of sheet-
iron about 2 in. wide, with holes for screwing. The
projecting bar is fixed to the upright and curved at
the end, and the support at Ithe top is riveted to the
upright and horizontal bar as a strengthener for the
latter, which supports the sign. The sign should not be
fixed lower than 7 ft. from the pavement.
296
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
Flatting for Steel Castings.— To make a flatting or
fllllug for i-ough steel castings, mix together 1 lb. of
wMte lead and i lb. of terebine i thin down with tur-
pentine till the mixture is of the consistency of paint.
This flatting wUl dry q.uiokly and leaye a smooth surface,
on which the finishing colour may be applied. Black is
generally used. To make a good black, mix i lb. of
white lead with loz. of driers or litharge; then add the
black pigment, ground in oU, to the required shade, and
thin down with turps till the whole is of the consistency
of paint. Another mixture consists of 1 lb. of black
Saint, 7 oz. of linseed oil, 2 oz. of turpentine, and } oz. of
thai-ge. Mix the litharge with the paint, then add the
oil, and finally the turpentine.
Design for Front of Pigeons' House.— Figs. 1 and 2
show front elevation and side elevation respectively
of the front of a pigeons' house, about 9 ft. long, 4 ft. 4 in.
high at the sides, and 6ft. Sin. high in the centre,
including the turned finial. The framing shoxdd be
of wood about Sin. by 2} in., mortised and tenoned
piece of board first; after staining with the potaasium
permanganate, wash out the brush In water, or the salt
will destroy the bristles. An antique shade on oak
carvings Is obtained by staining with umber which has
been bcued in water with a little potash. Wood stained
in this manner is not polished, but it receives a covering
of limpid varnish. For war-polishing carved work,
benzine wax is preferred to turpentine wax because
it does not clog the fine lines and notches so much.
To prepare benzine wax, put small pieces of white
wax into a vessel, cover the wax witn benzine, and
closely stopper the vessel and allow to stand for a day
in a cool place ; care is needed in these cuerations, as
benzine is highly inflammable. A thick paste will form ;
remove a little of this with a knife or spatula and dilute
it with benzine in a flat dish to about the consistency of
milk, and apply this to the carved work by means of a
moderately soft bristle paint brush. After standing for
a few minutes, brush out all the corners and cavities
with a good bristle brush, when a faint lustre will
appear. To give a red tinge to the wax, add a little of au
Fig. 3
Design for Front of Pigeons' House.
together. The joint at the angle of the sill-pieces and
angle-posts is shown at Pig. 3. The appearance would be
improved by flxing strips of i-in. or f-in. bead along the
vertical edges of the posts, and the wirework could be
fixed to this as indicated in Pig. 4.
Staining and Wax- polishing Wood Carvings.—
The following is a description of how wood carvings are
flnished by staining and wax-polishing. Before staining
wood carvings, the surface must be made very smooth to
prevent the wood swelling on the application of the stain.
For this purpose, polish the surface with a wad of very thin
soft shavings, firmly pressing with the hand until a faint
lustre appears. Fine varieties of wood should not be
stained. Walnut, pear, oak, plum, and mahogany retain
their natural colour, and are waxed only and subse-
quently brushed, by which means they attain a some-
what darker tone and antique appearance. A handsome
dark-brown shade on walnut is obtained by first coating
the wood with linseed oil in which alkanet root has been
infused, and. polishing after twenty-four hours. A simple
method of staining carvings is to coat with a dilute
solution of potassium chromate and then with a dilute
solution of potassium permanganate. By vai-ying the
strength of the solutions and the number of applica-
tions, all woods, from the hardest to the softest, can be
ataiued effectively. It is wise to try the stains on a
infusion of alkanet in benzine ; for blue, add a solution
of Prussian blue in benzine ; and for a mahogany colour,
use Oassel brown. After use, clean the brushes, etc.,
with a hot soda solution.
Repairing Goloshes. — It is dUHoult to find a
cement that wUl adhere to the composition of which
goloshes are made. StUl, the following method or
repairing may prove successful. First, the part to pe
repaired must be roughened with a coarse rasp, ir
it is soft, cover it with a coat or two of mdiarutibei
solution and serve a piece of vulcanised indiaruDoer
in the same way; when both are nearly <iry-™ai
is, just tacky— warm them by a slow.fire and tnen
press the patch to its place. When it is aet, trim up
with knife, file, and sandpaper. If the old stuff J? haro,
mix some gutta-percha with indiarubber solution oy
warming the former tiU it is well melted and then
u'uuea (ju wniii a wiirui iruii, aiuci a, v"«" — R,iaA
solution has been applied to the golosh and has drieo.
Then to repair, a piece of thin sheet gutta-percha can oe
thrown into hot water, taken out when soft, wipea
dry, and then held on the golosh near a fire, wnen
just sticky the two are pressed together, and wnen
cold and hard, flnished with knife and glasspaper.
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
297
EnamelUag Slate Mantelshelf. — The process of
enamelling Blate, as for instance a mantelslielf, is as
follows. A dark laociuer or tar varnish is applied with a
brush to the surface of the slate, which is then placed in
an oven and haked from twelve to forty hours, according
to size, the heat heing just suf&cient to fuse the lacquer.
The slate is then treated with a coat of enamel, and
again placed in the oven to harden. This is repeated
Beveral times till the surface is perfect and the slah is
ready for polishing, which is effected by rubbing with
woollen bosses and powdered pumice-stone, finishing
off with a little powdered rotten-stone. Scratches cannot
be effectually removed from a polished (enamelled) slate
mantelshelf; rubbing with an oily rag will, however,
soften down the scratches. The only real remedy will
be to have the sheU re-enamelled.
Consnmption of Gas by Various Burners.— The table
below gives the consumption of gas in the different
varieties of Bray's flat-ilame burners in ordinary use,
under a pressure of ten-tenths, or lin. With regard
to the apparent inconsistency of some of the figures,
these are based on tests made at the instance of the
Leeds Corporation.
Cub. ft.
yer hour.
3-6
3-9
4-9
4-8
6-67
7-97
8-35
8-65
10-60
"Sis' 8
Ciib. ft.
per hour
3-05
4-02
3-97
4-90
5-15
6-67
7-65
8-05
10-60
11-20
gsfci
-^
Cui. ft.
per hour.
4-8
5-2
6-37
5-88
8-14
8-60
9-04
9-40
10-50
«<S'.-s
_ Cut. ft.
per hour
3-53
4-22
4-61
5-69
6-37
7-55
8-60
10-00
12-60
Cm6. ft.
per hour.
4-26
4-95
5-64
6-74
6-93
8-82
10-00
9-30
10-10
siiS't
Cui ft.
per hour.
3-86
4-46
5-25
5-55
5-85
7-53
8-72
9-30
9-31
The ordinary 'WelBbach incandescent burners are of three
types. First, the " " burner, consuming about 3i cub. ft.
of gas per hour, and giving a sixty candle-power light ;
second, the " S," consuming 2i cub. ft. of gas, and giving
a light of thirty-five candles s and thii-d, the "Gem"
burner, consuming Ij cub. ft. of gas, and yielding a
light of thirty-five candle-power. The " New" Welsbach
burner is made in the following sizes : —
No. of
Burner.
Gas CoTisuwpUon
at 1 in. pressure.
Cubic feet.
Caudle-poiver
(about).
1
2
3
4
7
!
2-2
3
3-8
6-5
20
30
50
80
105
185
Gilding Glass by tbe Chemical Process. — Gold
chloride dissolved in distilled water is employed for gilding
glass by the chemical process. The chloride la prepared
by dissolving pure gold in nitro-mui-iatie acid, evaporating
the liquid nearly to dryness, dissolving the gold salt in
aistUled water, then neutralising the remaining excess
acid by the addition of soda. The solution should con-
tain 100 gr. of gold chloride in 1 pt. of water, and must be
filtered through blotting paper before use. Pour-flfths
of this gold solution must then be mixed with one-flfth
of a solution made by dissolving 600 gr. of pure caustic
soda in 1 pt. of distilled water, and filtering it through
plotting paper. This mixture is poured on the surface of
the glass "to be gilded, and the gold reduced therefrom by
one of the following re-agents. (1.) Pass a oul-rent of
ordinai-y Illuminating gas through 1 pt. of absolute
alcohol for one hour, then add an equal quantity of pure
flyeerine diluted with its own volume of distilled water.
™™ 10 to 15 drops of this mixtm-e will be required to
each 10 dr. of the gilding mixture. Add the re-agent a
moment or two before using, and pour this on the glass
surface to be gilded. In a short time the mixture will
turn green, and its gold wUl be deposited in a bright
oonaition on the glass. (2.) ChemicaUi- ^ure glycerine,
mLxed with the caustic soda solution pi-evlously
oesoribed (equal quantities of each) may be employed
mstead of Ho. 1, (3.) Dissolve 300 gr. of glucose in
7 dr. of distilled water, and apply heat until one-third
of the water has evaporated ; then mix the remainder
with an equal bulk of 90 per cent, alcohol. Twenty
drops of this re-agent will give the gEding a reddish
tinge. (4.) Dissolve 185 gr. of white sugar in 25 dr. of
distilled water, add } dr. of pure nitric acid, and dUute the
whole with an equal quantity of 90 per cent, alcohol : then
boU the whole for a quarter of an hour. Two drachms of
this mixture to each 10 dr. of the gilding mixture wiljl
be required. (6.) Employ 2J dr. of amyl-aloohol instead
of the above. This gives a special brilliancy to the gild-
ing. (6.) An equal quantity of cane sugar brandy will
produce a similar result. The glass to be gilded must he
quite clean and free from spots.- The solutions must
also be freshly prepared, and filtered free from dust.
Making Draw-hooks.— Pigs. 1 and 2 shows a loco-
motive engine drawbar hook and shackle of a pattern
generally used. The method of making the shackle is
explained on p. 67. The hooks are usually made of
Bessemer steel, forged to shape under a steam hammer
and stamped with a pair of mocks. If wrought-iron is
used, the hooks are forged to the shape shown by A
(Fig. 3), placed on a block B, which revolves by steam
jVIaldug Drav-hooks.
or hydraulic power, and the wheel C bends the hook to
the required shape, the object being to have the grain of
the iron following the bend of the hook. The " Gedges "
hook shown by Pigs. 4 and 5 is used as a standard railway
wagon coupling by most British companies, and is un-
doubtedly the best form of wagon hook, but it is not
generally used on engines. The pin of a pin-and-ahackle
coupling is apt to get bent, and the coupling is then
stiffened. In the two views of a Gedges wagon hook
given by Pigs. 4 and 5 it will be seen that the part A
(Pig. 4) is flat so as to slip in the part B (Fig. 5). This
does away with the pin, and gives free working to the
coupling.
Making Chrome Yellow.— In making chrome yellow,
624 parts of lead acetate should be used to 29i parts of
bichromate of potash. These salts should be dissolved
separately in hot water, and the solutions allowed to
become quite cold before they are mixed. Pour the
bichromate solution into the lead acetate solution,
stirring the whole. After mixing,, allow to settle, then
pour off the clear liquid ; add cold water, stir well, allow
to settle, and pour off the clear liquid. Repeat this
washing several times, then pour the chrome yellow into
a white cloth stretched on a frame ; allow all the water to
run off, press, and dry very gently in a clean oven or dry-
ing chamber. Paler shades may be obtained by replacing
a portion of the bichromate with sulphate of soda.
298
Cyclopsedia of Mechanics.
Counting tbe Vibrations of a Clock Balance.—
lu testing a lever oloclc liairspring by counting it9
Tibrations, fix it temporarily to the balance, and with a
pair of tweezers hold the outer end of the spring in
such a way as to let the bottom pivot of the Balance
rest on a watch glass on the board. The spring should
be drawn up into a spiral, letting the weight of the
balance hang upon it, so that there is hardly any
weight resting on the bottom pivot. In this position a
turn of the wrist will start the balance spinning, and
it will continue for some time, enabling the vibrations
to be counted for a full minute if necessai'y-
Reciprocating Water Motor.— Fig. 1 is a side ele-
vation of a reciprocating water motor, with the back
end in section showing the piston packed with the
ordinary hydraulic cup leathers. Iig. 2 is an end
elevation with valve gear for reversing the flow of
water. For the latter purpose an ordinary four-way
M the Inlet. Figs. 3, 4, and 6 show the four-way cook
drawn to a larger scale. Fig. 3 is a section of the cock
with the web of the plug in position for making the
backward stroke, as in Fig. 1, exhausting from the back.
Fig. i is an elevation of the cock partly in section.
Fig. 6 is a section of the plug, which should be carefully
ground in to make it watertight, there being no gland,
but only the light spring at the back to keep it to its
face. The cock and plug must be cast in brass or gnn-
metal. Fig. 7 shows the quadrant and arm. To avoid
confusion, only a few dimensions are shown. Those
not given can easUy be found by constructing two
scales, as all the drawings are to scale. Figs. 1 and 2, not
dimensioned, being one-sixth full size.
Burnishing Photographs. — Below are given in-
structions on burnishing photographs with a bar
burnisher. First examine the bar to see that it is free
from scratches. Unscrew the nut and remove the
Reciprocating Water Motor.
cock is used. The plug of the cock is reversed by
the quadrant A carrying the lever B past the centre,
and on falling it carries with it the arm C. Fig. 5 is
a side elevation of the arm, showing the position in
which it must be keyed on the plug spindle. The weight
on the lever B should only be sufficient to overcome
the friction of the plug and gland. In Fig. 1 the
piston is shown at a little more than half of Its
backward stroke. The quadrant A has commenced to
take over the lever B and weight, and on getting to the
centre line will take with it the arm (Fig. 2), and on
passing the centre line the quadrant and arm will
fall together, throwing over the plug. A piece of india-
rubber to form a cushion to break the fall of the lever
must be fixed on each side of the bracket carrying the
plug spindle. The quadrant is worked by the rod E
(Fig. 1) from the cross-head 1? on the piston rod. The
working cylinder G is a piece of 3-in. drawn brass tube
16 in. long. The ends are two iron castings, with a port
lin. in diameter in each. The back end has a cover,
and the front carries a stuffing box, as shown in
Fig. 1. The feet for bolting down the motor are oast with
the ends. The pipes H, of 1-in. wrought iron, are fixed to
the cylinder ends with flanges I. The ends and brass
cylinder are bolted together ^y three stay bolts K, but
imly two are shown. At the back end the heads are
countersunk to allow the cover to be bolted on. At the
front the ends are taken through, all being drawn
tight together by the nuts. L is tne exhaust pipe, and
slab holding the plated bar. If the bar shows any
scratches running across it, rub from end to end
with a piece of fine emery cloth glued fiat ^o a bar oE
wood till the scratches disappear. Dust carefully all
the parts and replace the slab. ITow light the stove
beneath the slab. Moisture on the slab -must be wiped
away till it ceases to appear. A J-ibrlcator should be
made up by dissolving about 20 gr. of castile soap in 2Cz.
of methylated spirit. The lubricator is rubbed over the
face of the print and allowed to dry spontaneously.
Some workers prefer to rub the soap over dry with a
silk handkerchief. Wet the tip of the finger and juat
touch the end of the bar. If it hisses it is warm enough.
A trial print is now passed through the burnisher, ana
if it is neither scratched nor scorflied, but shows a good
polish, the rest of the prints may be burnished. The
print must be passed through at one sweep i a stoppage
means a line or dent across the print. In passing the
print through the burnisher, lift the near part above the
opening ; this will cause the print to curl slightly put-
wards, but as it curls it wUl lie fiat. Prints should go
through the burnisher lengthwise. The great disadvan-
tage in using a bar burnisher is its tendency to soraton,
although this trouble is minimised by careful use. For
this reason "enamellers," such as the "Quadruplex
Enameller," are generally used. In these machines
the print passes between two plated rollers heated from
below. A '■ lubricator " is not needed, and scratches are
impossible.
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
Frenob Polishing Decorated Woodwork. — To
Erench polish woodwork the surface of which has been
printed upon, or has had prints transferred to it,
the method of procedure may he as follows. Dissolve
loz. of best isinglass In Ipt. of water, strain through
flannel or fine muslin, and set aside till cold, when the
solution should be of the consistency of jelly ; if not, add
isinglass. When the printing is quite dry, slightly warm
the jelly bo that it will flow, and brush it over the
article in one direction only j use a camel-hair brush,
and work fi;om end to end. Set aside till dry, then go
over the article again from side to side ; this will ensure
eveiT part being covered. When the work is quite dry,
polish may be freely applied. Transparent polish made
from white lac should be used.
Preventing Moisture Dropping from Glass Roof.
—One way of preventing condensed moisture froth
dropping from a glass root would bo to fix small gutters
to the sides of the bars, as shown by the sections A (Pigs.
1 and 2), and mitre them to a similar gutter running
along the bottom rail of the skylight, as shown at A
(Fig. 3). To allow the moisture to escape into the gutter
D, a hole B to (Fig. 3) having an outlet in the throating
at C should be bored between every two bars. By having
the rebate of each alternate bar about Jin. deeper, the
glass could be glazed a little sloping as indicated at
299
front or sight end to receive the turned-down portion of
the hook. The rattling of reeds is often caused by an
uneven floor; damp may also cause the reed cell to
swell, thus pinching the reed frame and preventing
the tongue vibrating freely j or a false tone may be
caused by the reed frame having jarred out a little.
To remedy, insert the reed hook in the notch of the
reed frame, move it backwards and forwards a few
times, and finally press it home well. Should this
treatment not prove sufficient, ease the edge of the
reed frame with a smooth file. Other causes of faulty
sounds are loose objects, such as screws, hat pins,
nails, and loose keys, hinge joints, or panels. If the lock
gives trouble m this way, remove it and hammer up the
sides a uttle. Wedge up any loose panels, insert a piece
of cloth under any spring that may be touching direct on
the wood of the swells, and tighten all loose portions thaft
vibrate or jar m unison with any particular note or
chord, bhould creaking occur in the blow pedals, lubri-
cate with tallow or blacklead in preference to oil. If a
yiG.2
Preventing Moisture Dropping from Glass Roof.
Reed Hook for
American Organs
Pigs. 1 and 2 ; this would cause the moisture to flow to
one side, and the small gutters A need only be fixed to
each bar having the deeper rebate, as is made quite clear
by Pig. 2.
The Preservation of American Organs.— On the
arrival by rail of an American organ it should be
unpacked carefully. Before use it should be thoroughly
cleansed, inside and out, from dust, which wUl some-
times get into the organ, especially it the top portion
Is taken off to enable the instrument to be packed in a
small case. The minutest pai-tiole of dust may check the
vibration of some of the smaller reeds ; therefore, if a reed
does not sound, or gives out a false note, use a reed hook
as shown by the sketch. One should be put into the instru-
ment, or a good substitute is a button hook with a long
shank. The stops being drawn and the swells lifted with
ine hook, pull the reed frame out and give it a smart tap
yojar out the foreign substance. The reeds belonging to
the pnmcipaJ and flute stops are in front. To reach
them, first unscrew and remove the key slip, a piece of
rretwopd directly under the keys in front ; then the stops
being drawn and the swell cover thus Ufted, the ends of
the reed frames will be visible. The dulciana and
ammson reeds are at the back of the reed board, and are
readdy accessible after the removal of the poi-tlon of the
case at the back that is generally seem-ed by buttons or
screws. The snS-bass reeds are in sight in a separate box
ouine topof the wind-chest. When drawing a reed, be
caretul not to insert the hook so far as to catch the reed
tongue. A notch will be found in the reed frame at the
key sticks or becomes sluggish in its movements, try
moving it up and down gently rather than attempting
to take the action apart. Put briefly, each key rests upon
a small, perpendicruai-, wooden pin, generally of cedar ;
each pin stands on a valve, and each, valve ^ is held in
position by two springs. It the key falls below its proper
level and is otherwise free in its movements, not binding
on the guide pins, the valve may not act by reason of a
spring slipping out of place ; or it may be prevented from
closing by some foreign substance having lodged upon It,
which may sometimes be removed by vigorous blowing.
Often these pins swell with moisture and cannot then
work freely through the guide holes. Blacklead will be
found a suitable lubricant. In instruments containing
more than two sets of reeds, the taking apart of the action
with the object of removing the keys is net advised.
The cabinet portion of the case should be treated in a
similar manner to high-class furniture, the polished
surface being frequently freshened. The use of wax
polish is not advised unless it is applied thinly and
frequently ; most of the polish revivers may be used with
good effect, especially Eonuk, which merely requires
diluting with turpentine for duU finished cases. A good
reviver is made of lime water, linseed oil, and tm-pen-
tine in equal parts ; mix the first two together thoroughly,
then add the turpentine and shake before using. Apply
with wadding, a little at a time, and nib well; wipe off
with rag, and finish with a swab of clean soft rag sujghtly
damped with methylated spirit. Apply this damp pad
only lightly at first, and add a little pressure aq the
methylated spirit dries out.
300
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
Making Prussian Blue and Vermllionette. —
Prussian blue la made by adding a solution of
ferrocyanide of potassium (yellow prussiate) to a solu-
tion of ferric chloride, or by adding the former to a
solution of ferrous sulphate (green vitriol) and after-
wards with nitric acid or other oxidising agent. The
precipitate is allowed to settle, washed several times
with water by decantation, collected in filter bags,
pressed, and slowly dried. Vermiilonettes are made by
mixing orange lead and barytes with water, then adding
eosin and lead acetate until the colouring matter is
entii'ely precipitated upon the barytes and orange lead.
The pigment is finished as in the case of Prussian blue.
The colours are made in large wooden vats j filter presses
and drying stoves are required also.
Drilling Hard Steel Watcb' Pinions,— Beady made
drills are generally too soft to cut watch pinions ; they
have to be rehardened by heating the blades only in a
flame and rapidly withdrawing them with a sudden jerk.
This is called "flirting" them, and the sudden cooling
in the air effects the hardening. Sharpen them before
using, and lubricate with turps. Occasionally a pinion
is found too hard to be drilled even by this method ; it
then has to be lowered to a blue temper.
Electro-plating Aluminium.— For copper - plating
aluminium, the bath may be cyanide of copper, 6 parts
(by weight) ; cyanide of potassium, 9 parts; phosphate of
soda, 9 parts ; and water, 100 parts. For gold-plating,
chloride of gold, 2 parts ; cyanide of potassium, 2 parts ;
phosphate of soda, 2 pai'ts ; and water, 100 parts. For
nickel-plating, chloride of nickel, 7 parts j phosphate of
soda, 7 parts; and water, 100 parts. For silver-plating,
nitrate of silver, 2 parts ; cyanide of potassium, 4 parts ;
phosphate of soda, i parts ; and water, 100 parts. Keep
the bath whilst plating at a temperature of from 140° to
158° P. (60° to 70' C). For the anode, use a strip of the
metal which is to be deposited. The baths given above
are on the authority of Iianseigne and Leblanc.
Medicated Soaps.— It is obvious that of primary im-
portance in making medicinal or medicated soaps is the
employment of a pure base. However effectual as a
remedy for skin diseases the medicinal soap might be, the
presence of an impure and alkaline base is almost sure
to cause roughness and desquamation (the formation of
scale) on the skin. Medicinal soaps of good quality are
prepared with Voiry's plain cocoanut oil paste soap as
a base. This is made as follows. 12 parts by weight of
cocoanut oil are boUed in a porcelain dish with 8 parts
of soda lye (10° B.) j to the cream thus obtained, add
5 parts of soda lye (20° B.), and arrest the boiling when
a sample placed on a cold body becomes solid. Add
a quantity of distilled water, bring again to the boil,
and add 5 parts of common salt. The soap is separated
by decantation after cooling, cleansed by washing twice
In a 20 per cent, solution of ordinar,y salt, and after-'
wards in cold distilled water. The excess of water is
squeezed out, and a plain paste soap is the product.
The first medicinal soaps made contained tar, and
were neither pleasant looking nor agreeable to use, but
for all that they were useful and eflfective. Recipes for
tar soaps are : (1) Beat together 1 part of tar, 2 parts
of liquor potassa, and 2 parts of soap in shavings.
(2) Hake up in the usual way 41b. of cocoanut oil, 2lb.
of tallow, lib. of juniper tar, and 31b. of soda lye (40°B.j.
For a vaseline tar soap, saponify 40 lb. of cocoanut oil
and 61b. of tar with 221b. of lye (40° B.). Melt 41b.
of yellow vaseline, and stir into it the soap, with the
addition of lib. of lukewarm water. (3) Rub up 1 part
by weight of tar with 9 parts of Voiry's paste soap.
Possessing the good qualities of tar, and but few of its
pronounced disadvantages for use in medicinal soap, is
carbolic acid. A soap containing as much as 25 per cent,
of this can be used for the hands, but is not suitable
for general use. Even carbolic soap, though an improve-
ment on tar soap, is not an ideal material, as it has a
strong odour. Recipes for carbolic soaps are ; (1) Melt
201b. of half-palm soap and add lib. of starch, and mix
thoroughly ; then add 1 oz. of carbolic acid in crystals,
2oz. of oil of lavender, and 1 oz. of oil of cloves. (2) In-
corporate in a warm mortar 75 parts of powdered stearin
soap with 25 parts of pure carbolic acid, and press the
product into tablets. (3) Melt 1.50 parts of fresh cocoanut
oil soap, and add 10 parts of a solution of alcohol, 6 parts
of carbolic acid, 2 parts of caustic potash, and 1 part of
oil of lemon. Stir thoroughly, and pour into moulds.
(4) Dissolve 2 parts by weight of white carbolic acid in
1 part of 90 per cent, alcohol, and gradually rub up with
38 parts of Voiry's paste soap. Salol enters into the com-
position of many soaps, and especially into shaving soaps,
suggested as a remedy for and preventive of sycosis para-
sitaria, a disease contracted at barbers' shops from razors
and accessories, in making salol shaving soap the base is
prepared first, lib. of beef suet is melted with ^Ib. of
cocoanut oil and allowed to cool to 120° F. ; after adding
14 oz. of 18 per cent, caustic soda solution and 2J oz. of
21 per cent, caustic potash solution, the mass is stirred
at a gentle heat for half an hour, or until it is homo-
geneous. Perfume is added consisting of 40 minims of
oil of caraway, 50 minims of oil of bergamot, 30 minima
of oil of lavender, 20 minims of oil of thyme, and 6 drops
of essence of mlrbane. While the mass is still warm,
loz. of finely powdered salol is added, and the whole is
heated to 113° P., at which temperature the antiseptic
melts ; It is stirred thoroughly the while. When cold
the soap is cut up as desired, dried partially in the open
air, and, tor preference, wrapped in tinfoil. To make
a salol soap powder, mix together 35 oz. of finely pow-
dered stearin soap, 1 grain of ooumariu, 6 drops of oil
of bergamot, and 2 drops of oil of winter green; mix
21b. of this base with loz. of finely powdered salol.
Mercurial soap is made by saponifying mercurial oint-
ment ; thus 10 oz. of mercury are mixed thoroughly with
2 oz. of mercurial ointment until the globules are not
visible with a lens, and then 18 oz. of powdered soap
and 2oz. of lard are added. Do not place mercurial
soaps in contact with metals. Other recipes for mer-
curial soaps are : (1) Beat up to a uniform mass in a
mortar 1 drachm of corrosive sublimate, 1 fluid ounce
of rectified spirit, and 4oz. of powdered white castile
soap ; add a few drops of attar of roses or a mixture
of the oils of cassia and bitter almonds. (2) Dis-
solve 1 part by weight of sublimate in 16 parts of
alcohol, filter, and rub up with sufEcient of Voiry's
pas'te-soap. (3) Beat up into a smooth mass lib. of white
castile soap and ^oz. of protochloride of mercury dis-
solved in loz. of alcohol. Ichthyol soap is used in the
treatment of eczema and rosacea, and reduces redness of
the skin ; it may contain as much as 6 per cent, of the
sodium sulphichthyolate. Boracio soap containing
borax or boric acid has many desirable qualities ; the
soft kinds are made thus : (1) Add a borax solution to
the ordinary soft-soap ingredients either before or after
manufacture. (2) Dissolve by heat any ordinary soft soap
in a borax solution, and when cold thoroughly incorporate
the two. (3) Either by beating up in a mortar or by the
aid of gentle heat, incorporate 1 oz. of borax with lib. of
new Windsor soap. (4) Add 101b. of soda lye (15° B.) to
101b. of molten white fat tUl a clear liquid is formed, and
then add 61b. of potash lye (10» B.) and 14-lb. of borax
solution to produce a semi-solid translucent paste. (5)
For a harder soap rub up in a mortar equal parts of
sodium borate and Voiry's paste soap and press to the
shape required. Sulphur is made up into jnany soaps,
the best of which contain about 10 per cent, of very
finely divided sulphur, and are perfumed, as when used
alone sulphur gives soap a rather unpleasant smell.
Various combinations of tar, naphthol, iodides, etc.,
with sulphur are employed also. Recipes for sulphur
soaps are : (1) Beat to a smooth mass in a mortar Boz. of
freshly made white curd or castile soap, 1 oz. of levigated
flowers of sulphur, 1 fluid oz. of rectified spirit, tinted
by infusing alkanet in it, and add a few drops of attar
of roses. (2) For camphorated sulphur soap, dissolve
4 parts (b^ weight) of camphor iu 300 parts lof molten
cocoanut oil, saponify with 15D parts of soda lye (38° B.),
and add 25 parts of potassium sulphate dissolved in
13 parts of water. (3) Rub up in a mortar 1 part (by
weight) of sulphur with 9 parts of Voiry's paste soap
and press to shape. Thiosavonal is a new kind of soft
sulphur soap (soluble iu water), in the preparation of
which sulphurised oils are used. Grubes formula is:
Make fluid the thick thio oil by adding alcohol, and stir
in an equal bulk of potash lye, also thinned with alcohol.
The addition of large quantities of potash lye at one time
produces separation of the sulphur, but the danger
lessens towards the end of saponification. At last a
small excess of potash lye is added. If the liquid is
quite clear, and if a sample is soluble both in water
and in alcohol, all the thiosebacic acid has saponified.
ITeutralise the excess of alkali by adding volatile fatty
acid and free the resultant soap solution from alcohol
in a steam bath, and boil down to the consistency of
soft salve, occasionally testing for neutrality; 85 parts
of this are mixed with 15 parts of glycerine. A liquid
thiosavonal or sulphur soap may be made by boiling
down the soap solution as obtained above to the con-
sistency of syrup instead of to a salve, 88 parts then
being mixed with 12 parts of glycerine.
Filter for Bleaching Fluid.— An apparatus for filter-
ing a chloride of lime bleaching fluid may be made easily.
In the tube of a large glass funnel fix a short piece
of the stem bf a clay tobacco pipe ; on the top of tms
pile a few pieces of broken tobacco pipe, and cover them
with a layer of fine silver sand. This arrangement can
be used as a filtering bed for the bleaching fluid ; when
the bed becomes clogged and does not act properly, wash
out the funnel and refill It with fresh material m the
manner already described. Another method of clearing
bleaching fluid is to allow It to settle in a tall vessel,
and syphon off the clear liquid. A syphon is easUy
made by bending a pipe, or one may be purchased very
cheaply.
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
301
lUumlnating Powers of Various Lights for Magic
Iianterns.— The following is an aeoonnt of the work of M.
Molten! on the projection value of various Uluminants.
The measurements were made with an ordinary lantern,
the stage of which carried an opaque card In which was cut
an aperture 0'7 centimetre square, while the distance of
the lantern from the screen was such that each side of
the square on the screen measured 1 metre. The screen
was replaced hy a disc of paper, the opposite side being
illuminated hy a standard lamp burning 42 grammes of
oil per hour. The distance of the lamp was varied in
order that equality of illumination might be obtained
on the screen, and the photometric values of the light
were determined from the distance of the lamp:—
Multiple wick lamp, I'OO. Incandescent gas hurner
No. 2, no reflector, rOO. Acetylene, with no j-efleotor :
No. 1 burner, 1'06 ; No. 2 burner, VIO ; No. 3 burner, 3-20 ;
No. i burner, 4'l0 ; No, 5 burner, 4'50. Limelight ;
alcohol and oxygen, 5'80; oxy-hydrogen, 16'60. Electric
incandescent lamp, 32 candle-power, 0'68; 50 candle-
power, vertical, 0'93 ; 50 candle-power, horizontal, 0'93 i
focus 100, 3'82. Arc lamps, 7 ampfires : 39'03 ; 10 ampSres,
75'61 ; 12 amperes, 86'50 ; 15 amperes, 117'61 ; 20 ampferes,
160'80. The candle-powers of "Welsbaoh incandescent
burners are given on p. 297. It may be mentioned that
a duplex oil-lamp will give a Ught of from twenty-eight
to thirty candles.
Winding Cotton on Reels.— The method adopted by
thread manufacturers in winding cotton on ordinary
reels is to use a spooling machine. Wield's spooling
machine has been very successful, and winds a number
of spools simultaneously. Each bobbin is fixed be-
tween two conical spindles that are driven by gearing.
The cotton is guided by steel guides, threaded to corre-
spond with the pitch of the screws formed by the thread
on the spool. These guides have a reciprocal horizontal
traverse equal to the length of the spool, and gradually
increasing as the surface upon which the thread is
wound increases ; this increase arises from the bevel on
the flanges of the spools. This movement is obtained
from- a fine-pitched screw on a roller, with which two
half nuts alternately engage, one on each side of its
centre. As these are thrown into gear, they give a
traverse to the guide rail in each direction, and the
period of engagement determines the length of the
traverse. In winding, the reels fall into position from
a trough or reservoir on to a plate, which rises so as to
bring the spool between the open spindles. These close.
Immediately begin to revolve, and the guide rail begins
its horizontal motions. The thread is passed through
a spring tension cliu, which holds it tight. When the
required length of thread is wound on, winding auto-
matically ceases, and a knife, placed in an arm, descends
and outs a nick in one end of each spool ; the thread is
drawn into this nick and over another knife and out.
The spindles then open, and the spools fall down a shoot.
Another set of spools is then fed as described, and the
ends of the thread are so held that, immediately the
spindles begin to revolve, the ends are drawn on to the
spools. Twenty-six gross of spools, each spool contain-
ing 200 yd. of thread, can be wound by a machine in ten
and a-half hours.
Removing Nickel from Cycles.— Nickel may be re-
moved from cycle parts by steeping them for a short
time in commercial sulphuric acid, to which is added,
from time to time, a small quantity of nitric acid. How-
ever, owing to the corrosive nature and fumes of the acid,
the nickel is 'generally removed with emery bobs, the
work being polished ready for plating at the same time, i
Blackening Carriage Ironwork.— For blackening
carriage ironwork, japan of two kinds is employed;
one kind is known as baJdng-japan, and is hardened
by heat, whilst the other dries in the open air and at
ordinary temperatures. Baking-japan is made by
melting asphaltum, removing it from the fire, and
stirring in oil of turpentine ; its effects are per-
manent, and it does not need to be varnished ; such a
protection is necessary for ordinary air-drying japans.
Small work that has become dull by storing is dipped
into the japan, the surplus is drained off, and the work
put into an oven, where it Is maintained at a temperature
of several hundred degrees Fahrenheit for some hours.
Fine work should have a coat of dead black colour first
as the japan is transparent, and in this case may be
applied with a brush. The air-drying japanis a jet black
solution of asphaltum in turpentine ; it is brushed on
and dries quickly, but does not become so hard as the
baked japan, but it may be recommended for parts
which are not handled much. An alternative method
of blackening iron is to employ ivory black ground
in brown japan. This is made up to the consistency
of butter and is thinned with turpentine, being applied
then with a small camel-hair brush. It dries in a
few minutes, and should then be varnished. When
work is wanted in a hurry, quiok-drylng French
shellac varnish may be used- For cheap work, lamp-
black and shellac varnish wUl do admirably, but
asphaltum, of course, is to be preferred, Japan may be
applied to small articles by means of 1-in, flat badger
bass brushes having tin ferrules. When working, it
should be borne in mind that aU japans are partly trans-
parent, and that when one coat over a bright metallic
surface does not cover satisfactorily, a second coating
must be applied ; care should be taken that the first
coat of japan is quite dry before applying the next, or
rough, dull work will refeult.
Destroying Worms in Furniture.— The furniture
containing the worm or insect holes must be removed
into the open air, or into a well-ventUated room where
there is neither fire nor artificial light. Dissolve 4 oz. of
albo-carbon in 1 pt. of benzoline, and paint the furniture
with the solution ; or, if the furniture is full of small
holes, inject the solution into the holes with a syringe.
Insect life cannot survive a proper and thorough appli-
cation of this solution. If the benzoline is of good
quality, even such a delicate fabric as silk is not in-
jured by it. Another method is to saturate the wood
with ordinary petroleum ; for very bad cases, powdered
quicklime made into a paste vrith liquor ammonia can
be used. Worms freely attack unsound timber, especially
it such timber is used for inside fittings ; and furniture
kept or stored in damp rooms, or left in contact with
other worm-eaten furniture or woodwork, is sooner or
later sure to be attacked by worms. Preventive measures,
therefore, are largely in the hands of the manufacturer
and the user of furniture. Periodical examination of
suspected woodwork, and the timely application of the
remedies given above, are the best preventive measures
that can be adopted.
Sharpening Wood -carving Tools.— Wood-carving
tools difEer from the ordinary carpenter's chisels and
gouges by being bevelled on both the inner and outer
edge. The outside bevel of the curved tools is just
sufficient to give a clean edge, and is produced by
working the gouges backward and forward along the
length of the oilstone, and at the same time giving
a sweep of the wrist to bring the whole width of the
tool in contact with the stone. This is continued
until a regular burr or wire-edge is formed, and a
polished band about Jin. wide is seen following the
edge of the tool. For producing the inside bevel, slips
or stones exactly fitting the inner curve of each tool
are required. These slips may be held in the hand, or
fixed in a frame or vice. A backward and forward move-
ment of the tool soon produces the desired bevel. When
a regular burr is formed on the cutting edge, that is,
when both bevels meet, the work of the slip is finished.
A strop, covered with a mixture of grease and emery
powder, is next used on both bevels in order to remove
the burr and give a clean edge. A V- or wedge-shaped
edge is produced, which facilitates the withdrawal of
the tools from the wood after every blow. If the two
bevels are not properly produced the tool wUl snap from
impact with the wood at every attempt to withdraw it.
This often results, too, if the V of the bevels is too
slender or elongated.
Fixing Transfers on Metal and Wood.— The ground-
work of wooden or metallic articles to be decorated with
printed transfers must in all cases be first prepared.
Thus, metals are generally japanned or varnished, wood-
work being chiefiy French polished. With a camel-hair
brush, apply to the printed or face side of the design a
thin even coat of copal or carriage varnish reduced with
turpentine ; set aside for ten minutes, or until the
varnish becomes sticky or nearly dry, then place the
picture, face downwards, on the article to be decorated.
Press the transfer well down to drive out all air bubbles,
starting at the centre and pressing towards the edges.
It is essential that the transfer shall be in close con-
tact with the surface at every part. A rubber roller (a
squeegee, as used for mounting photographs) is very
useful for large prints. Having pressed the transfer
well down, set it aside untU the varnish is quite dry;
the longer the time allowed for drying the better,
especially on metals, though with careful handling the
picture may be taken off in halt an hour. With a sponge
and slightly warm water, damp the paper and press it
down again, then saturate more freely. Now lift up the
transfer at one corner and carefully peel off ; then wipe
over the print with clean water. Soak up aU moisture
by gently dabbing with a clean damp chamois leather.
When the design Is quite dry, it may be varnished or
polished. In transferring designs to glass or porcelain,
best gelatine dissolved in hot water may be used as an
adhesive; and for painted furniture, mail-carts, and
perambulators, that are finished by two or more coats of
varnish, the design may be transferred direct on the
first coat of the varnish when this is tacky or nearly
dry. In this case it is not necessary to coat the face
of the design.
302
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
Polishing Ox Horns. — Here are inatructiona on
polishing a pair ot ox horns. Komove all roughness
irom the horns hy means of a spokeshave or rasp,
followed by a soraper, a knife, the side of a chisel,
a wood scraper, etc. Then go over them with sand-
paper or glasspaper, using coarse paper first, then
finer, and the finest last. Pumice powder should next
be used, followed by the dust removed from the horn ;
these can be applied on a rag dipped in oil. Then apply
putty powder in the same way, followed by whiting
moistened with vinegar. Now iise dry cloths, commenc-
ing with a coarse one and finishing with a soft one, or
even tissue paper. Lastly, use the bai-e palm of the
band. In applying each of the above-mentioned sub-
stances plenty of 'elbow grease " must be used, and the
work must be very carefully dusted between successive
stages to remove any trace of coarse grit. The use of a
lathe with calico mops, etc., if procurable, will save
time and labour and will give a better result.
Cleaning Acetylene Gas Bnrners. — Acetylene
burners are most conveniently cleaned with a very fine
needle fixed firmly in a handle; but a piece of very
fine wire of a stiffness eaual to a needle, if obtainable,
will do just as well. As a rule, fine wires are soft, and a
stiff wire of the required fineness could not be so easily
obtained as a fine needle.
Cramping Picture Framesl — Of the dozens of
methods of cramping picture frames the following has
been recommended as being cheap and efficient. After
shooting the joints, glue them, and place the frame on
the bench. With a piece of cord bind the frame three
times round the outside : then lift the cord from the
FIG. I Fig. 2
Cramping Picture Frames.
edge of the moulding, and between the cord and the
edge of the frame insert eight wood blocks, fin. or liu.
square and Sin. long; see Fig. 1. Now with thumb and
finger press the mitres into position, so that the
members intersect properly, and then draw the blocks
towards the mitres, as in Fig. 2 ; this cramps the whole.
When the frame is dry, remove the cramp, and carefully
brad the mitres, boring the holes first with a bradawl,
with the frame fla^ on the bench.
Poising a Watch Balance.— To poise a watch balance,
first remove the hairspring and brush the balance and
pivots clean. Then place the balance on the parallel
edges of a poising tool or in a pair of callipers and allow
it to settle. It will always rest with the heavy part
downwards. Gentle tapping of the callipers assists it to
settle. With a plain balance, lighten the heavy part by
filing the inner under edge of the rim ; with a balance
having screws, reduce a screw lightly or add washers to
the light screws.
Laying a Tiled Hearth.— A trowel, float, straight-
edge, and a pair of carpenter's pincers will be required.
First mix cement and sand and make the hearth quite
level and at a depth that will allow of the tiles, when
laid, lining with the floor. This would make the
cement hearth about 4 in below the floor level, according
to the thickness of the tile. Lay the tiles while the
cement hearth is still moist. Commence at the front
edge and work back towards the grate, using the
straightedge occasionally to see that all the tiles are
quite level. See that the division lines between the tiles
are kept straight and true, as tiles sometimes differ in
size a trifle. Try and slip the edges of the tiles under
the grate ; if this is not possible, and they must be cut,
use a pair of carpenter's pincers. Nip pieces off until
the tile is the desired size and shape. With a chisel
there is danger of breaking the tiles and the cutting
takes much longer; however, tiles are chiselled as
described on p. 241. Previous to laying the tiles, they
should be well soaked In a pail of water placed at the
side ot the tile layer, and taken from this direct to ths
hearth. Some lay the tiles without cement, and iust
float a little (as thin as milk) over afterwards to run in
the joints. It is better to have a little cement as thick
as cream, on a board and just rub the bottom of the
tile on this as it passes from the pail to the hearth This
applies to 4-in. tiles and smaller. For 6-in. tiles a thin
layer ot the cement might be put on with a' trowel
Cement should not be placed on the edges of the tiles ■ it
makes an ugly job. (See also p. 244.)
Re-varnlshlng a Jaunting Car.— Here are instruc-
tions on treating a jaunting car the varnish of which
is very much worn. Scrape off all the old varnish to the
wood, then glasspaper down, working with the grain of
the wood. The ironwork should be scraped with an old
plane-iron or knife, and then glasspapered. To stain the
body darker than the natural wood, give a coat of burnt
umber ground in turps, working it well into the grain
with a stiff brush, and wiping off the surplus on the face
of the wood. When the stain is thbroughly dry, lightly
glasspaper over with the grain of the wood, to remove
any small parts that may have risen, and after dusting
off, give a coat of pale gold size to which about an eighth
part of raw linseed oil has been added. This, when hard
IS lightly glasspapered off, and another coat of size with
rather less oil is given. This, when dry, is treated the
same as the flrst coat, and a coat of varnish and gold
size is applied. Before putting on the next coat, the one
just given will require flatting. This is done with a pad
of cloth and ground pumice-stone, using plenty of
water to prevent scratching. When the surface has been
gone over, well wash with water to remove evei-y particle
of dust from the quirks and corners, then give a coat of
carriage varnish known as under-coating. Let this
stand for a couple of days to get hard, then flatdown as
before, and give a full coat of pale carriage varnish. This
should be sufttcient for an ordinary job, but for good
work another coat should be given. The ironwork
should have two coats of light lead colour and one coat
much darkei', with light glasspapering between the coats
to remove nibs, etc. Then give a coat of dead black, one
coat of shiny black, and one or two coats of black japan,
the whole being got up with the body so as to be included
in the varnishing when the body is done. The work
should be done in a dry place, free from draughts, and
kept at a temperature of about 75' F.
Copying Printed Plptnres by Photographic Trans-
fer. — The process ot transferring printed pictures
photographically is as follows. Place any printed'
picture, face downwards, on a sensitive photographic
dry plate, expose freely to the light, and pass a warm
iron over both plate and picture. The heat and the
pressure will transfer, more or less successfully, the
printed picture from the paper to the plate. Then
immerse the plate in a bath composed of a saturated
solution of ferrous sulphate 1 part and a saturated solu.
tion of potassium oxalate a parts. This bath will
blacken all those iiarts of the plate that are not covered
with the greasy printing ink. Einse the plate 'in water ;
after which the plate must be rubbed over with a weak
solution of ammonia and then placed in the fixing bath.
Prom the negative thus obtained any number of -copies
may be made. Where only one copy is required the
flxing is done flrst.
Covering Roofs with Oak Shingling.— Oak shingles
as a roof covering have a good appearance after they
have become somewhat weathered. They are made from
the ordinary rended oak pales, and must be riven out of
as straight-grained oak as can be obtained ; in no case
must they be sawn. Shingles that are of fairly equal
thickness, and have little or no sap, should be chosen.
Pales 4 ft. 6 in. or 6 ft. in length may; be most economically
cut up into shingles 18 in. long, which is theiisual length,
their width being from Sin. to Sin. It is not advisable
to give them a greater width than 5 in., or they will be
likely to curl excessively. They are usually abolit 1 in. m
thickness at one end, and taper off towai'ds the other.
The roof In preparation for the shingling must first be
close-boarded. The shingling is then started with an
eaves course of shingles from 10 in. to 12 in., long, and
from this the work proceeds in the same manner as that
of ordinary roof slating, with a 6-in. lap. Each shingle
has two nails driven through it at, say 11 in. from the
foot of the shingle, so that each shingle is eventually
held by four nails, the nails being machine wrought,
about li in. long, and with rose heads. Boring is not re-
quired, tor if the shingles are wetted a little they will be
easily pierced by the nails and there will be no danger
of their splitting. At the hips, the shingles are mitred
with a shingling axe over a secret gutter lined with lead.
The cost of shingling is more than that of slating, but it
is greatly superior in stability; and If the work is
properly executed, repairs are almost wholly unneces-
sary. Winter-felled shingles will last fifty years or more.
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
303
PartloularB of Asbestos.— As^ieetos, a fibrous foi-m
ol amphibole or hornblende, is composed principally
of sUioa, magnesia, lime, and oxide of iron. Some-
times asbestos is a compact substance, the fibres being
stiff and brittle, whilst in other samples the fibres are
easily separable, being then elastic and flexible ; the fibres
may be reduced to a powder which is soft to the touch.
In colour, asbestos varies, and is found in whitish
shades of green and grey, passing into brown, red, or
black. Asbestos is nearly incombustible, and being a very
low conductor of heat, finds its application in almost
every department of industry. It Is mined in Siberia,
Switzerland, Spain, Italy, the United Kingdom, and in
many parts of Canada and the United States. On being
detached from the surrounding rook by blasting, the
blocks of asbestos are examined, pounded in such a
manner as not to break the fibres," and these are
then sorted into different lengths. The fibres, which in
good specimens may be 20 in. long, are treated in
much the same way as are ordinary textile threads;
asbestos cannot, however, be felted, and the prbcess of
concentration through which, in consecLuence, the fibres
must pass renders the manufacture of asbestos tissues
veiT difficult. Eock-cork asbestos resembles vegetable
cork, is soft and easily cut, and is sufficiently light to
float on water. Eock-leather or mountain-leather and
rock-wood or mountain-wood resemble rock-cork, but are
heavier ; rock-wood has somewhat the structure of wood.
Other varieties are fossU-paper and fossil-fiax, which
have respectively a paper-like and a flax-like texture.
Amianthus asbestos is a very superior kind, and is capable
of being woven into the finest of tissues. Blue asbestos
is more correctly termed crocidolite, which is a mineral
composed of silica, iron, and sodium; It has a fibrous
structure and a delicate blue colour.
Dimensions of FisMng Bods.— For an 18-ft. salmon
rod, the top should be of lancewood, the second
and third joints of greenheart, the butt of hickory,
and the ferrules i in., i in., and 4 in. For a 16-ft.
salmon fly-rod, the top should be of greenheart
or lancewood, the second joint of lancewood,
the third joint and the butt of hickory, and the
ferrules I'jin., fjin., and Ain- For a sea-trout
rod, make the top of lancewood, and the other
parts of bamboo or red deal ; the ferrules should
be i in., i in., and | in. For a trout rod for fly ,
fishing, the top should be half greenheart and '
half lancewood, the second joint lancewood, and i< —
the butt greenheart or hickory; or the rod may
be made entirely of split cane ; the ferrules should
be iin. and fjin. A cycle rod may be made in five
parts, each part about 2ft. Sin. long; the top should be
of split cane or lancewood, the second joint lancewood,
the third and fourth joints greenheart, and the butt
hickory; the ferrules should be t'sIu., i^in., iin., and
iin., and the winch fittings 14 in.
Enamelling Cycle.- Enamelling processes are of two
kinds, either cold enamelling or stoving. If the enamel
is not to be stoved, the metal must be smoothed as
much as possible with the file and with a fine emery
cloth. A very thin coat of enamel should then be
applied, and after it is di-y it should be smoothed with
the finest glasspaper ; two more coats may then be given,
each coat being smoothed with glasspaper. Up to this
stage the object has been to obtain a perfectly uniform
surface and not to produce a glossy coat. The last coat
may consist either of the best copal varnish or of the
enamel paint, and it should dry with a lustre. If stoving
Is employed, a black stoving enamel must be used ; the
method of applying the enamel is practically the same
in both cases.
Making Cushions for Pony Cart. —For best work
pony cart cushions should be covered with all-wool
cloth; for hard wear, a French carpet or Oxford
cord may be found suitable ; whilst American cloth is
used for the cheaper kinds of cushions. An ordinary
square cushion is made up of a top, bottom, two sides,
and two ends, and is about 3 in. deep. In marking
?? i ^^®' S'llowance must be made for the seams at
the top and bottom corners. Before sewing the sides
and top together, make some seaming lace, which is
sold without the cord worked in ; the seaming cord
IS tacked into the laee, the tag of which is worked
in when sewing the cushion together, so that the pipe
formed by the cord covers the seam. The cushion
le made wrong side out, and is stitched round at the top
and nearly round at the bottom edge, a space of about
".'D. being left undone for stuffing. Turn the cushion
rignt side out, and fasten it, bottom downwards, on a
Bench with a tab and garnish awl or nail at each corner,
and proceed with the stuffing. For best work, good
wnite curled horsehair is used ; and for inferior work,
cotton waste or flock, alva, or cocoa fibre. Practice is
required to get the stufBng fairly even and equal, for
which purpose a stick, about 2ft. 6 in. long by Iin. wide
and tin. thick, tapered off to iin. thick at the tip, is
used ; a small notch should be out in the top of the stick
with which to carry along the hair. Alter the cushion is
filled, sew up the space in the sides and set it all well
down with the palm of the hand, striking the cushion
smartly all over. To put in the buttons or tufts, mark
the position of each Dutton with a compass and piece
of chalk on the top of the cushion ; string sufficient
buttons for the job, leaving the strings long enough to
handle and tie up on the bottom ; put the strings through
the eye of a quilting needle, and push the latter through
square from the top ; make a hole across some buttons
on the inner or cloth side, lace the ends of the strings
which came through the cushion through these buttons
for the bottom, and tie down tight and close, so that the
knot of the twine is hidden beneath the button. In
cutting off the ends, be careful not to cut the material
or the twine higher up. Treat the remaining buttons in
a similar manner, taking care to tie them all down
aUke. The tools required are scissors, needles for
sewing, a quilting needle, a stuffing stick, a 3-ft. rule or
tape measure, and a knife. Cloth is supplied in B6-in.
and 60-ln. widths, French carpets in 36-in. widths.
Setting Out Railway Wagon Brake Blocks.— The
illustration shows the various radii employed in setting
out a brake block for- a standard railway wagon. The
diameter of the wheel is 3 ft. 1 in., and the radius for the
sole of the brake block is half the diameter of the wheel-
Setting Out Railway Wagon Brake Blocks.
that is, 1ft. 6nn., as it is the rule to set out the blocks
to the same radius as the wheels on the tread.
Mounting Large Photographs.— Methods of mount-
ing photographic prints are explained on pp. 21 and
97, but the following refers to the mounting of large
photographs measuring about loin, by 20 in. Having
squared the print, turn it face downwards on a clean
newspaper and pass a damp sponge over the back;
at this the photo will usually rise and roll up, only,
however, to stretch out quite flat a few minutes later on
a second application of the sponge. The next thing is to
cover the back evenly with strong starch paste, taking
care that the edges are well coated. The end of the print
nearest the operator is now raised by placing a table-knife
under it, and is removed with the finger and thumb of
both hands to a large sheet of cardboard, where it is again
placed lace downwards in such a position as to leave the
required margin showing all round. A clean cardboard
is now placed level with the far edge of that on which
the picture is resting and allowed to drop gently into
contact. Having rubbed well-over the back of it with
both hands, the top card may be raised, when the photo-
graph will be found to adhere ; and if the rubbing has
been thorough no air blisters will be visible, the margin
will be found correct, and nothing remains but to place
the mounted picture between boards to keep it straight
during the drying. The mounting of photographic
panoramic views is different, as the sections must be
pasted, placed in position, and rubbed down separately;
take care to put the joins exact, and to press down
thoroughly where they meet or overlap as the case
may be. The best and, in fact, only sure method is to
keep the section well up off the cardboard with the
right hand until the left edge has been placed in
position and made to intersect with the landscape ; it
may then be dropped and carefully rubbed down. This
process is repeated until the picture is complete.
304
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
.J^^?, Conversion of Thermometer Degrees.— In thermometer owes Its system of numeration to G n
the Fahrenheit thermometer, the freezing point of Fahrenheit, a German physicist living in Holland earlV
water (actually the temperature of melting ice) is in the eighteenth century, and elected a Fellow of the
TABLE rOR CONVERSION OP THEEMOMETEE DEGREES.
c.
F.
E.
C.
F.
R,
0.
P.
R.
C.
F.
. ^-
32
25-5
78
20-4
50-6
123
40-4
75-5
188
60-4
•5
33
■4
26
78-8
20-8
51
123-8
40-8
76
168-8
60-8
1
33-8
■8
26-1
79
20-88
51-1
124
40-88
76-1
169
60'88
11
3t
•88
26-2
79-2
21
51-2
124-2
41
76-2
169-2
61
1-2
34-2
1
26-6
80
21-3
51-6
125
41-3
76-6
170
61-3
1-6
35
1-3
27
80-6
21-6
52
125-6
41-6
77
170-6
61-6
2
S)-6
1-6
27-2
81
21-7
62-2
126
417
77-2
171
617
2-2
36
17
27-5
81-5
22
52-5
126-6
42
77-6
171-5
62
2-5
36-5
2
277
82
22-2
527
127
42-2
777
172
62-2
2-7
37
2-2
28
82-4
22-4
53
127-4
42-4
78 -
172-4
62-4
3
37-4
2-4
28-3
83
22-6
63-3
128
42-6
78-3
173
62-6
3-3
38
2-6
287
837
23
637
1287
43
787
1737
63
3-7
387
3
28-8
84
23-1
63-8
129
43-1
78-8
174
63-1
3-8
39
3-1
29
84-2'
23-2
64
129-2
43-2
79
174-2
63-2
4
39-2
3-2
29-4
85
23-5
54-4
130
43-5
79-4
175
63-6
4-4
40
3-5
30
86
24
65
131
44
80
176
64
5
41
4
30-5
87
24-4
65-5
132
44-4
80-5
177
64-4
5-5
42
4-4
31
87-8
24-8
56
132-8
44-8
81
177-8
64-8
6
42-S
4-8
311
88
24-88
66-1
133
44-88
81-1
178
64-88
6-1
43
4-88
31-2
88-2
25
56-2
133-2
45
81-2
178-2
66
6-2
43-2
5
31-6
89
25-3
56-6
134
45-3
81-6
179
65-3
6-6
44
5-3
32
89-6
25-6
57
134-6
45-6
82
179-6 -
65-6
7
44-6
5-6
32-2
90
257
57-2
135
467
82-2
180
657
7-2
4S
57
32-5
90-5
26
67-5
135-5
46
82-5 .
180-5
66
7-5
45-5
6
327
91
26-2
677
136
46-2
827
181
66-2
77
46
6-2
33
91-4
26-4
68
136-4
46-4
83
181-4
66-4
8
46-4
6-4
33-3
92
26-6
68-3
137
46-6
83-3
182
66-6
8-3
47
6-6
337
927
27
587
1377
47
837
1827
67
87
477
7
33-8
83
27-1
58-8
138
47-1
83-8
183
67-1
8-8
48
7-1
31
93-2
27-2
59
138-2
47-2
84
183-2
67-2
g
48-2
7-2
34-4
94
27-5
59-4
139
47-5
84-4
184
67-5
9-4
49
7-5
35
95
28
60
140
48
85
185
68
10
50
8
35-5
96
28-4
60-5
141
48-4
85-5
186
68-4
10-5
51
8-4
36
96-8
28-8
61
141-8
48-8
86
186-8
68-8
11
51-8
8-8
36-1
97
28-88
61-1
142
48-88
86-1
187
68-88
111
52
8-88
36-2
97-2
29
61-2
142-2
49
86-2
1S7-2
69
11-2
52-2
9
36-6
98
29-3
61-6
143
49-3
86-6
183
69-3
11-6
53
9-3
37
98-6
29-6
62
143-6
49-6
87
188-6
69-6
12
B3-6
9-6
37-2
99
297
62-2
144
497
87-2
189
69-7
12-2
54
97
37-5
99-5
30
62-5
144-5
60
87-5
189-5
70
12-5
54-5
10
37-7
100
30-2
627
145
60-2
877
190
70-2
127
55
10-2
38
100-4
30-4
63
145-4
60-4
88
190-4
70-4
13
55-4
10-4
38-3
101
30-6
63-3
146
50-6
88-3
191
70-6
13-3
56
10-6
387
1017
31
63-7
146-7
51
887
1917
71
137
567
11
38-8
102
31-1
63-8
147
51-1
88-8
192
71-1
13-8
57
11-1
39
102-2
31-2
64
147-2
61-2
89
192-2
71-2
14
57-2
11-2
39-4
103
31-5
64-4
148
51-5
89-4
193
71-5
14-4
58
U-5
40
104
32
65
149
62
90
194
72
15
59
12
40-5
105
32-4
65-5
1.50
52-4
90-5
195
72-4
15-5
60
12-4
41
105-8
32-8
66
150-8
52-8
91
195-8
72-8
16
60-8
12-8
41-1
106
32-88
66-1
151
52-88
91-1
196
72-88
161
61
12-88
41-2
106-2
33
66-2
151-2
53
91-2
196-2
73
16-2
61-2
13
41-6
107
33-3
66-6
152
53-3
91-6
197
73-3
10-6
62
13-3
42
107-6
33-6
67
152-6
53-6
92
197-6
73-6
17
62-6
13-6
42-2
108
337
67-2
153
53-7
92-2
198
737
17-2
63
137
42-5
108-5
34
67-5
153-0
64
92-5
198-5
74
17-5
63-5
14
42-7
109
34-2
677
154
64-2
927
199
74-2-
177
64
14-2
43
109-4
34-4
68
154-4
64-4
93
199-4
74-4
18
64-4
14-4
43-3
110
34-6
68-3
1-55
54-6
93-3
200
74-6
18-3
65
14-6
437
1107
35
687
1557
65
937
2007
75
187
657
15
43-8
lU
35-1
68-8
156
55-1
93-8
201
75-J
18-8
66
151
44
111-2
35-2
69
156-2
65-2
94
201-2
75-2
19
66-2
15-2
44-4
112
35-5
69-4
157
66-6
94-4
202
75-5
19-4
67
15-5
45
113
36
70
158
66
96
203
76
80
68
16
45-5
114
36-4
70-5
159
66-4
95-5
204
76-4
20-6
69
16-4
46
U4-8
36-8
71
169-8
56-8
96
204-8
76-8
21
69-8
16-8
46-1
115
36-88
71-1
160
56-88
96-1
205
76-88
21-1
70
16-88
46-2
115-2
37
71-2
160-2
67
96-2
205-2
77
21-2
70-2
17
46-6
116
37-3
71-6
161
67-3
96-6
206
T7-3
21-6
71
17-3
47
116-6
37-6
72
161-6
67-6
97
206-6
77-6
22
71-6
17-6
47-2
117
377
72-2
162
677
97-2
207
777
22-2
72
177
47-5
117-5
38
2-5
162^5
58
97-5
207-5
78
22-5
72-5
18
477
118
38-2
72-7
163
58-2
977
208
78-2
227
73
18-2
48
118-4
38-4
73
163-4
58-4
98
208-4
78-4
23
73-4
18-4
48-3
119
38-6
73-3
164
58-6
98-3
209
78-6
23'3
74
18-6
487
119-7
39
73-7
1647
59
987
2037
79
237
747
19
48-8
120
39-1
73-8
165
69-1
98-8
210
79-1
23-8
75
19-1
49
120-2
39-2
74
165-2
69-2
99
211-2
79-2
24
75-2
19-2
49-4
121
39-5
74-4
166
59-5
99-4
211
79-5
24-4
70
19-5
50
122
40
75
167
60
100
212
80
25
77
20
Indicated by the number 32, and the boiling point by
312; in the Centigrade insti-ument, these respective
temperatures are indicated by and 100, and In the
Etoumur instrument, by and 80. The first-named
Royal Society of London in 1724 ; the Fahrenheitthermo-
meter is used principally in Great Britain and HoUantt.
The Centigrade thermometer, invented in 1742 by Anders
Celsius, a Swede, is the standard instrument for soientmo
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
305
investigations ; whilst thie Etoumur thermometer, which
iB the invention of a Frenchman of that name contem-
porary with Celsius, is used In Germany and Bussia, but
IB being superseded. On the Continent the Centigrade
Instrument, which is in popular use there. Is known as
the Celsius thermometer. To convert P. degrees to C,
5
subtract 32 and multiply by g; for example, T7° F. =
(TT - 32) X 5 ^ 2g„ p ^^ convert P. degrees to B.,
4
subtract 32 and multiply by g; for example, 77" F. =
(T7-.32) xi ^ ^g. jj rpo convert C . degrees to F., multiply
by = and add 32 ; for example, 25° C. = (^ — g 1- 32 j =
4
TT F. To convert C. degrees to E.., multiply by g; for
25 X 4
example, 25° C. = — g — = 20° K. To convert R. degrees
9
to F., multiply by -j and add 32 ; for example, 20° E. =
/20 xj ^ g2^ ^ ^, p rpo convert R. degrees to C,
multiply by 4 J for example, 20° R. = — j— = 25° C. The
tables on the previous page provide for the conversion of
any degree between the freezing and boiling points of
water in any one of the three systems above noted to
either of the other systems.
Sand in Mortar.— In making mortar, sand is mixed
with lime with a twofold purpose. Lime without sand
sets or hardens so slowly as to he almost useless as
mortar; but the addition of sand makes the mixture
porous, and the carbonic acid in the atmosphere ob-
taining access to the lime sets up chemical action
and causes the mixture of lime and sand to set or
harden. The action of setting causes pure lime to con-
tract largely in bulk; the admixture of sand with the
lime prevents such contraction. Sand is added to
Portland cement for economical reasons. This cement,
used without sand. Is exceedingly strong; for all
ordinary purposes, this strength is unnecessary, and
when the addition of sand does not unduly reduce the
strength of the mixture, cement and sand may be
economically used together.
Preserving Cut Flowers.— Perhaps the easiest way
of lengthening by many months the life of cut
flowers is to dip them immediately after gathering
into weak gum water, and after allowing them to
drain for a few minutes to arrange them in a vase.
The gum forms a protective coat on the flowers,
and preserves their shape and colour for months after
they have become dry. To preserve flowers for merely
two weeks or so, keep their stalks In a weak solution of
saltpetre or carbonate of soda in water. By standing a
vase of cut flowers in the centre of a flat dish In which
is a little water, and Inverting a bell glass over the vase,
the flowers will be surrounded with a moist atmosphere,
and their life will be prolonged. Or, instead, when
treating small and short-stemmed flowers, insert them in
damp silver sand and invert a tumbler or a bell glass
over them. The forms and colours of flowers can be pre-
served tor a long time by treating them as follows :
Provide a cylinder having a removable cover and
bottom ; stretch a piece of metallic gauze over the top,
replace the cover, and invert the vessel. Sift a quantity
of sand, sufficient to fill the vessel, and gently heat
over the lire in an iron pot, well stirring in ioz. of
stearin for every 100 oz. of sand ; a greater proportion
of stearin sinks to the bottom and Injures the flowers.
Place the latter on the gauze in the inverted vessel and
pour in the mixture of sand and stearin so gently that
the leaves and flower petals are not caused to touch
one another. Replace the bottom of the vessel and
keep in a hot place for eighteen hours ; then remove the
cover and the sand wlU run away through the gauze,
leaving uninjured the flowers, which will be found to
have retained their natural colours. Another method
18 to embed the flowers in a mixture of ecLual parts
of plaster-of-Parls and lime, and gradually to heat
them to a temperature of 100° P. (38° C). On re-
moval from the mixture the flowers look dusty, but if
left for an hour, so as to absorb atmospheric moisture,
the dust can be removed vrithout injuring the flowers.
Often a hoary appearance is left, even after dusting,
and this is removed by coating once or twice with a
varnish made by dissolving 5 oz. of dammar in 16 oz. of
oil of turpentine, adding 16 oz. of benzoUne and straining
through muslin. Another suitable varnish is made by
dissolving 1 part of transparent copal in 25 parts of
ether, mixing in 1 part of sand and straining through
muslin. When using this latter varnish, immerse the
an
flowers for two minutes, dry for ten minutes, and repeat
these operations five or six times. Also, the hoary
appearance may be removed by immersion in a
solution of 30 gr. of salicylic acid in 1 qt. of water.
A method resembling one previously described is the
following: Thoroughly dry and sift 1,000 parts of fine
white sand and well mix with a solution of 3 parts of
stearin, 3 parts of paraffin, and 3 parts of salicylic acid
in 100 parts of alcohol. Spread out the sand, allow it to
dry, and with it cover the bottom of a box and lay the
out flowers on this bed of sand. Dust on the sand very
gently until the flowers are covered, close the box, and
maintain it at a temperature of from 86° to 104° F. (30° to
40° 0.) for two or three days. "Withered flowers should be
freshened before being treated as above by being dipped
into alcoholic solutions of suitable aniline colours.
Postage Stamp Photographs.— In a postage stamp
camera a batter.y of small lenses is always employed,
both for the sake of speed and for economy, and for
these lenses a square bellows is essential. Postage
stamp photographs may, however, he produced as fol-
lows. Make (to serve as a copy) a negative, postage
stamp size, on a i-plate or on a smaller plate, and flx
this negative in the centre of a glass in a 12-in, by 10-in.
frame, placing between it and the glass a sheet of
white, smooth card in which a hole the exact size of the
small negative has been out. This card serves as a mask
for the dry plate on which the negative is to be multi-
plied. A trial should be made on a small plate in order
to ascertain the exposure necessaiy to give the correct
contrast and gradation in the finished negative— tor it
must be borne in mind that the plate exposed behind the
"
1
m
I
QI
I
I
■
.
-\
!
■
[
..
u
--
-J
--
L-
.J
Postage Stamp Photographs.
negative will give a positive from which the final nega-
tive (tliat Is, the negative from which the prints are to
be obtained) must be made in a second exposure. The
white card is then ruled into spaces as shown in the
diagram, and the negative is placed for the first exposure
as indicated by the dotted lines. Now move the negative
forward one square after each exposure till the end of
the row is reached, when the operation is repeated along
the remaining rows of squares. Of course, tne exposures
must all he made to the same light and at exactly the
same distance from the li^ht. This method of multi-
plying a negative is ..far simpler than at first sight
appears, for, when properly understood, the whole series
of exposures may be made in a surprisingly short time.
From the positive so obtained several negatives may
be made from which thousands of photographs may be
printed in a day.
Testing Crimson lake.— A pure crimson lake
contains the colouring matter of the cochineal, known
as carmine, precipitated on a base of alumina, but
scarlet lakes contain vermUion. A pure crimson lake
should dissolve entirely in a solution of caustic soda,
yielding a bluish-carmine solution, and it wlU pre-
cipitate out again by carefully neutralising with
dilute acid. As a rule, pure crimson lake does not yield
colour to alcohol, whereas the aniline so-called lake
colours usually tint alcohol very strongly because the
colours are but weakly held by the base. The colour
of cochineal lake becomes bluer with ammonia and
yellower with an acid, but the behaviour of lakes con-
taining aniline colours will vary with the nature of
the colour used. Crimson lake, when carefully heated
in a porcelain dish, should burn away, leaving a small
quantity of a light white ash ; a large amount of residue,
either white or coloured, shows evidence of adulteration
vrith mineral matter. Cfrimsou lake, being a bad drying
pigment, should be ground with boiled oil, if oU is used ;
but it would be better to apply the lake ground in turps
and to varnish over it, or to grind it in a quick-drying
varnish. In any case it is a fugitive colour, fading in
bright sunlight very rapidly
306
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
Cleaning Silk Tapestry Covers.— Some furniture
silks are heavily charged with Ailing or dressing,
leaving very little body or strength to the fabric. It
is next to impossible to make such silks look present-
able after being subjected to one of the wet cleaning
lirocesses which very often discharge the colours.
All grease spots must first be removed. To do this,
make up a solution consisting of Jpt. of water, ipt. of
benzine, i oz. of ammonia, and i oz. of a strong solu-
tion of sal-soda ; mix in a bottle and well shake, then let
It stand for a few hours. Make a soft rag pad or rubber,
and slightly damp (not wet) it with the liquid, and with
this rub the spots gently until they disappear. Allow
the surface to pet thoroughly dry, then sprinkle with
dry oatmeal, which must be well rubbed in with a furni-
ture brush. As the oatmeal gets dirty, supply fresh, and
finally brush it all out. In place of oatmeal, dryfuller's-
earth can be used.
Making Insect Cases.— The construction of a case to
hold butterflies, moths, etc., is very simple. Make an
ordinary box of the size required, and across the middle
put a partition dividing the box into two ; hinge the
lids as shown in Fig. 1, and fasten them with hasps,
locks, or straps. Pig. 2 shows the construction of
another form of case. Assuming that the insects are to
be "set" in the field and pinned inside the box, the
whole of the inside of the box, may be covered with
entomological cork, procured in sheets about J in.
use these saws, drive the lathe at fviU speed, apply
the material to be rounded to the saw, and feed witii
the hack-centre. Boring may be done in a similar
manner. To get a polish on ebonite or vulcanite
several grades of emery cloth may be used while the
work is revolving in the lathe, finishing with putty
powder sprinkled on an oily piece of blanket or thick
cloth, and, finally, with dry putty powder (oxide of tin) or
whiting on a soft leather. A single piece of ebonite or
vulcanite may also be partly turned, filed to shape, and
scraped and polished by hand, using the materials above
mentioned, but in the finishing of large quantities
time is saved and the work Is done more effectually if
polishing dollies are used.
Improving Thin Photographic Negative.— When it
is desired to impi'ove a very thin photographic negative
so as to yield a fairly good picture, first ascertain
whether the negative is thoroughly free from hypo.
This is essential, no matter what process of in-
tensification is employed. The negative may be
tested for hypo hy mtxiug with a weak solution
of iodide of starch some of the final drippings from
the negative when it is removed from the washin"
water. If hypo is present in the film the colour of the
starch will be discharged. Or, as a precautionary
measure, the negative may he placed for a time in a
2-per-oent. solution of anthion, which readily removes
hypo from the film, and then weU rinsed in water. To
FlQ. 2
Insect Cases.
thick ; though this would be very bad policy, as the box
will hold comparatively few. Collectors always place
the captives in envelopes and *'set" them at home.
The usual method is as follows. On catching the insect,
pinch it under the wings between the finger and thumb,
when it will at once be killed, and its wings will be close
together, thus preventing the "view side" from being
rubbed. Now take a small square of paper, and crease it
as shown hy the dotted lines in Fig. 3. By folding 1 over
2 and 3 over 1 a triangular envelope is formed, into
which the insect is dropped ; fold i over 3, and the insect
will be in the position shown by Fig. t. Of course, the
cork is not necessary in this case.
Turning and Polishing Ebonite and Vulcanite.—
To turn ebonite and vulcanite, use tools of good
steel, but sharpened at about the same angles as for
hardwood, ivory, and brass. Bough out with a round-
nose tool, and finish with a flat-faced brass-finishing
tool or scraper. Kun the lathe at a moderate
speed, and take light cuts. To save time and material,
the ebonite and vulcanite slabs may be cut into
square pieces with a fine eirouiar saw provided with
a shifting fence or guide. Next get several pieces of
steel tubing of a length and diameter that will most
nearly fit the shajie of the required work. Soften the
tubes by placing in a moderate fire, and leave them
there till the fire dies out. Then, with a saw-file, notch
one end of the tube like a saw, and harden and temper to
a straw colour. Now prepare a wood chuck, to hold this
cylindrical saw, by boring a hole in the face right
through the block and slightly smaller than the tube, so
that it may be driven home truly. This is of importance,
as if the arrangement does not run dead true it will not
act. Cylindrical saws on this principle may be used
with success when hollow cylinders are to be cut out of
the solid, as for ivory, though, in the latter case, the
saws would be better held in a self-centring chuck. To
intensify a negative, a portion of the image consisting of
metallic silver must first be converted into silver
chloride, and to bring about this result the negative is
placed in a solution (a saturated solution of mercuric
chloride) from which chlorine can be absorbed. In this
solution the negative remains until it is bleached white.
The degree of bleaching governs the degree of Intensi-
fication, but must not be overdone. Next wash the nega-
tive well for ten minutes to free it from any excess of
mercuric chloride. The negative is then placed until it
becomes black in a 10-per-cent. solution of sulphite of
soda. During the immersion the dishes oontaimiig
both solutions should be rocked, to avoid uneven
markings. The density, particularly of the lights, will
be found to be considerably increased alter the
blackening of the negative. There are other methods
of intensification, and the most populaT of .thein
(probably because a long range of effects is obtainable
with It) is to blacken with ammonia, but the mercury
and soda process described above is the one more likely
to be successful in the hands of a beginner, as there is
with this process a greater freedom from stains than
with mercury and ammonia. Intensification is not
necessarily permanent, therefore negatives tl.J.t haTe
been so treated require careful preservation. The pro-
cess may, of course, be carried out in full dayligni.
Contrasts may also be forced up by printing from tne
negative on bromide paper.
Malting Peroxide of Hydrogen.-Peroxide of hydro-
gen is made by suspending barium peroxide in water ana
adding the requisite quantity of dilute sulphuric acid.
Barium sulphate is precipitated and hydrogen peroxiae
remains in solution and is ooncentiated at orttinari
temperature in a partial vacuum over sulphuric aoia.
Seventeen parts of barium peroxide will pji"™ ix
parts of strong sulphuric acid, previously diluted wim w
parts of water, for Its decomposition.
Cyclopsedia of Mechanics.
307
Xle-inlclne; Tyi>eTvritcr Ribbons.— Fuw quite satisfac-
tory methods of ro-iiiJdnK tyiiewrlter ribbons are known.
By a simple method, the ribbon is stretched and drawn
over a bottle, the ink being brushed ou as the ribbon
passes. I ' se only a little ink and apply it to but one side
of the ribbon. Another method would be to pass the
ribbon between two pads, one or both of which could bo
inked. Or it m-ny ribbons were to be dealt with, a
frame carrying two felt-covered rollers could be con-
structed. One roller could be turned by a crank, the
necesnary motion being conveyed to the other roller by
friction. An arrangement could easily be made by
means "of which the rollers could be supplied with
ink, and the ribbons could then be inked easily by
merely passing them between the rollers.
Jewelling the Pallets of a Regulator Clock.— In
jewelling a pair of dead-beat, regulator pallets, the
pallets must first be softened, then wide and deep
slots must be filed out where the teeth engage with
them. Jewels (rubles, garnets, or agates) are then cut
and polished to fit exactly the grooves and are cemented
in with shellac. Their outside surfaces are then polished
off flush with the steel on all faces. For rubies and
garnets, the cutting and polishing is done on steel or
iron laps with diamond dust. Agates, being softer, can
be cut by emery used in the same way.
Bath and Dipper for Ferrotype Photography.—
An upright bath (Fig. 1) is the more convenient form for
use in the ferrotype process of photography. This bath
is not very easy to make, and can be purchased very
Fig. 1 FIG. 2
Bath and Dipper for Ferrotype Photography.
cheaply. A flat porcelain dish may be used as a bath,
buf must be kept well covered as it offers a large surface
for the deposition of dust. For a dipper (Fig. 2), out a
piece of glass A and attach with good cement a strip at B.
The plate then rests on B face up and may be lowered
gently into the bath.
Slaking a Theatrical Bald Wig.— The foundation
of a theatrical bald wig is made of stout brown caUoo,
which is cut, sewn, and fitted to a barber's block, as is
explained on p. 19. Prime the calico with size to which
a little whiting has been added; allow this to dry, then
remove the calico from the block. For the hair, stitch
in white Berlin wool; or a piece of fur could be used.
When this is done, place the calico again on the block,
and paint the bald part with a mixture made as follows.
Mix a little white lead with a touch of vermUion and
Indian yellow to form a flesh tint, then add a few
drops of linseed oil, turps, and a little gold size. Allow
It to dry, and then apply a second coat.
Producing Photographs in Relief. — To produce
photographs in reUet, soak some fairly stout sheet gela-
tine for halt an hour in a 5-per-cent. solution of potassium
bichromate. This renders the gelatine sensitive to
light on drying, which must take place slowly in a well-
ventilated and dark room. It is advisable to squeeze
the gelatine down on to plate glass (as in enamelling a
print) i the glass gives the gelatine a good smooth
surface for rendering minute detail. When dry the
gelatine is stripped from its glass support and exposed
beneath a negative. The biehromated gelatine when
expos d to light becomes insoluble and incapable of
absorbing moisture in proportion to the intensity of
the light's action on it. It the gelatine be now placed
in cold water those portions of gelatine unaffected by
hght will begin to swell. As this expansion or swelling
will be in width as well as thickness, the gelatine should
be fixed with isinglass to an insoluble support; this
compels the gelatine to swell upwards. If a cast is
taken of this picture in relief the modelling will be
negative and reversed. Therefore, proceed as follows.
A positive showing a good degree of contrast and
griidatioii,3iicli as wuiild ijb smtablo lor carbon print-
ing, must bo first taken. This positive should be. thin
and full of detail, witli the liglitf and sliade? duo an
far as possible tofoi-m. To remedy tJio false relief due
to colour, intensify witli uranium and remove the n/Tcci
locally as desu-ed with ;i weak solution of ammonium
hydrate. After printing, thoroughly soak the gelatine
in a dish, then carefully remove and blot off all
moisture, oil the gelatine mould and drain off the
excess, and place the mould in a sort of tray made by
bending up the edges of a piece of stiff paper. Mix up
some fine plaster-of-Paris and pour it over the mould.
Another method that may be used whei-e only general
effect is required is described below. A pad consisting
of a board covered with velvet or plushette will be
required, together with some modelling tools and a
board covered with carbon paper. A print is mounted
with seceotine or other cement on a thin sheet of soft
lead ; on the other side is pasted a sheet of white paper.
Lay the mounted print, face up, on the carbon paper
and trace on the print all the parts of the picture that
should stand in relief. Lay the print face down on the
plush block, and, using the traced lines on the back of
the print as guides, press out those parts that are to
be in relief. Now turning the print over (that is, letting
it lie face upwards) press back the shadows, putting in
any sharp edges with the pointed end of the tool. As
the print is fastened to the metal the shape of the
print will remain unaltered, and it may be mounted on
a card with gelatine. Platinotypes give the most satis-
factory results with this process, both on account of
their colour and their malleability. The process is so
simple that artistic ability and practice are all that are
needed in order to obtain the best results.
Recipe for Harness Composition.— A recipe for a
watei-proof harness composition is : In a glazed vessel
melt 2 oz. of black resin over a fire and add 3 oz. of bees-
wax. When thoroughly amalgamated, remove from
the fire, and add i oz. of fine lampblack and i dr.
of Prussian blue in powder. Stir well together, and
add sufficient turpentine to form a thin paste.
When cool, apply with a sponge and polish with a soft
brush.
Moulds for Casting Brass.— For very delicate work,
loam, which is a clayey sand mixed with ordinary sand,
must be used. The mould can be made in the ordinary
way, but it must be well dried on both sides if double-faced
B work is to be done ; for single-faced work only one side
will need well drying. When the mould is thoroughly dry,
its faces must be smoked by means of a torch made from
pitch. This deposits over each part a surface of finely
divided soot. The pattern must then be inserted and
the two halves of the mould brought together and
screwed up, which will bring out the impression of the
pattern sharp and clear. If loam is used for making the
moulds, it should be mixed with facing sand. For small
castings, charcoal powder mixed with about one-eighth
of its volume of fine sand may be used, or the mould
may be dusted with pea-flour and finally with charcoal.
In moulding the thin parts of a delicate pattern, the
mould must not be rammed too hard, as the metal, on
cooling, will contract; if the mould will not give way,
the metal must do so, and consequently there will be
flaws or cracks in the casting. This may be prevented
by slightly damping the thin part of the mould with
charcoal and water.
Magnetic North.— An ordinary pocket compass, or any
instrument containing a magnetic needle, will give the
direction of the magnetic north at the time and place
where the compass is used. The direction of the mag-
netic north with regard to any given line of the survey
can be ascertained by standing on the line and looking
across the face of the compass, but it must be remem-
bered that the direction of the magnetic north or, in
other words, the magnetic meridian, is not constant.
It is the direction of the mean resultant of the mag-
netic forces in the earth, and the virtual centre of the
forces travels round the geographical north pole, so
that in the neighbourhood of London the needle has
a range of 30° east and west of the tnie north. The
position of the needle was at the beginning of 1900
somettiing less than 16i° west of the true north, and
this distance is being reduced at the rate of about 7 .per
annum.
Working Electro-gilding Solutions.- A very dark
brown deposit of gold from an electro-gildmg bath is
generally caused by excess of current, but may also be
due to excessive free cyanide and to a deficiency of gold
in the solution. The current may be reduced either by
employing a resistance coil or by reducing the battery
power. Excessive free cyanide may be reduced by
dissolving more gold in the bath, or by adding cyanide
of gold until the excess cyanide of potassium has been
taken up.
308
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
Making Pleated Back Squab for Carriage.—
Below are instructions on making a pleated back squab
or cushion for a carriage. To get the size of the
squab, the part that has to be filled should be loosely
fitted with canvas ; carefully mark round it to get
the exact shaije and size. This canvas is then laid
on the bench, and the positions of the tufts and pleats
are set out. To get the fulness for the pleating and
stuffing, make elevations of the finished squab. From
this drawing measure with the tape the amount of
fulness required, and cut the material accordingly.
If cloth is used, the pleats, after being marked ovit
from the canvas, are ironed to give them form ; it
morocco is employed, the pleats are folded with the faces
together and hammered on the lap or flat iron. When all
the pleats are formed, the holes for the tufts ai-e punched
througli the two thicknesses. Various methods are em-
ployed in making up the squabs. They are sometimes
made on a frame ; at others they are made on stout
canvas and fixed to the bench ; and sometimes the front
is tacked to the back, and partly stuffed before the tufts
are put in. Whichever method is adopted, be careful
to keep a uniform fulness between the pleats and to get
them to line flat and true.
Making Hand-guards for Singlesticks.— In making
baskets or hand-guards for a pair of singlesticks, take
about eight long thin osiers and with them form a slarth.
As both butts and tops of these eight osiers are to form
the border, they must be laid thus— a butt, a top, a butt,
and so on. Use two small rods to tie the slarth. Pour of
the eight osiers will have to be laid first, then the other
four across them. When the tie-rods have been worked
alternately twice round, the osiers are opened in turn by
working the tie-rods between them, thus foi-ming sixteen
uprights to receive the weaving, or pairing. A small
piece is scallomed at the butt of one tie-rod and lapped
round the four under rods. To get the hand-guard to
the underworks, give two coats of colour made of tub
white lead, driers, linseed oil, and turpentine with
sutBcient red lead added to give tone. Blood-red paint
may be obtained ready ground, and is known as ruddle •
should a brighter red be required, give twoeoats of Chinese
red mixed with gold size, turpentine, and varnish For
picking out the carriage, use drop black ground up with
Tarnish. For the lettering, deep orange chrome toned
down with white as desired should be used. For a last-
ing job the cart should be given a coat of undercoating
varnish, followed by a coat of finishing carriage varnish
care being taken to flat down between successive coats
and to wash off thoroughly, so as to remove any par-
ticles of dirt, as should any get into the varnishing
brush the whole job will be spoiled.
Sun-printing on Embossed Glass. — The method
employed in sun-printing for repeating designs on
glass embossed work is as described below. To make
the sensitive resist, crush to a fine powder 1 cub. in. of
pure asphaltum and dissolve it in 8 oz. of benzine
This operation must be carried out in a dark room, or
a room dimly lighted by gas, and great care must
be taken that the light does not strike the mixttoe,
which must be kept in a black bottle. To use the resist,
coat the glass to be etched in the dark room. Place the
negative, which must be black and white, in a photo-
graphic picture. frame, and expose; one hour will be
Buflicient in a strong sun, but in dull weather a whole
day will be necessary. Then wash over with parafBn ;
the part acted upon by the sun will adhere to the glass
and form the resist. Now etch in the usual way.
Gauge for Inlaying Purfllng on Violin. — The
accompanying sketch shows a useful form of purfling
gauge, easily made and very effective. A is a sliding
bar carrying the cutter and wedge, B is the wedge for
fixing the sliding bar, and is a hardwood stock with
C —=6— D
Making Hand-guards for Singlesticks.
B Illi'A
Gauge for Inlaying Purfllng on Violin.
shape, carefully gather the sixteen stakes and place
them in a small hoop i peg the whole to the edge of the
workboard with a small bodkin or wire nail passed
through a leaden weight. Now form each stake by
gently pulling and bending. Take two small rods,
place oue top behind a stake, with the tip end in front
of the stake before it, and the other rod behind the
next stake to the right ; then pair these two rods round
one over the other in and out of the stakes. When they
will not work further, piece them with the butt ends of
two other rods. Pair the work to the proper depth,
which will be between .3in. and tin., when the stakes
c!tu be laid down to form the border, as in the above
sketch. A, B, and C are flrst laid down, each stake
passing behind two others, in front of tlie third and
fourth, and finishing in Iront of the sixth, as shown
at F. The stakes D are to be laid down in turn. The
fencing-stick, a stout ash stick, is passed tlirough near
the border of one side of the guard, and out near the
crown at the opposite side. Small wood pegs are put
in the sticks outside the baskets to keep them from
sliding off the ends.
Fainting a Farm Waggon. — Here are instructions
on painting a farm waggon. The body is to be blue
lined out with red and white, the undercarriage is to
be blood red picked out with black, and the lettei'ing
is to be in golden yellow. To prepare the body for the
two coats of blue, three coats of dark lead colour
should be given, any screw- or nail-holes being stopped
up between the second and third coats. The blue
generally used on this kind of work can be obtained at
moat colour warehouses ready ground, and for use
requires thinning down only. The flrst coat of blue
should be made to dry in about eight hours ; the second
coat should have a good pi-oportion of varnish added to
give a better surface to line out upon. This second coat
will require flatting. This will make the varnish adhere
properly, and will remove any nibs on the surface. For
lining out, use vermilion mixed stiff with carriage
varnish and thinned down with turpentine from the
dipper when in use. These lines must be allowed to dry
before putting on the vhite lines, for which tilb white
lead mixed with pale varnish may be used. To prepare
the bottom rounded on ofte side as at D. The method of
using is to set the cutter, which must be well sharpened,
to the required distance, and to go round the violin,
being very careful not to cut too deep : then reduce the
width by A in. and cut the outer line. The wood between
the lines can then be picked out with a bent purfling
chisel, and the purfling fitted and glued. The mitres at
the corners must be perfectly true ; an examination of a
good violin will show how this should be done.
Repairing and Painting Wire Gauze Blinds.— To
repair an ordinary wire gauze blind, fix the frame on
a clean, flat bench ; lay the gauze on, and secure it along
the bottom with i-in. blue tacks. The tension is ob-
tained by comprees'ng the stiles slightly together and
tacking towards the angle of the rebate, beginning at
the middle of each stile and top rail and finishing at the
corners. Bell staples are sometimes used to obtain more
tension, but straining too tightly makes the stiles
crooked. For a brass tubular top rail, the gauze must
first be cut to the outline, and a stout wire sewn with
wire to the folded shaped edge. The prepared wire is
then put in the top rail through the end, the gauze bemg
passed through the out in the tube ; then spring in the
tubular top raU, and proceed as described above, io
paint, lay the gauze on a flat, clean table, and with a
large stencil or other square-ended brush pounce the
colour on sparingly, not with up and down strokes,
which fill the meshes. The colour, which must be thin,
is mixed with turps, driers, and boiled oil ; two coats are
required. To dry, suspend the blind.
Black Bronze for Iron.— The article to be blacked
must flrst be well cleansed from grease, and then dipped
into a solution consisting of 1 part of bismuth chloride,
2 parts of mercury bichloride, 1 part of copper chloride,
6 parts of hydrochloric acid, 5 parts of. alcohol, and
50 parts of water. When dry, place the article in boihng
water for half an hour. If the black is not intense
enough, repeat the dipping operation. The colour is
fixed by placing the article for a few moments ma batu
of boiling oil, the article being afterwards heated until
all the ou is driven oft. This treatment is s-iid to give
au intense black finish.
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
309
Mailing Pincushions firom Cow's Hoofs.— In making
pincushions from a pair of cow's hoofs, scrape out
the insides of the hoofs with a knife, and well wash
with carbolic acid, or sprinkle with, alum. Then
polish the outsldes. To do this, first file off all rough-
ness, afterwards using glasspaper, comcmenclng with
coarse and finishing with the finest. Then ruh briskly
with an oiled rag and putty powder, followed by whiting
moistened with vinegar. JSTow well rub with some
crumpled-up tissue paper, then with the palm of the
hand with or without oil. The rubbing mijst be briskly
done, and the work well dusted between every two opera-
tions. Now partly fill the insldea of the hoofs with a
mixture of plaster-of-Parls and water and allow to dry.
Fill the remaining space with bran or sawdust and
cover with velvet, fastening the edges with glue or a few
fine gimp pins. Just before putting in the last tack or
gimp pin, ram more bran in so that the inside will be
guite firm and the top nicely rounded. Then cover the
junction of the velvet and horn with gold lace, and the
pincushion Is complete.
Making Straw Bands or Ropes. — Where short
lengths only are required, say up to 20 ft., the straw
bands or ropes are best twisted by hand. To do this, a
simple twisting hook, as shown below, is needed. It
consists of a piece of stout iron wire bent to form a
handle, as in Fig. 1. Two pieces of ash, oak, or chestnut.
Sin. long, are cut from a drylaggot and bored to take
the wire. One of these pieces is pushed on the shorter
end of the wire, which is burred over a washer, keeping
the wooden handle in place. On the longer end put an
old iron nut, a washer, and the other piece of wood ; then
bend the end to form a hook, as shown in Fig. 2. A hook
clamped In the jaws of a carpenter's brace would answer
the same purpose. To make a band, the straw must be
well wetted and lightly tossed up in aheap ; the operator,
standing with the heap on his right, puts the bight of a
wisp ovef the hook, which Is to be turned by a boy.
Some sldU Is essential In feeding the twisting band,
which passes through the left hand while the right keeps
stone is very soft when first quarried, but hardens on
exposure to the air. It is necessary that this stone
should in a building, he placed on or parallel to its
natural bed. The best known Bath stone quarries are
Box Ground, Combe Down, Westwood Down, Oorsham
Down, Oorsham Ridge, and Stoke Ground. Stone from
different quarries, and from different beds in the same
quarry, varies much in quality; some kinds of Bath
stone weather very badly, and can only be used for
internal work, whilst other kinds are fit for external
work In ordinary atmospheres. Craigleith stone is a
sandstone composed of quartz grains interspersed with
small grains of mica, and united by a siliceous cement.
Craigleith stone contains 98 per cent, of silica, and only
about 1 per cent, of carbonate of lime. The stone is
found near Edinburgh j it is used extensively In that
city, and is also exported. It is perhaps the most
durable sandstone in the United Kingdom. As regards
durability when employed for facing the elevation of a
building the stones may be placed In the following
order, (1) Craigleith ; (2) Tork stone r (3) Bath stone.
The atmosphere of all large towns contains a sensible
proportion of acids (such as sulphuric acid, nitric acid,
etc.) derived chiefly from smoke and from the exhalations
of chemical works. These acids act destructively upon
carbonate of lime, and the stone containing the largest
proportion of lime, or In which the lime is more readily
acted upon, disintegrates the most rapidly. Hence a
sandstone Is to be preferred for use in an aeid-ladet.
atmosphere. Craigleith, being the less porous of the
two sandstones, resists the action of frost better than
York stone.
Repairing Oval and Square Baskets. — Baskets
should be repaired before they are too badly worn.
As soon as the foot rim gets broken, well soak that
part, draw out all foot stakes (with pincers, if necessary),
and put on a new rim. If there is no foot rim, cut out
the worn bottom with shears; or, if the bottom
part is thoroughly soaked, the workman can push
It inwards with his foot. If the bottom edge of
the body itself is worn, pull off a few rounds, push down
Twisting Hook for Making Siraw Bands.
Repairing Oval and Square Baskets.
adding fresh wisps.' When twice the length required has
thus been twisted, the centre is tlirown over a stake pre-
viously driven in the ground ; the boy, keeping a strain
on it, gives his end to the man and takes up the centre
bight off tlie stake^and with his hook twists in the
opposite direction, when long lengths are required, a
"jenny" is necessary; this is an arrangement of cog-
wheels by which two, three, or four strands can be
twisted separately and together as the outer wheels are
thrown in or out of gear. The machines can be bought
at ships' stores ; they are used for making marline, spun
yarn, and nettle stuff at sea.
Rnsting of Galvanised Iron Tank.— The rusting of
a galvanised iron tank often is due either to soft water
having been used or to the water being softened by
heat; the latter would be the case when the tank is
above a gas engine exhaust or in a hot position. Gal-
vanised iron cannot resist the action of soft water, and
quickly perishes If exposed to such action. A coat of
lime-white may delay the rusting, provided it has not
got a firm hold. The existence of lime in hard water
prevents its having the active effect of soft water on
iron, lead, and zinc.
Building Stones.— Tork stone is the best known of
the sandstones. It is composed of grains of silica or
sand cemented together with silica, carbonates of
hme and magnesia, alumina, and oxide of iron. York
stone IS obtained chiefly from the Coal Measures and
from the Millstone Grit series, though some of It is
got frpm the Ifew Red Sandstone formation. York
SfOoe is obtained from a large number of quarries in
lorkshire and in the surrounding counties. The most
noted quai'ry is the Bramley Fall, which, however,
was worked out long ago; but a good deal of stone
01 a similar character Is found to the north of Leeds,
and 18 sold under the name of Bramley Fall. Other
well-known quarries are Robin Hood, Park Spring,
u E* ^.^wton, and Howley Park. York stone is of a
ugnt yellowish or ferruginous brown colour, though
*°™e. varieties show a bluish tinge. Bath stone is an
pontic limestone, consisting of grains of carbonate of
ume cemented together with the same substance or by
some mixture of lime with silica or alumina. Bath
a stake wherever one may have worn or broken, anc
work some upsetting to replace that which has been
removed. A new bottom must now be made to re-
place the old one. Of course, the stakes In the body
must be cut quite level all round at the bend aftei
the upsetting has been finished off. Occasionally
gauge the bottoin to the body so as to get a good fit ;
then cut off the ends of the bottom sticks, and tie In
the bottom with osier bands. An oval basket will re-
quire about six bands, two at each side and one at each
end. A large square basket may require eight or ten
bands, three at each side and two at the ends. To keep
the bottom in place while tying, push two or three
bodkins through the upsetting and Into the bottom,
down beside the bottom sticks. Next pick out and point
six or eight band rods. Push one down the upsetting in
the body, and commence twisting it rope fashion from
the tip end to the butt. The rod can now be drawn in
and out exactly as can a piece of rope. With the bodkin,
open the weaving in the bottom, about 4 in. from the
edge, at the right-hand side of the nearest bottom stick ;
pull the band through from the Inside, then out again
at the other side of the same stick ; twist it over the4-in.
lap twice, pulling it very tight and even, then carry it
for about 6in. up the side of the basket, and push it
through to the left of a stake. Bring it out to the right
about 1 in. nearer the bottom, and again twist it over itself
three times along the bottom twisted part; return
it through the first loop, still keeping an even twist, then
pass it through the edge of the bottom, and upset, again
forming a close and even twist up the side ; finally, pass
it through the side loop, pull very tightly, and cut off
the waste piece neat and close. The accompanying
illustration shows part of a tying-in band. A is passed
through the side of the body and comes out again at
the right-hand side of the stake, and is worked the
whole length again, when it is turned in the loop in the
bottom (outside), and finishes as at C, outside. The
even twist is obtained by pulling tightly. When all
the bands are finished, a foot rim can be worked on.
Should any of the top border stakes be broken, puBh
down others in their places, bend them down, draw them
through from the front, and cram them. Some stakes
will simply require pushing through the border from the
front and cramming, the inside end being cut off close.
310
Cyclopsedia of Mechanics.
Lettering Sbop Blinds.— Shellac dissolved In a satur-
ated solution of borax as a vehicle, chiefly for black, is
sometimes used for lettering union blinds. So also are
artists' tube-oil colours mixed with varnish or gold size.
As a slight creeping of oil is unavoidable, the colour
must be quick-drying. The lettering can be done with
size only as a preliminary, but no general treatment
of the ground is possible.
A Model Pumping Windmill.— The little windmill
here described is easily made, and works well in
quite a moderate wind. It may be made in any size,
even with the wheel Jin. in diameter, but the one illus-
trated has a 4-in. wheel, and the drawings are quarter
full size. For larger or smaller mills, all the parts may
be kept in about the same proportion. The wheel A
(Fig. 1) and rudder, E are best made of thin sheet brass,
but tin-plate is found quite suitable if it is painted.
For the wheel, strike a circle 4 in. in diameter,
and a smaller one I in. In diameter, and concentric.
Then divide the disc into eight sections (see Fig. 2),
either by using set-squares, or by dividing the circle into
two parts and stepping the compasses four times round
each semicircle ; a ;j\-in. hole is bored in the centre of the \
circle, and it is then carefully cut out with a pair of
shears. Afterwards the eight radiating lines are cut
down, as shown, to the inner circle; all sharp corners
are then snipped off and trimmed with a file. The
rudder B (Fig. 1) is about 3 in. long and 2iin. and 2 in.
wide, at the large and small ends respectively, and it
should be trued up at the edges with a file. The pump
barrel C is a brass tube about Jin. in diameter and 3in.
long. With a file the ends are trimmed square to the
length. A small hole is bored through the tube at D about
wind. All iron or tin parts should be painted, and the
bearings oiled. The holes can be bored with common
bradawls sharpened like an ordinary metal drill, and the
lai-ger holes may be finished with a round rtle. All parts
to be soldered should be very clean, zinc chloride being
used as the flux.
Polishing Heads of Brass Screws.- Brass irocd-
screws are usually polished in a shaking barrel about
18 in. in diameter by 2 ft. 6 in. long -, the barrel is actuated
by steam, or, if machine power is not available, by hand.
The barrel is two-thirds nlled with clean beech sawdust
and the screws are put In. The friction caused by the
screws coming in contact with each other and with the
dust gives the polish. •
Tempering Steel.— Molten lead is a good heating
agent for tempering steel articles of unequal thickness,
as these can be heated more uniformly by this method
than by placing in an open fire or by supporting on an
iron plate over a fire. Lead melts uniformly at a tem-
perature of 612° F., and by alloying the lead with tin in
varying proportions, as explained in the table below,
an extensive range of temperatures may be obtained.
In using such baths, cover the surface with powdered
charcoal to prevent the oxidation of the molten metal.
Fig. 2
A Model Pumping Windmill.
1 in. from one end, and a little plug of iron or brass wire
is soldered or forced in, leaving iin. protruding at
each side, the ends being roiinded. The stand E is either
a heavy sheet-iron plate 4 in. by 4 in. by iin., or a light
metal one screwed to a wood base ; on it, at the centre,
the pump is soldered upright. The crank-shaft P is made
from steel or iron wire about f, in. in diameter and 34 in.
long. The crank is made by beating the metal red hot and
bending it with a pair of pliers or in a small vice i the
throw of the crank should not be more than iin. The
pump rod G is made of thin brass or iron wire about 2 in.
long, and one end is bent over into a circle to fit loosely
on the crank-shaft. The frame is of brass 5i in. by }in.
by in in., and is bent as shown at H. To bend brass or
copper, it ia annealed by heating it to red heat and cooling
it suddenly in cold water, after which it bends easily and
without breaking. A hole is bored in the bottom to fit
the tube ; also one at each side at the top to take the
crank-shaft. A second piece of brass J is cut about
li In. by 3 in. by •i's in., and a central hole is bored in this
to fit the pump barrel. The piece is now soldered
about i in. up the frame. The wheel A is soldei'ed true
to the shaft, and about J in. out from the front bearing,
the space being filled with a washer made by coiling some
No. IB S.W.G. copper wire round the shaft, the ends being
filed so as not to catch anywhere. The wheel and shaft
are now put into the bearings, the latter being sprung
if necessary. The protruding ends are sawn or filed off,
and a washer K, made of No. 16 s.W.G. copper, is soldered
on. The pump rod G is put in place, and two small
copper wire washers ai'e soldered on the crank-pin to
prevent the rod having too much side play. The lower
end of the pump rod m ust be cut shorter if it does not
allow the crank-shaft to rotate freely. The rudder is
soldered to two brass wires L about 3 in. long, and these
are soldered to the frame. Finally, each blade or section
of the wheel is given a twist as m a screw propeller or
fan, 'and as indicated for two sections. When the mill is
running, the vane or rudder should keep it well into the
Cirmposition
o/Ilath.
Colour.
Articles to be Tempered.
lead.
Tin.
i
^•1"
S
Yellowish tint
Lancets
7
420-
Other surgical instru-
ments
7-5
i
43r
Kazors, etc
8
4
44i-
Pale yellow ...
Penknives, and some
implements of sur-
gery
8i
4
tJO"
Straw yellow ...
Large penknives,
scalpels, etc.
IC
4
170*
Scissors, shears, gar-
den hoes, cold
chisels, etc
14
4
490"
Brown yellow
Axes, firmer chisels,
plane irons, pocket-
knives, etc
19
4
503-
Light pm-ple ...
Table - knives, large
shears, etc. ...
30
4
530-
Dark purple ...
Swords, watch-
springs, etc
48
4
55D*
Clear blue
Large springs, dag-
gers, augers, fine
saws, etc
50
2
558*
Pale blue
Pit saws, hand saws,
Boi
ling
and some springs ...
linse
edoil
603"
Greenish blue
Articles which re-
quire to be some-
Mol
ten
what softer
le
ad
612-
Preserving Piano and Organ Keys.-The appear-
ance of many a good piano and organ is spoiled by the
discoloration of the keys. Where children have played
upon them with sticky fingers, merely to wipe them
with a clean duster will not always suffice; a moist
washleather will be better. The yellowish - green
colour of composition keys is mostly due to playing
with damp, perspiring hands, this being most -strongly
marked at about the centre of the keyboard. Much
discoloration without corresponding signs of wear can
generally be traced to absorption of moisture from
the fall or lid j the instrument being kept closed for
long intervals the keys are shut up in the dark. It
is then advisable to leave the keyboard portion open
more, sunlight being a splendid bleach. This applies
with equal force to ivory or composition keys, ine
use of powerful bleaching agents as nitric or sulphurous
acids, or salts of lemon, is not advised j there is always
a risk of allowing such solutions to flow between the
keys on to the woodwork, thus causing the wood. to
swell and, in some cases, the keys to bind or sticK
together. Besides, most bleaches require several days,
sometimes weeks, to be effective. The most that can
be advised is to cleanse frequently with benzine or
benzoline, which in many oases will restore the oolou^
For anything beyond this the keys should be removea
from the insti-ument so that the surface of the cover-
ings may be levelled or the discoloration taken out Dy
the aid of a cabinet-maker's steel scraper and glass-
paper. The keys then require to be rerolished in accoro-
ance with the instructions on polishing ivory by tne
hand method given on p. 251.
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
31]
Preserving Planes.— To keep planes clean and smooth
In appearance the grain must be filled. Clean off the
surface with a joiner's scraper and fine glasspaper, rub-
bing along rather than across the grain. Kub with
Unseed oil sparingly on a clean rag. With a wadding
or flannel rub with French polish, the rubber being
freely wetted at first, but moist only afterwards. The
porous surface of the wood will soon become smooth,
and moisture and dirt will be less likely to stick. Work
nntilaUthe oil has been absorbed and a slight polish
appears.
Brazing Keys.— Brazing is another name for hard
soldering ; the process differs from ordinary soft solder-
ing principally in the fact that the uniting metal or
spelter is not applied with a hot bit. Greater heat is
required to melt the spelter than Is necessary for soft
solder, it being necessary to employ either a forge fire
or a powerful blowpipe to make the hard spelter flow
into the joint. Brazing is used where greater strength
is required than can be given by soft solder, or when
an article has to stand a degree of heat that would
cause soft solder to melt. In brazing together the
length of a i-in. round rod, having at itii other end an
eye by which it may be hung when not in use. With
this spatula, also, powdered spelter may be added to the
joint if required. When the brass wire commences to
run, assist the flow by adding powdered borax, and when
aU the brass has run into the joint, rub off superfluous
molten metai from underneath and allow the joint to
cool gradually. When cold, file up and clean the stem
of the key until only a thin bright line of brass can be
seen. Pig. 2 shows the finished key.
Making Glass Blowpipes for Blowing Birds' Eggs.
—To make glass blowpipes for blowing birds' eggs, hold
in the gas a piece of glass tube and gently rotate it with
the fingers. When the tube is hot, draw the two ends
gently apart until they separate. Break off the sharp
point of the glass to obtain two blowpipes.
Flower Window-box.— Fig. 1 shows the construction
of a flower window-box. The wood should be about I in.
or 1 in. thick, according to the size of the box ; the angles
should be dovetailed and nailed together as shown. The
bottom is simply nailed to the sides and ends. The
appearance of the box is considerably improved by
mitring and fixing a moulding round the front as shown ;
Brazing Keys.
broken parts of a key stem, first it is necessary to file
the fractured ends quite true ; this may entaU the short-
ening of the key by i In. or i in., and as another i In.
will be lost in making the joint, it may be advisable
to use another key bow having a longer piece of stem
than the one which was broken off. With a warding file
cut a dovetail on each of the ends to be joined, as
shown by Fig. 1. A small, half-round file will assist In
making the edges true and square. The pieces must
interlock perfectly, and when this is the case, very
lightly hammer the joint, around which then bind
seven or eight turns of brass wire to act as spelter.
Wet the joint, sprinkle powdered borax on it (this is to
serve as the flux), and, holding the key In a pair of
tongs, place it in a clear part of a forge fire made
with charcoal, small coke, or coal cinders, and com-
mence to blow steadily the forge' bellows or blower.
Failmg a forge fire, use a blowpipe, the key being
placed on a piece of charcoal or pumice-stone whilst
the heat is being applied. A blowpipe for brazing
requires a greater pressure of air than can be given by
the mouth, so the blowpipe must be connected to a
mower. The air pressure regulates the temperature of
the flame, and to get a sharp, concentrated heat, an air
pressure of from lib. to lilb. on the square inch is
required. Such a pressure is obtained easily from a foot
blower. If the forge fire is used it is as well to support
thekeyonaguardof thick iron plate having a hole in
its centre over which is the joint to be brazed. By this
means the necessary local heating is obtained, and much
labour in cleaning the key afterwards is avoided. On
Deing heated, the borax swells and boils up, and should
"® pressed down with a spatula, previously dipped in
cold water to prevent the hot borax adhering to it ; a
suitable spatula is made-by flattening one end of a 1-ft.
Fjg. 3
and tiles can be fitted to the front with bolection mould,
ing, which is rebated as in Fig. 3. Two or three wedge-
shaped strips should be nailed on the bottom as shown at
A (Fig. 2) ; they require cutting to the splay of the sill ;
this allows of the box standing level. It is a good plan
to paint all the joints and parts of the box that wUl be
in contact before fixing the^ together.
Cleaning Wash-leather Gloves.— One method of
cleaning wash-leather gloves, if they are not much soiled,
is to well rub them with bread crumbs. Another method
is to damp about I pt. of bran with water, and with this
well rub the gloves whilst on the hands. When the
gloves are quite clean, get 1 pt. of hot, dry bran and
work this upon them till they are quite dry. A third
method is to syringe the gloves with benzolme and
hang in the air to dry. A slight working, shaking, or
stretching will remove any slight stiffness. Still another
method is to put the gloves on the hands and well wash
in soap and warm water. When quite clean wipe with
clean cloths (the gloves need not be rinsed), and finish
by working in hot bran. -
Cleaning an Ormolu Clock-case.— Presuming that
it is desired to clean the gilt case of the clock, the move-
ment must first be taken out. Unscrew the bell at the
back, and take off the pendulum. Undo the two screws
at the back rim that hold in the movement, and draw
the clock out from the front. The gilt case will be found
to be made of many pieces held together by nuts and
screws inside. Take it all apart and get every piece
separate. Then well wash with a plate-brush or soft
tooth-brush, using hot soap and water to which sod-
has been added. Rinse thoroughly m clean water, hot
first, and then cold. Let the parts drain, and dry them
thoroughly in warm, dry sawdust before a fire. Then
dust off the sawdust with a soft brush. In putting the
parts together again, handle them with a clean duster
or a leather.
312
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
Constructing a Small Couuter.— Flge. 1 to 4 show
the construction of a simple form of counter. Tiie front
and ends are made of J-ln. narrow matchboards ; these
are fixed at the bottom to a 6-in. by i-in. board, the
latter being mitrod at the two outer corners. The top
cyanide by means of current from a battery until a, test
sample reoelTea a nice blush of gold in a few moments'
exposure. The articles must be clean and well polished,
lightly soratoh-brushed, strung on wires attached to
the negatlTe pole of the battery, and dipped for a, few
Constructing a Small Counter.
ends of the boards can he fixed round the inside to a
2-in. by 1-in. fillet as at A (Mg. i). The back of the
counter can be prepared for drawers if desired, as
shown at Figs. 3 and 4. This framing should be mor-
tised and tenoned together, and the runners for the
drawers fixed to the framing, and also to a fillet to the
Iront as thown at Pig. 4. The top can be secured by
screwing into it through the fillets A. A piece of pre-
l!ai-ed moulding fixed round the top of the plinth and
under lue top, sis shown at Figs. 1, 2, and 3, will greatly
improve the appearance.
Cheap Electro.glldlng Solutions.— Several attempts
bave been made, but without success, to Invent a cheap
electro-gilding solution for metal jewellery. Much,
however, may be done with copper anodes ; these may
he so worked In the ordinary gold cyanide solution as
slightly to alloy the deposit of gold with copper, and
thus give a pleasing blush to a thin film of the precious
metal. T he cheapest method of preparing these solutions
is to dissolve pure sheet gold In a solution of potassium
moments in the gliding solution ; then rinsed In clean
hot water, and brushed with a scratch-brush ol verj
fine soft wire.
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
313
Blacfc Varnish for Grates and Stoves.— In the
ynring when fires are dispensed with, -it is the custom to
eoat the grates, stoves, fenders, and other ironwork
attached to fireplaces with Brunswioli black in order to
sai^e the trouble ot constant blaokleading. This gives a
briffht glarirg appearance, and in some instances pre-
•sents a surface that is difficult to blacklead again. This
is more difiicult if the blacklead is mixed with turpentine.
A varnish free from both of the above ob.iections may-
be made as follows. Dissolve 4 oz. of common shellac and
20z of resin in Ipt. of methylated spirit, and add Joz.
of black aniline dye, soluble in spirits, to give it a rich
black colour. Should there be any difficulty in obtaining
the dye, gas black may be used. This can be obtained by
boiling a pot or kettle over a gas burner, hanging it so
that it nearly touches the burner. The fine .let black
•which forms at the bottom of the pot or kettle should
be removed when cold, and mixed with the varnish—
eufflcient to give it a good black colour. The above gives
a fairly bright surface, which can be dulled by omitting,
or reducing the quantity of, the resin. It should be
upplied with a camel-hair brush.
Cause and Prevention of Halation in Negatives.
— The word halation signifies a "halo" or mist of
light that surrounds and confuses the outline of an
object. Halation is caused when some of the light that
enters the camera passes through the film on the plate
and is reflected from the back surface of the glass.
Abney shows that a ray of light U (Fig. 1) , passing through
an emulsion containing particles of silver bromide P', is
not only reflected against P^, bnt, after passing through
the glass at an angle, is again reflected to 1'^ as shown by
the shaded portions in Fig. 1. Halation may be pre-
vented by coating the back of the plate with some
minutes. "Work this, and all other iron solutions, with
a weak current— a battery of Daniel', cells wUl do— keep
the anode clean, and add free ammonium carbonate as
required. The voltage necessary to work any solution
and give best results must be found by experience
always bearing in mind that iron solutions yield their
metal in best condition at a low voltage. Iron solutions,
are also liable to change from atmospheric Influences,
the iron in solution being oxidised by contact with
light and air. To minimise this trouble, keep' the solu-
tions covered. If a moderately thick coat of iron is
desired the electrotype must be taken out every four
or five minutes, and the face scrubbed in clean water,
then replaced in the bath. VFhen the coat is thick
enough it should be well washed in hot water and
rapidly dried, then oiled and brushed over with benzine.
If not used at once it must be protected from rust by
coating with a film of wax. The above process is applic-
able to metal articles other than electrotypes.
A Simple Boot-rack.— To make an easily constructed
boot-rack, procure a piece of any kind ot well-seasoned
wood, rough or planed, lin. to IJin. thiek and of any
breadth from Sin. upwards, the length varying with thrf
number of pairs of boots to be held. Make a pencil line or
gauge mark i in. from the upper edge of the outside face of
. the board. The bottom edge can be beaded or chamfered.
I^ext procure a strip of sheet-copper, brass, or tin of the
raquired length and lin. broad, having the upper edge
slightly roughened or mUled with a small three-cornered
file. Punch holes about 2in. apart and /sin. or Jin. from
I]
Fig. I -i ^^ 8" >' "^'G- 2
Halation in Negatives.
reparation capable of absorbing light. A good anti-
- a.i' tlon mixture is composed ot caramel 1 part, burnt
sienna 2 parts, gum 1 part, and alcohol 2 parts. This
preparation is applied to the back of the plate with a
brush. The plate may be conveniently held in a frame
similar to that shown in Fig. 2. Cover the table with a
sheet of clean blotting paper, and on this place the
frame, which should be provided with carriers so that it
may be used for any size of plate. Lay the plate, film
side downwards, in the opening and rapidly brush over
the back with the backing mixture. The backing, if
properly prepared, dries rapidly. The backed plates
should not be placed in the slides until the backing is
thoroughly dry, otherwise dust will afterwards be found
in the slide. Before developing the plate the backing
should be rubbed off with a damp sponge. Most brands
ot plates may now be obtained ready backed. In taking
interiors, dark trees against the sky, and, in fact, when-
ever strong contrasts are shown, backed plates must be
used.
Steel-facing Electrotyper.- A film of pure iron of
snch hardness as to resemble steel (hence the process
is named " steel-facing ") may be deposited on the face
of an electrotype. The •solution for the pui-pose is made
as follows. Dissolve lib. of iron sulphate (green vitriol)
'n Jgal. of rain water, and add a solution ot ammonium
carbonate untU. all the ii-on has been precipitated. _ Wash
the precipitate by pouring on water and allowing to
settle, finally draining off all water possible. Then dis-
solve the wet precipitate in sulphuric acid to make a
aiturated solution, and use this as the depositing solution.
As the solution has a tendency to become acid by working
it, this must be corrected by using an anode plate of
pure iron eight times larger than the electrotype to
be faced, and placing a plate of platinum in the solution,
attached to the iron anode, when the solution is not
at work. Another solution, suitable for large operations,
is made as follows. Dissolve 66 lb. ot ammonium carbon-
ate in 35 gal. of water. In this place a large anode ot char-
coal iron, and a small cathode of the same connected
with a battery, and dissolve iron into the solution until
a test strip of copper is nicely coated with iron in a few
A Simple Boot-rack.
the lower edge, and set this edge to the mark on the
board; iin. of the width of the strip will then pi-oject.
Fasten it with copper tacks or small brass screws, as
shown in the illustration. The rack must be permanently
secured' in place, and can be painted, stained, or lett
rough. , The boot hangs vertical, the heel catching in
the plate.
Colouring Portland Cements.— To make Portland
cement red, mix with it mineral red oxide of iron "!n
the proportion of 5 to 10 per cent, by weight. The
best plan will be to mix a small quantity by way of
experiment, and increase or reduce the quantity as may
be found desirable. For a brown colour, cover the
cement alter it has set with a wash made as follows.
Dissolve 1 part of sulphate of iron (green copperas) in
3 parts ot water ; this may be applied with a turk's-head
or a flat whitewash brush ; the concrete should then be
allowed to dry in the open air. If, when the work la
thoroughly dry, the colour is not dark enough, give a
second coat. If alum be added to the green copperas
solution, the cement becomes of a pale yellow ochre
tint; while it chrome alum be added to the copperas
solution, the cement work will become green.
Box Gutters on Roofs.— The box gutter of a root
is parallel from end to end, and has upright (instead
of sloplna) sides, the latter being formed by the pole
plates on whioli the bottom ends ot the common rafters
rest. A box gutter may be between the pole plate and a
parapet wall, or between two roofs sloping to a gutter
between them. The ends of the bearers for the sole
of the gutter are housed into the pole plate for an
Inside gutter, and one end into the pole plate and the
other resting or notched into a wall plate when the
gutter is next to a parapet wall. Such gutters should
be not less than lit. wide, so that a person can walk
in them without stumbling or treading on the eases
ot the slates. The fall ot the gutter should be about 2 m.
in 10 ft., and the drips should be not less than 2 m. deep
314
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
Making Cushion for Gig.— The bottom canvas of a
round-cornered cushion for a gig should be cut out by the
top pattern of the driving-box, suiBcient being allowed
for turnings, etc. To get the shape of the corner, bend
a piece of stiff paper or floorcloth round the edge of the
box from the centre of the seat at the baoli to the sham
door at the front, marking round both top and bottom
edges, and cutting out the material to whatever depth
of cushion Is required. The side and front also are
governed by the size and sail of the seat ; the top is cut
to the pattern of the bottom canvas, allowance being
made for the sail out at bacJi and side, and for the ful-
ness for the pleats and seams. In malcingup the cushion,
seaming cord is usually worked into the seams, the
cushion being made inside out, a space bein^ left at the
back bottom edge for stuffing. To do this, turn the
cushion right side out, and fill It with whatever material
is used, working it well to the frontand sides to preserve
the shape. Then sew up the back and tuft it down
equal, and tie the bottom buttons securely with a
double slip knot to prevent them becoming loose.
Wheels for BeveUing and Polisblng Glass,— Fig. 1
shows the construction of a wheel used for bevelling and
polishing glass; Fig. 2 shows the wooden wheel in Its iron
frame. The first wheel is of oast-iron, the second wheel
is of clear stone, free from anything that would scratch
the glass, and the third wheel is of wood. All the wheels
FIG. 2
\7heelB for Bevelling and Folishmg Glass.
can be made to fix on the same spindle at A, which is
upright : the wheels lilt oif and on, and are fastened down
b.r a collar and a nut. On the iron wheel, which cuts
the bevel to the size required, sand is used. The stone
wheel is fed with water only, and the wooden wheel, which
polishes and finlBhes the glass, is fed with putty powder.
1 he tray B receives the water and sand which fall from
the wheels, 'ihe wooden wheel, which must be made of
willow, is fitted in sections into an iron frame wheel,
moulded to shape ; the wood should be about 4in. thick,
and the sections will hold themselves in place.
Cleaning Oily Bottles.— Wash oily bottles in warm
soapsuds in which some washing soda has been dissolved.
Should the oil still cling to the bottles, shake into them,
along with the soap and water, a little fine shot. After
washing In clean water, rinse the .bott.es with a little
methylated spirit, pouring it from one bottle to another ;
then put them on a sloping rack to drain, mouth down-
wards.
Black French Polish.-If ornamental articles are to
be finished in black and gold, woods may be used that
are devoid of figure or fancy grain, such as canary wood,
light walnut, or mahogany. Other soft woods may be
used; but spruce and common deal require a great
amount of labour and polish to avoid the grain swelling
and a ridgy appearance. Articles likely to receive much
handling and wear should first be stained ; the chemical
srains sold at most druggists' or veneer stores are more
cleanly in ute than the old-fashioned logwood stain. It
will otceu sufilce to brush the articles with black ink
or, better still, with a solution of black aniline dye in
methylated spirit. Black polish is generally made by
mixing a small quantity of spirit aniline black dye in
white, that is, transparent, polish. The work is bodied
up with this, then finishedT with transparent polish,
the proportions for which ai-e white shellac, 6 oz. ;
methylated spirit, Ipt. ; and aniline black spirit dye,
1 oz. White shellac is not dissolved easily, and may be
replaced wiih white shellac garnet shellac, a dark ruby
or liver coloured variety. If skill in polishing is not
possessed, use a black varnish made as follows. Garnet
lac, 4oz. ; resin, 2oz. ; gum benzoin, 2oz. ; methylated
6 pint, Ipt.; and black dye, ioz. Dissolve the mixture
by gentle heat and frequent agitation, strain it through
fine muslin before use, and apply with a camel-haii
brush. Before gilding is attempted, the polishing should
be complete ; it it can stand a couple of days, so much
the better. The portion desired to be gilt should be
carefully coated with .iapanners' gold size. The gold
procurable on transfer paper cut into convenient sizes
to prevent waste, may be pressed into position when the
gold size is taok.y— that is, nearly dry, or after the lapse
of about half an hour. Gold adhering where not desired
may be removed by gently rubbing with a piece of cloth
slightly moistened with turpentine. As a rule, gilded
work is not polished.
Johblng Builder's Trestle.— The jobbing builder's
trestle here illustrated is useful for odd jobs of repairs
to eaves, gutters, windows, and other work. Two trestles
made as shown in Figs. I and 2, are placed in position
leaning against the wall, and two or three planks are
placed across so as to form a scaffolding. The trestles are
Jobbing Builder's Trestle.
Fig I
made from 16 ft. to 18 ft. in height, and if wanted higher
for any special job the legs are easily lengthened by
fishing on extra lengths at the bottom. They are placed
with the foot farther away from the wall than the head,
so that the weight of the trestles keeps them in place.
Polishing and Frosting Aluminium. -The British
Aluminium Co. recommend the following methods of
treating aluminium. One method of polishing is to
place in a bottle equal parts by weight of olive oil and
rum, and shake until an emulsified mass results ; this is
used as an ordinary polishing paste. A second method
is to mix together fine emery powder and tallow until a
paste of suitable stiffness for use with a rag mop is
formed; a final polish of great brilliancy is given by
using rouge and turps on the mop. A third method is to
use Vienna chalk on an ordinary chamois skin buiBng-
wheel, and finish with rouge ; or to use a rag mop
with very finely powdered Vienna chalk. For frosting,
the dipping bath is prepared as follows. In an iron
vessel dissolve I part of caustic soda in 9 parts of cold
water, and add about one-quarter of a part of common
salt. This solution is then heated, but must not boil. Ihe
article is plunged for from fifteen to twenty seconds m
the bath, so as to become nearly black on the surface
and covered with air bubbles; it is then washed freely
in cold water, well scrubbed with a fibre brush, again
dipped and washed, then placed In a slate, aluminium, or
earthenware vessel containing concentrated nitric aojd
until the metal becomes quite white. Again rinse in
cold water, and finally dry In warm dry sawdust.
Metal thus treated takes a very beautiful matt, whictt
keeps for an indefinite period in the air and has a
silky appearance, and the frosted aluminium does not
blacken the hands.
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
3ir>
Removiiig Grease Stains from Black Clotb.— To
remove grease stains from black cloth, mix together a
small ctuantity of fresh ox-gall and a little carbonate
of potash ; spread the mixture over the stains and brush
with a hard brush, then wash out with clean water.
Distlngalsblng Woods.— To distinguish between
spiTice (or whitewoodj and yellow deal (or Baltic red-
wood), the difference in colour should be noted. In the
redwood, the lines that constitute the figure are a light
tabao colour, or golden brown. If the wood is extra
resinous, the lines are translucent. The intervening
parts of the layers are cream. In spruce the " red " lines
are much less distinct, though nearly similar in ooloiir.
But the colour is paler, and the lines are never translu-
cent. The Intervening layers are quite white, giving the
wood an altogether whiter appearance than in the red-
irood. If the planks are weathered and discoloured,
notice the knots. By reason of a difference in the branch-
ing habit of the two trees that furnish these woods, a
great variation is noticeable in the dispositions of the
knots as they appear in the planks. In the whitewood
tree (the spruce fir) the branches are small, and strike out
from the trunk approximately at right angles. This
causes the knots in whitewood to appear as perfectly
circular areas or else of an elliptical shape, the long way
or major axis of the ellipse being at right angles to the
grain of the wood (see A, B, C, Fig. 1). When freshly
impregnated with the wax; then iron the print flat
between blotting-paper. The most satisfactory method,
however, when a carbon enlargement is to be made (and
the method employed by all professional workers), is as
follows. From the small negative a carbon print is
first made on special transparency tissue squeegeed
down to a sheet of glass coated with insoluble gelatine
and developed as usual. The glass is prepared by coat-
ing it with a 10-per-ceut. solution of gelatine, immersing
in a 3-per-cent. solution of bichromate of potash, and
exposing to the light. The carbon process gives excel-
lent transparencies capable of rendering the finest
detail. Instead of using bromide paper, the trans-
parency is enlarged in the usual way (except that the
glass side of the transparency must face the enlarging
surface) on to a wet collodion plate made as under.
Procure 10 oz. iodised collodion, 2oz. nitrate of silver,
1 oz. ferrous sulphate, 2oz. acetic acid, and 4oz. alcohol.
A new glass plate of the required size must be cleaned
thoroughly by rubbing with alcohol, and th«n coated
with eollodiou as in varnishing a negative. Directly the
collodion has set, the plate may be lowered into the
silver hath, which should consist of 35 gr. of silver
nitrate to each 1 oz. of distilled water. If the dish con-
taining the bath is flat and level, 25 oz. of solution can
be made to suffice for a 20-in. by 15-in. plate. After
exposure (care being taken to guard the wet film from
dust and to keep the drained corner at the lower lever
Fig. 2 E
Distinguishing Woods.
planed, the knots are a pink fawn in colour. They are
irregularly distributed through the wood. In the red-
wood tree (the Scotch fir), the branches shoot upwards
more, and the knots are consequently inclined in the
wood. Pigs. 1 and 2 show the comparative difference.
They are, besides, more regularly disposed, and are
mostly found in groups together, at distances of 1 ft.
to 2ft. apart, as shown at D, E, I (Pig. 2). This feature
is prominent in the poorer grades of this wood. The
knots are amber or deep brown. Archangel white-
wood is obtained from the same kind of tree as Baltic
whitewood. There are therefore no structural or other
differences between these two, except that of quality
(and size), due to better selection, boU influences, and,
perhaps, climatic conditions. The only guide in this
case is an acquaintance with the market forms, ship-
?ing marks, and brands, etc., that apply to each,
ellow pine is an American wood, usually handled in
larger and shorter planks than each of the preceding.
The wood is a light straw colour, and much finer in
the grain than either white or yellow deal. The red
line In this wood is scarcely perceptible. The knots
are few but large, and often loose and black. An
expert will distinguish these woods by their odour;
sometimes the gi'ain of a piece is so false that there is
(except under the microscope) no other ready means of
identifying it. Help will be afforded by noting the
difference in weight. White deal weighs about 301b. a
cubic foot, yellow deal about 33 lb., and yellow pine about
281b..
Photographic Enlargement on Carbon Paper.—
Enlarged negatives may be made on bromide paper by
giving a very full exposure and developing a deep
image. After drying, wax the back of the print well
and heat it over a stove until the print is thoroughly
throughout), the still wet plate is flowed over with the
developer until the image is well out, when the plate la
immersed in a fixing bath of hypo. The developer
consists of ferrous sulphate 40 gr., acetic acid 20 minims
to each ounce of distilled water, with sufficient alcohol
to make it flow easily. Considerable practice is necessary
before plates of this size can be worked successfully.
The development of a 20-in. by 15-in. plate is best carried
out in a dish, instead of holding the plate in the hand as
in small work. Porcelain dishes larger than the largest
plates likely to be used must he provided, and the one
containing the silver bath must be retained for that
especial purpose. Collodion fllm, unlike gelatine, is
extremely tender, and will not bear touching; even a
strong flow of water is suflicient to disturb it. It is
advisable, though not absolutely necessaiT, before col-
lodionising, to coat the plate with a filtered mixture of
the white of one egg, i drops of ammonia, and Iqt. of
water.
Staining Baskets.— Several kinds of stains and var-
nishes are used for baskets. Most stains are applied
after the baskets are made. Brown japan thinned
with turpentine will give a mahogany colour, bee that
the baskets are thoroughly dry, then give a coat of
the japan applied with a brush. When dry, give a
second, but somewhat thicker, coat. Another method
of producing a mahogany colour is to give the baskets
a c jat of gum thus dissolved in water. When dry, brush
over some bichromate of potash dissolved in hot water.
Finally give a coat of shellac varnish. Still another
method is to boil some logwood chips, or extract, in
water, then carefully add some sulphuric acid ; this can
be either poured over or brushed on the baskets. When
the baskets are dry, finish by coating with shellac
varnish as before.
316
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
Re-blackenlng Bent-wood Farnlture.— In renovat-
.ng bent-wood furniture, first remove grease, etc., by
scrubbing with strong soda water. When dry, smooth
down with No. glasspaper, then apply with a eamel-
hair brush several coats of combined black stain and
varnish (see p. 195) or of black enamel having a spirit
varnish basis. Allow at least an hour to elapse between
the application of successive coats.
Construction of a Pile-driving Engine.— The ac-
companying illustrations show a pile-driving engine
suitable for driving piles li (t. by 6 in. by 2iu., with a ram
of about 14 cwt., to be raised by manual power. The base
frame shown in Fig. 3 is composed of four fl-in. by 4ii-in.
red deal sills, stub-mortised and tenoned together, and
secured by two f-in. bolts that can be made to do duty
for axles for the wheels, if wheels are used. The two
guides for the ram are iiin. by 4iin.,and are tenoned
FiQ. 2
I — — 'J^ia 4'
Construction of a File driving Engine.
and pinned into the head and sill frames; the girders
are kept parallel by a J-in. bolt just below the head.
The front raking braces B are of li-in. by 4J-in. stuff, and
are bridle-notched to the guides, and secured with i-in.
coach screws. The back braces D (lln. by 4 in.) are
tenoned and pinned into an intermediate sill, framed
between the main sills about ift. back, and when a
platform is used an additional joist is framed in as
shown to stiffen the floor (this floor Is omitted in the
illustration). The head frame is constructed as shown
in Pig. i ; a i-in. by 3-ln. rail is framed in at the rear end,
and collars are welded on the bolt E to keep the distance
parallel. The gin or pulley rans in a casting bolted to
the top of the frame. The ram, if made of greenheart
of the given dimensions, will weigh 11 cwt. ; but if made
of Jarrah another 9 in. iu length will be required ; the
lower eiid of the ram is bound with a wrought-lron
flange 1 in. by 4 in. The trip, or monkey hook, shown
in the illustration is one of the best of its kind : several
J-in. holes are bored iu the guides before framing them
in, and a i-in. iron bar is placed at any height from
which it is desired to drop the I'am. As soon as the
arm of the monkey reaches the bar, it is tripped out of
the eye of the ram, which immediately falls; the
counterweight on the front of the hook tilts it down
again ready for entering the eye when it is lowered.
" is a slider attached to the ram to prevent it jumping
away from the guides. If there is much work to be
done with the engine it will be advisable to bolt f-in.
by IJ-in. iron bars on the face of the guides to prevent
wear. Figs. 1, 2, 3 are reproduced to scale of Iiin. to 1 ft ■
Fig. 4 is to a scale of 2 in. to 1ft. Another design for a
pile-driver is given on p. 165.
Bending Small Tubes.— To bend a number of pieces
of, say, t-in. brass tube as A (Pig. 1). cut a piece of
hardwood as oak or beech, 1 In. thick, to the curve
required, and in it drill a small hole B. In this hole
one end of the tube is inserted; the tube is then
bent round the block. Before this, however, one end
of the tube should be stopped, or it may be pinched
in the vice. , It should then be filled either with melted
resin and pitch or lead, the latter being the better
as the tube is less likely to buckle. Several lengths
of tube may be bound together with wire and annealed
at the blowpipe or forge. The seam of the tube must
be inside the bend. A bender which has a movable
block E is shown in Pig. 2. The base P may be 1-in
or li-in. deal, but the piece should be of i-iu. oak,
Bending SmaU Tubes.
beech, or similar hardwood flrmly screwed to the base.
A strip of iron D, 1} in. wide by iin. thick. Is screwed, and
a hole drilled in it serves to hold the tube firmly while
being bent. The piece E has two t-in. iron pins tightly
driven in and projecting }ln. as shown, holes being
drilled for these in the baseboard. First insert an end
of the tube in the iron strip and bend the tube round
and underneath; then put the block E in place and
bend the tube round it as indicated. A piece of wood
6in. long, 3in. wide, and lin. thick is screwed in the
centre of the baseboard underneath and is pinched in
the vice ; it holds the block firmly while being used.
Brass wire may also be bent by the same means, but
the blocks need not then be so strongly made. Brass
rings can be made with a parallel iron mandrel ; on this
the wire is wound. It can then be taken off and out up
with a circular saw, and brazed or otherwise joined.
Preserving Tortoise Shell.— In preserving the shell
of a tortoise, first it is necessary to remove the carcase
from its shell. Cut the skin along the top and bottom
of the front and rear parts. Then, with scissors or a
knife, disconnect the limbs and neck as far inside aa
possible. With a penknife and a piece of bent wire,
remove all the flesh and internal organs ; then wash the
inside of the shell with a strong solution of carboho
acid or a saturated solution of alum. Now hang it up
to dry. The outside of the shell is given a good appear-
ance by washing, and, when dry, either French-polishing
or varnishing it. Piles, glasspaper, etc., must not oe
used, or the sueU wiU be spoilt.
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
3i;
Varnish on Door Turning White.— Door varnish
which " hlooma " or turns white in wet weather, prob-
ably was left unoorKed for some time, or had been
stored in a damp, cold place and become chilled before
being applied to the door. If the defective varnish on
the door is sufBclently hard, it should be " flatted "—
that is, rubbed down to a duU level surface with second
gi'ade pumice-stone powder and water, using a pad of
horsehair, hair cloth, or canvas. Swill off with plenty
of clean water, then in warm dry weather apply a coat
of varnish of a different brand from that previously iised.
Cupboard for Carpenter's Tools.— The accompany-
ing drawing shows a cupboard that will be suitable
tor holding carpenter's tools. A useful size would be
about 2 ft. 6 in. wide, 3 ft. high, and 11 in. deep; but the
dimensions may be varied according to requirements and
number of tools to be stored. One-inch material will be
suitable for the sides, bottom, and top, and also for the
stiles and rails of the doors. The panels of the doors
should be of i-in. stuff, and the back of i-in. thick
ma,terial that may be used is plasticine, which is an
imitation of modelling wax, but is only made in one
colour (a greenish grey) ; plasticine is quite as pleasant
to handle, and retains its plasticity in the same manner
as wax. The ordinary method of constructing a model
IS as follows. Surround the required surface area with
a wooden frame, making the frame rather deeper than
the probable thickness of the intended model. The
frame will present the appearance of a shallow wooden
box, for which a cover either of wood or glass, as may
appear most desirable, may be constructed. The-
bottom of the box must be of a substantial character,
and should be stiffened with cross-pieces or battens;
handles should also be provided and firmly connected
with the bottom or foundation board. The sides of
the box may be of J-in. stuff. In this box the clay
IS placed and worked roughly to shape, and is then
trimmed carefully with spatulas and modelling tools.
Grass may be indicated by powdered moss sprinkled
on a coating of glue, and cinders, etc., by painting
the place with Indian ink ; railings, bridges, buildings.
Cupboard for Carpenter's Tools,
boaramg, grooved and tongued ; matehboarding will
answer the purpose. The shelves and drawer fronts may
be of J-in. stuff, and the sides, back, and bottom of the
drawers of i-in. stuff j these are finished sizes. Forms
for racks are shown ; these can be fixed where desired.
The compartment on the left is for planes, etc.
Modelling Materials and Metbod of Construction.
—In making a model of a small tract of country showing,
on a large scale, the intersection of road and railway,
modelling clay may be used if the model is to be some-
what rough in its nature, is required for a temporary
purpose only, and Is to be used within a short distance
of the place where it is made. The drawbacks to the
use of modelling clay are its want of permanency, the
ttimculty of moving the finished model, and the absence
from it of the natural colours of the objects represented ;
fue advantages are facility of execution and cheapness.
■It the model is to be of a more or less permanent
ohaiucter, or if it has to be moved about from place
to place, the structure m^y be built up of wood and
plaater-Q?-Paris ; these materials can be painted to indi-
cate the natural colours of the objects represented. If
" j''?,?*'ty of small detail has to be clearly shown,
modelling wax may be recommended. This wax is of a
eott and plastic nature, and remains permanently so,
thus forming an excellent substitute for wet clay; it
^ujt, of course, be protected from rough usage ;
niodeUing wax is supplied in various colours. Another
and structures of that kind can be formed of timber
stuck into the clay. When a model Is made of plaster-
of -Paris the elevated portions of the structure are
usually filled with "hollows," which are rough boxes
made of J-in. stuff sprigged together and fastened to the
foundation board. On these hollows, which greatly
lessen the weight of a model, the plaster is laid with a
spatula or small trowel, and is worked as nearly as pos-
sible to the form required. Bridges should be fashioned
in timber and fixed in position before anything else is
done. Buildings may be cut out of wood and fastened
down with wire nails, which should be long enough to
reach the foundation board. The railway metals may be
made of strips of wood. Plaster-of -Paris mis?d with
water sets in about nine or ten minutes ; if that time
is not long enough for shaping the contour of the
model, the setting of the plaster may be retarded for
a further ten minutes by mixing white of egg with the
water (5 per cent, of white of egg to 95 per cent, of water).
Errors in construction, however, are easily corrected
after the plaster has set. Surplus material is readily
removed with a joiner's chisel and a light mallet, and
additions may be made by roughening the surface of the
plaster, well wetting it, and adding as much fresh
plaster as is necessary. The model may then be painted
either in oil or in water colours. Bailings, signal posts,
etc., may be let into holes drilled in the plaster. For
trees, those supplied in a box of children's toys may
be employed.
318
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
Preserving Lamb's Foot.— To preserve a lamb's foot
for the purpose of making a whip stock, the whole of the
inside of the foot must be taken out. The shank bones
should be removed without cutting the skin, but a cut
above the hoots at the back will be necessary in order
to finish. If this cannot be followed, cut straight down
the back, and remove the bones, but be careful when the
hoofs are reached. Knocking the outsides of the hoofs
with something hard will frequently release the bones.
Now dress the in sides with a solution of i parts of burnt
alum to 1 part of saltpetre and neatly sew up -, then fit
in the stock and wrap some string round. When quite
dry, remove the string and fix a ferrule. Very often the
work is less thoroughly done. The shank bone is merely
removed without cutting the skin, and the stock iltted
in. The foot is then bent if desired to be curved, and
the whole hung up to dry in a draughty place. The
tendons and muscles are allowed to dry naturally, but
eventually, especially if put in a damp place, the whole
becomes oitensive.
Making a Trotting Sulky. — The accompanying
sketch shows a side elevation of a very light sulky suitable
for a cob lij hands high. The oval iron stays A are
made with a flap at the top end, to which the seat B is
fixed ; the front stays at the bottom are made of half-
round iron, in the form of a bracket, being fixed to a
light landing board C which extends upwards to take
the footboard D. The hind stays at the bottom E may
be fixed on top of the shafts, and have an ell flap to go
on a bar framed across between the back end of the
shafts. On the front edge of this bar a light iron stay
should be fixed, sweeping round to get a flaing on the
inside of the shaft, just behind the spring bearing. The
seat B is 1ft. 5in. wide by 1ft. lOin. long, and has light
Iron rails fixed at the ends as P. The back-rests G should
be made of steel, with a loop at the top to take a broad
leather strap. The shafts H may be of hickory or lance-
wood, lOtt. 9in. long over all, 2in. wide by liln. thick,
with a side cant of 4 in. The springs I are of the elbow
pattern, with a slight return sweep at the front end
liable to injure the surface of the ivory halls, which
then would have to be re-turned in the lathe. The Ivory
is removed from the stain from time to time until the
required tint Is obtained ; times of immersion cannot
be stated with exactness, as some ivories take the stain
more readily than others. On removal from the stain
well rinse in clean cold water, even though the ball has
yet to pass through a bath of a different colour. Always
transfer balls from the stain to clean water. When dry
polish the balls by rubbing with a clean soft rag on
which have been sprinkled a few drops of oil ; finish with
a dry clean rag, removing all the oil. Filter or strain
all the stains given below before use. The stains may be
made as follows. Black : (1) Make a strong solution of
silver nitrate. After an immersion of several hours, the
balls are removed and exposed to a strong light. (2) Boil
a handful of logwood chips in li pt. of water until the
liquid is reduced to Jpt. Allow to cool to 100° P., and
after staining, place the balls for five minutes in a solu-
tion of loz. of sulphate ofiron in Iqt. of water. (3)
Make a decoction with water and lib. of galls and 21b. of
logwood. The balls require a long immersion in this,
and afterwards an immersion of a few hours in acetate
of iron. Blue: (!) Make a dilute solution of indigo
sulphate containing potash or tartaric acid. (3) Dissolve
verdigris and sal-ammoniac in dilute nitric acid j after
wards dip in a strong solution of pearlash and water.
^J
A Trotting Sulky.
hung by shackles to a light BC-roll made of spring steel.
The wheels are 4ft. high, anl may be of the pattern
shown ; or a light Warner wlieel may be put on. The
step is 1ft. 5 in. deep from the lop of the crown to the
top of the tread, and is fixed to the shafts and bar by
two A-in. bolts. The draught or whifBe-tree bar should be
attached to the cross-bar, to which the steps are fixed,
either by a centre-bolt or by two leather straps, and
kept in position by two breeching staples. The rein
rail is fixed on top of the shafts at such a height as to
keep the reins clear of the horse.
Damp Wall Remedies. — If the will affected by
damp is not of great extent, the most effectual remedy
is to cut out tne old brickwork in small portions
lit a time, and rebuild the wall with Staffordshire
blue bricks set in cement; or ordinary stock bricks
may be used, with a cavity between the inner and
outer skins. If the wall is only 9 in. thick, this would
necessitate either thickening the wall or making the
inner skin of brick on edge. If it is not desirable to
pull down and rebuild, line the inside of the wall with
thin lead paper, Willesden paper, or CaUender's sheet
bitumen.
Staining or Dyeing Ivory Billiard BaUs. — The
process of colouring ivory billiard balls by immersion
in water stains requires close attention that the balls
may be withdrawn directly the required tone is ob-
tained, and therefore only two or three balls can be
dyed to precisely the same colour at one operation.
Tliey are prepared for dyeing, first by polishing with
whiting and water, washing off the whiting, and
immersing for from three to five minutes in a mix-
ture of 1 part of commercial muriatic acid or nitric
acid and 60 parts of water; this dilute acid extracts
the gelatine from the surface of the ivory, and this
is essential to the production of a uniform colour j the
surface of the ivory is injuriously affected if the acid
IS not sufficiently dilute. The utmost cleanliness is
necessary, and all touching with the hands must be
avoided; lift the balls by means of a pair of wooden
tongs. Before transferring to the stain, immerse for
some minutes in clean cold water that has been boiled.
The water stain should be at a temperature of 100" F.
The higher the temperature, the more rapidly is the
stam taken, but results obtained at the temperature
mentioned are certain, and much greater heats are
Brown : Five minutes in logwood water stain gives warm
brown; half an hour, a deep chocolate brown; a teu
minutes' immersion, washing, dipping in pearlash solu-
tion for one or two seconds, and again washing, a deep
red brown ; by substituting a minute immersion in an
alum solution for the pearlash a deep purple brown is
obtained. Green : Saffron or fustic stain, followed by
an indigo one ; fustic is more permanent than saffron.
Red: (1) Infuse cochineal in liquor ammonia, (a) A
solution of nltro-muriate of tin, followed by a hot
decoction of 1 oz. of logwood in 1 pt. of water. (3) A
decoction of brazil for fifteen minutes, followed by a
solution of nitro-muriate of tin, or by a solution of
pearlash for a few minutes. (4) Boil a piece of shredded
red cloth about 1 ft. square together with 10 gr. of pearl-
ash in i pt. of water for five or six hours. The pearlash
may be left out, and afterwards 1 part of sulphuric acid
may be added for every 65 parts of stain. An immersion
of three to five minutes gives a pink colour ; an immer-
sion of two or three hours a crimson red colour. Yellow :
(1) Boil OOgr. of saffron for some hours in i pt. of water ;
this is a fugitive stain. (2) A more permanent one is
made by boiling 4 oz. of fustic dust and chips in 1 qt. oi
water. The yellow colour can be given an orange tint
by immersing the stained balls in a brazil water stain,
arid the orange colour may be deepened to a redder
tone by passing the balls through a solution of nitro-
muriate of tin.
Making Cheap Bicarbonate of Soda.— Bicarbonate
of soda is made by pas-iing carbonic acid over carbonate
of soda until the material is saturated. It can be
home-manufactured as cheaply as it can be bought.
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
319
Cleaning Oil Lamp Burner .— In cleaning an oil lamp
•larner all gauze or perforated parts should be well
Brushed. These parts cannot be thoroughly cleaned by
boUlng, and it Is often impossible to brush them in the
oidinary way. In such a case a pointed piece of wood,
mth the end broken and made like a brush, could be
need though this process is rather tedious. The per-
forated parts of the burner may look clean, but if not
carefully done there may be. left a matting of fine hair or
fibre material, which will prevent the air passing through
freely If insufficient air passes through, combustion
l)ecomes imperfect ; the burner also becomes dangerously
bot. Dirty burners cause lamps to smoke.
Grocer's Hoist.— Pigs. 1 and 2 show a side and end
elevation, respectively, of a goods hoist suitable for a
grocer's use. The hauling rope is an endless band of
any desired length, and works a 3-ft. flywheel with a
V-rim that actuates the winding drum, the ratio being
I to 7 so that a man can easily raise 6 owt. A self-
sustaining hoist should be used ; this will suspend the
load at any point, and allows one man to do both the
Fig. I
Grocer's Hoist.
Fig. 2
hauling and the landing. The cat-head projects about
2ft. from the wall, and should rest on a wood or iron
template about 2 ft. 6 in. long, to distribute the
pressure. The inner end may be brought in any con-
venient distance for mounting the beai-ings of the
hoist, and should be framed into a post by mortise-
and-tenon joint. If a beam in the roof is convenient, a
atud may be fixed near the end as shown, or the cathead
may be secured to the post by an iron strap bolted to
the sides. The post should be notched and bolted to the
side of a floor joist. A similar beam and post of lighter
scautling is required to carry the bearings of the
opposite end of -the hoist, as shown in Pig. 2. The outer
■end of this beam may rest in a chase about 2iin. deep
cut in the wj.ll.
Blocking Out on Glass Positive.— In blocking out
«ome figures Irom a glass with oil or water colour,
ihe positive should be mounted with its glass side
outwards, otherwise the image would be reversed. If
the positive is so mounted, there will be no danger in
painting over it with oU or water colour. The figure
may, of course, be painted out on the tilm side of the
positive; but in such a case, care must be taken m
cleaning off, as a collodion film is exceedingly tender,
and a good plan would be to soak the positive in turps,
and then stroke the paint gently with a tuft of cotton-
wool. Another plan for getting rid of a figure is to cu t
for it a mask in tissue or tracing paper ; or the blocking
out may be done on a glass cover placed over the posi-
tive. In each of these methods the work is out of focus,
and a hard, sharp blocking-out line around the figure is
avoided ; but if the outline is very intricate, and the
tone of the background differs considerably from that
of the figure, the painting-out method is best. Pigures
are sometimes blocked out with a Ifo. 1 retouching pencil
after rubbing over the glass with retouching medium in
the usual way. Fancy backgrounds, etc., then can be
introduced.
A Small Blowing-fan for a Forge.— For a blowing-
tan to be used with a small forge the base may be of
*-in. deal to the shape and dimensions shown by
Pig. 1. The two deal sides (Pig. 2) form a gradually
increasing space for the air inside the fan. The vanes
at A almost touch the tin covering, but from that
point the space gradually increases until B is reached,
where it is 4 in. wide. Screw the sides to the base at its
narrowest part with a distance of 3J in. between them.
Each side has two circular holes 4 in. to 5 in. in diameter ;
across these, pieces of sheet-iron Tin. by I in. are
screwed, each iron having a hole in the centre to take a
bushing of brass tube in which the spindle runs. A disc
of wood 2 in. in diameter has a central hole bored to fit
the spindle, and four J-in. holes are drilled at equal dis-
tances on the periphery of the disc. Four pieces of wood.
Fig. 2
A Small Blowing-fan for a Forge.
i in. square and about 4 in. long, are tapered on the ends
to fit these holesj each carries a vane of stout tin about
3i in. square. The fan can now be mounted on the
spindle, the vanes being trimmed to fit as close as
possible to the sides of the case without touching. To
prevent side-shake,solder two brass collars on the spindle.
Enclose the fan by tacking a sheet of tin 44 in. wide com-
pletely round the case from to B (Fig. 2), and make a
tin nozzle tapering to about li in. square and attach it
at C. Now make a bracket D, about 9 in. high, on which
to mount an iron pulley about 15in. in diameter; by this
a belt drives a pulley 1 in. in diameter placed on the end
of the fan spindle. The fan should now be painted and
finished.
Polishing Granite. — Granite is polished in many
different ways, the method employed depending upon
the nature and quality of the gi-amte, the varieties of
which are very numerous. The following method is
the one generally adopted. The surface left by the axe
nresents a succession of ridges and furrows ; these ri dges
must be rubbed down with iron rubbers and sharp coars£
sand and water. When all the tool marks are removed,
and an even face has been produced, the rubbing is con
tinued with emery powder of varying degrees of fineness,
the same iron rubbers being used. Lastly,.the stone is
rubbed with a wooUen or linen boss. on which fine flour
emery is sprinkled and moistened with water the final
Dolish being given with putty powder (oxide of tin) and
a felt block A good polish, which can be obtained only
bv uersistent rubbing, will keep its lustre undimmed for
hllfl century at lealt. For the sake of speed and cheap-
nlss hydrochloric acid (spirits of salts), oxalic acid and
S^^iiar acids are sometimes used for polishing; but the
pS soon disappears, and theface of the granite is
to some extent destroyed.
320
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
Making Resin Paste.— Besiu inust be dissolved be-
fore it can be added to floui' paste. Dissolve lib. of
waahins soda in 1 gal. of water, then add 21b. of resin
in i)owder and boil until the latter is dissolved. This
solution may be used in place of part of the water
required for making the paste. Should this not be
satisfactory, dissolve the reain in turpentine and stir it
into the warm paste.
Construction of a Goods Lift.— The accompanying
illustrations are intended to explain the construction
of a goods lift, to be worked by hand, and fitted
with balance weights. The extreme dimensions of
the lift are 4 ft. wide, 3 ft. deep, 6 ft. 6 in. high ; this
is the largest size usually maQe to work by hand, and
it is capable of carrying safely 10 cwt. If the lift is
to be used by passengers, safety catches and another
guide should be added. The construction is simple, and
consists of a skeleton frame of 2-in. by 2-iu. stuff, filled
a goods lift that is in constant use, It 1b advisable to
make the frame and guides of oak or teak. Fig. 1 shows
a half vertical section and half front elevation ; Pig. 2
a half plan and half horizontal section j Fig. 3, an en-
larged section through the top corner of frame i Fig. i
an enlarged section through the bottom corner of the'
frame. Fig. 5 shows the joints at the corner of the
frame, and Fig. 6 the method of tenoning the posts.
Stripping Silver from Copper.— If the copper article
ia sma^lthe silver may be stripped by immersion In hot
concentrated sulphuric acid, to which nitrate of potash
crystals must be added in small quantities as the work
proceeds. The acid must be kept hot in a porcelain or
vitrified stoneware vesael. The article to be stripped
must be dry and free from grease, lacquer, or varnish.
It must be gently moved whilst in the acid and closely
watched, and must be taken out and rinsed in clean
water when the silver has been removed; the acid
will then not deeply corrode the copper, which may
then be polished in the usual manner. If the articles
are too large to be thus treated the silver must be
rubbed oft in the process of polishing. Sliver may be
stripped from other metals by electrolytic action in a
bath of potassium cyanide, with the article connected
to thfe positive pole of a battery or dynamo, and a small
silver plate connected to the negative pole. The article
must be removed as soon as all the silver is dissolved.
Garden Wicket Gates.— Garden wicket gates are made
in many kinds of timber, but chiefly in oak and pine ;
this must be dry and well-seasoned, or the gates will
soon warp and wedge. A good width is 3 ft. 6 in. A ^iece
9 ft. long by Bin. by 2 in. is aawn in two for the aides,
marked C in the llluBtration. The ipalinga D are i in. by
Fio. 2'
ConBtruction of a Goods Lift.
Fia 6
in with panels of i-in. matchlining. The top and under
frames are dovetailed together at the corners as shown
in Pig. 5, the pins being on the front and back rails in
order to prevent the cage spreading in this direction ;
the guides prevent the cage opening in the other direc-
tion. The corner studs are stub -tenoned and table-
haunched into the framea, and kept In position by four
5-in. wrought-iron bolts B running from top to bottom
of the cage. The matchlining is fitted into 1-in. grooves
in the frame, on three sides and the top ; the floor is
formed of 1-in. boards, nailed on the under frame, and
running in a direction transverse to the top ; a rail 44 in.
by lin. runs across the hack to strengthen the match-
lining. The cage is hung to a wrought-iron rail Hn. by
Sin., spread at the ends, and drilled to receive a bolt
that runs through to the bottom, where it beds on an
Iron plate (Pigs. 2 and 4). The end of this rail may be
forked over the guide post G, Fig. 1, to form a runner,
r 1' are the balance frame guides. E Is the frame,
which is filled In with east-iron weights. H H are pieces
of l}-in. by j-ln. oak, fixed to the Bide of the cage to form
runners i or, if preferred, iron bracket pieces, as at K,
may be used. T T show the trimmer joists around the
openings. These cages are usually made of good sound
yellow deal, painted or stained, and varnished ; but for
y/////////myM
Garden Wicket Gate.
3 in., nailed to cross bars I; both the long bars B are
mortised into the aides C, and are glued and painted m
putting together. The posts A are of wik, 5 in. square,
the ends E being left rough as shown. Before being put
in the ground they are given two coats of red lead.
All the woodwork is given two coats of red lead ana
painted afterwards.
Deoxidising Tin.— To deoxidise tin, stir into it while
in the molten condition plenty of sal-ammoniac or reein,
and continue adding either of these substances until the
tin appeai-B in Its usual state; then skim the. dross
from the surface, and cast the metal in sticks or ingots
of the required size.
Forming Grooves in Cement Floor. — A grooved
cement floor, say, for a stable, is laid in sections, and
the deep part of the grooves ia formed by inserting laths
In the wet cement, the rounded portion between the
grooves being obtained by^outting off with a trowel,
before withdrawing the laths, the arrises at the edges
of the grooves. After the cutting is done and the laths
are withdrawn, the concrete is carefully smoothed with
properly shaped moulds. Forthe Pi-oper performance or
the work considerable dexterity and skifl are required,
as the whole operation must be completed before tne
cement has begun to set.
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
321
Beam Compasses.— A "beam compass is Tieed for the
purpoBe of drawing circles or arcs' of longer radius
than can be taken in by the ordinary bow compass.
A beam compass usually consists of a flat wooden
beam fitted with two movable trammel heads such
as are Illustrated by Fig. 1. As is shown in the illustra-
tions, these trammel heads carry interchangeable pen
and pencil points, and dividers or needle points, and
are secured to the beam by large clamping screws.
The beam itself is usually a flat lath of hard wood,
and when this lath is very long considerable inaccuracy
may be caused by its deflection sideways. To prevent
such deflection, the beam should be made of T section.
In using the beam ' compass, the heads are adjusted
approximately to the required distance, and are clamped
in that position by the screws mentioned above ; the
exasc distance is then adjusted by; means of the fine
adjusting screw lettered a in the illustration. Fig. 2
shows a beam compass, with a graduated beam, as used
in the Ordnance Survey Department. To the fine adjust-
ment is fitted a vernier scale, by which it is claimed that
the distance between the heads can be regulated to the
hundredth part of an inch. In Fig. 3 is shown a tele-
scopic beam compass having several tubular parts
sllinng one within the other, and clamping screws to fix
them at the desired position. A very neat and useful
beam compass is that shown in Pig. i, in which the beam
is about I in. square. One of the heads is clamped to the
filters should consist of a coarse filter and one or (pre-
ferably) two fine filters. A site should be chosen that
will allow of the effluents being discharged from the
bottom of the first filter on to the top of the second,
and from the bottom of the second filter on to the top
of the third. The materials generally used for filling the
tanks are— for the coarse filters on to which the sewage
is first discharged, coke or clinkers of, say, 2-in. gauge ;
and for the fine filters, coke-breeze or screened cinders,
of not larger gauge than |in. and not finer than Jin.
Coal slack, burnt clay ballast, and other materials have
been used with success for the body of the filter. It
must not be forgotten that the tanks, when supplied
with filtering material, will only hold about 40 per cent,
of their original capacity. The raw sewage, before it is
turned on to the filters, should be passed through a
screen of some kind, otherwise rags, corks, cotton-waste,
and other matters that are not properly sewage, and
therefore not amenable to treatment, will be deposited
on, and clog up, the surface of the filters. It is a great
advantage to nave a large tank, of a capacity sufB.cieut
to hold, say, half a day's sewage, in which a preliminary
sedimentation and putrefaction may take place; the
effluent from such a tank is in a rnueh better condition
for filter treatment than fresh sewage. It is a usual
though not an invariable practice to lay at the bottom
of the filter-beds a central line of drain-pipes with open
joints, and radiating lines of smaller pipes, also
}j^ Beam CompaBses.
beam, and serves to carry the pencil point, at the other
end of which is the pen. The other head is held in
position by the pressure of a strong spring, which presses
a fluted roller against the top of the beam. A milled
head at the side enables the draughtsman to rotate the
fluted roller and so traverse the head along the beam to
the desired position. A makeshift beam compass may
be made out of a blind lath and two good-sized corks,
such as are used in pickle bottles. Holes are burnt
and cut for the reception of the lath and drawing pen
as shown in Pig. 5, and also for the pricker or needle
stuck into a penholder. The cork takes a good grip of
the lath, and the instrument is quite steady and pleasant
to work with.
Bacterial Treatment of Sewage.— No hard-and-fast
rules can be laid dovra for the construction of bac-
terial filters, this method of treating sewage being
of comparatively recent date. Any Jiind of tank that
will hold water may be used. In some towns shallow
pits with sloping sides have been excavated in th(i
earth, the bottom and sides of the pits being lined
with clay puddle. But such an arrangement can only
be considered as a temporary makeshift ; for permanent
work the tanks are generally lined with concrete or blue
oricks. Many bacterial filters have been made by
utilising existing precipitating tanks at sewage treat-
ment works. Experience tends to show that the depth
of a filter tank should not exceed 4 ft. The size of the
niters should be so proportioned to the amount of
sewage to be treated that not more than 200 gal. or
-loo gal. per square yard of filter are dealt with; and
at least three sets of filters should be available, in order
that each filter may be worked in an eight-hour cycle-
mat is to say, approximately, three hours for filling, two
hours for standing quiescent while the bacteria are doing
their work, one hour for drawing off the effluent, and
two hours standing empty for aeration. Bach set of
21
open-jointed, arranged herringbone fashion. Various
contrivances are used for keeping the bottoms of the
filters as open and accessible to air as possible. One
device is to have the bottoms lined with two courses of
bricks, the lower courses having open spaces of about
2 in. around each brick, and the upper course being
close-jointed to keep the filtering material from being
washed out. Unless a free supply of air can be made to
circulate through the whole body of the filter after each
emptying, there is not a chance of success.
Whitening Stone Stairs.— Por whitening Portland
or Painswick stone, pipeclay should answer well, but
should be sparingly used— that is, just a smear rubbed
on evenly with a wet rag. Or a piece of soft Bath
stone (Corsham or Parleigh Down for preference)
might be used; it should be rubbed on with a little
water and finished with a wet rag. Ordinary hearth-
stone (Godstone),sold and used for the special purpose
of whitening stone, might be tried. Either of the
substances mentioned above ought to answer the
purpose. The mistake that is generally made is to put
on too much of the wliitening material, hence it flakes
off in places and has generally a rough appearance;
whereas if a little of it were carefully and thoroughly
rubbed into the stone the result would be satisfactory.
Making Caulked Joints.- The method of making a
caulked joint in a cast hot-water pipe is first to caulk
the space about one-third full of hemp, then put about
half an inch of putty, then a ring of hemp, then another
ring of putty, and so on until full, finishing oft with
the putty. It must then be allowed sufttcient time to
harden before letting the water in, or the swelling of
the first hemp will squeeze the lead back. Ordinary
putty should not be mixed with white and red lead ; the
two latter ingredients only are used. Badly made and
leaky joints cannot be remedied; they must be picked
out and re-made as described above.
322
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics
Slaking a Hand Camera.— In conBtructmg a hand
camiTa, hrat Ux up a suitable lens of about 5i-in. foeus
in a box, ascertain exactly the principal focus, and see,
also, whether the lens covers a 1-plate satisfactorily:
that is to say, with a stop having a diameter eciual
to one-eighth the focus (or about Si in.) the lens should
give a sharp image right to the extreme corners of the
plate. The priuoipal focus, plus the distance from
the stop B (Fig. 1) to the edge of the hood C, and the
width of the slide D, iin. for springs, together with an
allowance of 1 in. focal adjustment, should constitute
the inside length of the camera. Having constructed
the framework, flx the lens board 1? at the required dis-
tance, which is found by focussing a very distant object
on a piece of ground glass placed exactly J in. from the
back. Next fit a frame at H, and remove a portion of
the top of the framework at M (see Fig. 2) to allow of the
insertion of the slide. Construct the frame L (Pig. 3)
with springs N to force the frame Into accurate register
and lit the door I, through which the image may be
Cocussed on a celluloid focussing screen. This screen
consists of a light frame to carry a sheet of celluloid,
the screen sinking into a rebate gauged to match that of
the slide. The front door is next fitted, and carries two
finders, a pattern for which appears in Fig. i. The
lenses are let into ths front by sinking a hole of the
to be brought out through the side of the camera, and
fitted with a pointer, against which a scale of distances
may be fixed. A covered nut may bo let into the side
and one into the bottom of the camera, so that a stand
may be used when required. A time and instantaneous
shutter is shown at X (Fig. 1) ; the principle of such a
shutter is explained on p. lil. The dark slides as made
above are so light that several of them, each holdina
two plates, may be carried in the pockets.
Electro-plating Lead wlih Copper.— To plate sheet
lead with a thin film of copper first prepare the following
solution. Dissolve 1 lb. of copper sulphate in i gal. oi
rainwater, then stir in enough liquor ammonia to throw
down the copper in the form of a green precipitate, and
dissolve this to makd a blue liquid. Dilute this witti an
equal bulk of rain-water, then add sullicient potaSium
cyanide to destroy the blue tint and produce the colour of
old ale. J'ilter the whole through calico and expose to
the action of air for twenty-four hours, when it should
be ready for use. "Work it cold or hot with a strong
current at a pressure of from 6 to 8 volts, using an anode
plate of pure copper. The lead plates must be scoured
clean with sand and water, then briskly rinsed in a
sokition of pearlash (lib. to the gallon), and transfen-ed
from this direct to the coppei'-plating solution without
diameter of the lens to witliin one-sixteenth of its total
thickness, and thencutting a smaller hole. After dropping
the lens into its recess the lens may be held against the
shoulder so formed by springing in a rim of wire. The
edges 0, are bent over, and a bend is also made along
the dotted lines. The frame formed by the bent pieces
carries a strip of looking-glass on the parts P, and is
screwed to the front door, so that the hole covers the
lens. The locus of these finder lenses should, propor-
tionately to the screen, be slightly less than that of the
chief lenSj so that the image in the finder can be blocked-
out until it coincides with that on the screen. A piece of
ground glass is fixed beneath 0, 0. The frame H (Fig. 1)
should be covered with velvet, so that when the slide is
inserted through M ( Fig. 2) the springs force it against H
and make a light-tiglit join. Dark slides may be bought
cheaply, or may be made as follows. Groove some
pieces like Fig. 5 (two 5 in. and two 4 in.) and dovetail
into a frame, with a piece of blackened zinc fitted into a
groove R to make the light-tight division. Before fitting,
however, cut away the parts J from the top rail on each
aide, until these parts are flush with the underside of
the groove, (ilae a sti-ip of velvet between the points
K and K (see Fig. 6), and shape the rails S. Glue a
nai )0w strip of black paper acros-B just below y to act as
a light trap, and fasten a spring like it at II and D (Fig. 5) .
The plate rests on these springs, and is forced upwards
against the top rail, When a piece of vulcanite or vul-
canised fitjre has been cut and fitted as the draw
shutter, the ivor.y number inserted, and the draw strap
a.ttached at W (Fig 6), the slide is complete. The camera
may be covered with Roanoid or imitation morocco.
The lens must be fitted with rack and pinion, the latter
Fig. 3
Mailing a Hand Camera,
3- 6^^ .
handling or previous rinsing in water. Tf the first
deposit IS coarse and loose, remove the plates and well
brush them in water with a hard fibre brush, again rinse
in the potash or pearlash solution, and return to the
copper-plating bath, using a reduced anode surface, or
keep the plates moving whilst being plated. In this way
a bright facing of copper may be obtained, which must
be well rinsed and dried quickly to prevent tarnishing.
Electro-deposited copper rapidly tarnishes in air when
damp.
Repairing Marble Clock-cases.— When the corners
of a marble clock-case are broken off, the disflgurement
may often be remedied by reducing the case, after
which the polish may be restored. The procedure le
as follows. FEe off from the damaged part as much
as may be necessary, taking care, however, not to alter
the original shape of the case. Then grind oH the
marks of the file with a suitable piece of pumioe-stone
with water, and then with a water-stone, giving special
attention to the corners and contours. _ Moisten a
hard ball of linen and sprinkle over it either tripoli
or fine emery, and with this rub up a lustre: then rub
with a linen ball, using with it, finely washed emery
and rouge ; when dry, finish the polishing with a mixture
of beeswax and oil of turpentine. This method may be
used for all sorts of marble. When the piece broken oil
is too big, or when the fractures are too deep tor the
above plan to be adopted conveniently, the damaged
parts may be made up with a cement prepared by mixing
finely powdered marble with a little water glass. This is
applied in the form of a thick paste, and, when dry, oas
its shape corrected by filing, a polish being obtained
as recommended above. Parts broken off a colon; ed
marble case may be cemented in place again by wetting
the pieces with an aqueous solution of silicate of potasn,
putting them into position, and allowing lorty-eight
hours for the cement to dry. For white marble, egg
albumen with a little Vienna lime forms the cement.
Waterproofing Small Shed.— As a waterproof coating
for a small shed tar, perhaps, is the most suitable.
Paint or varnish may be used, but they ai-e . not so
durable as tar, and much more expensive. -*■ Pai"* ™?;}
may be suitable can be made by melting tqgethei equal
parts of pitch and resin and, after removing t™" "^|
fire, thinning with petroleum ether or parafiin oil. ims
paint is applied with a brush.
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
323
Photographic Studio Blinds.— The method of fixing
and the manner of controlling the blinds in the root ol
a photographic studio depend upon the position o[ the
studio and on the quality of the light. The blinds should
be of two kinds ; those next the glass should be of thin
calico, the outer ones of green sateen or glazed lining.
Spring rollers, provided they are properly fixed and
used, give the most satisfactory method of control.
Sometimes two wires ai-e stretched across the studio
and the blinds are festooned between them, but such an
arrangement is very objectionable j the blinds collect
duet, cannot easily be shifted, and look very untidy.
A good and cheap method is to fix the blind on a roller
with a pulley and cord at one end, and a cord from the
centre of the bottom. Pulling down the blind winds up
the cord, and pulling down the cord winds up the blind.
Beservoir for Paraffin Blowpipe.— There are two
ways in which oil cah be supplied from a reservoir to the
burner of a paraffin blowpipe in suflicient quantity to keep
up a steady flame. One method is shown by Pig. 1, the
other by Pig. 2. In the latter method it would be neces-
sary to make the reservoir rather strong, as it would have
to stand a slight pressure. A little oil must first be run
into the outer tube and burnt ; this will warm the top of
the reservoir and force the oil up the tube and through
the small jet. The oil will vaporise in the hot tube and
bnm there, while a little escaping through the small
holes in the inner tube into the outer tube will also
burn there, thus tending to keep the pressure up. In
filling, cut holes in an oblique direction on the sloping
side of the letters, one hole at each end and two in the
centre of each member (or more, if thought desirable) ;
use a small drill, and cut the holes suUiciently deep to
key in the lead. The lead for fllling in should be new
sheet, as it is softer than old lead melted up ; it should
also be a little thicker than the depth of the letter, and
should be cut into strips or cut out roughly to the shape
of the letter. Lay the lead on the cut letter, and beat in
with a boxwood mallet until every portion of the letter is
filled and the lead well fastened, then cut off the
superfluous lead with a carpenter's chisel until the
outline of the letter is found ; beat gently home, and
bring the letters to an even surface by gritting
with pumice-stone, finally finishing off with snake stone
(water-of-Ayr) and plenty of water, which gives the
letters a dark appearance. "When the surface of the
stone is polished, a brass drag with fine teeth is some-
times used to remove the superfluous lead ; the drag
is traversed backwards and forwards, and avoids all
scratching of the polish. For gilding the out letters,
apply a couple of coats of gold size, the first coat mixed
with a little yellow ochre to give a body and fill up the
pores. "When the second coat gets tacky, English gold
leaf is applied with a small badger-hair brush and well
worked into the mitres, and then cleaned off. The pro-
cess of gilding, although apparently simple, requires
great ca,re and experience.
Development of Spiral Flute on a Column.— If a
piece of paper be cut to the shape of a right-angled
triangle and wound round a cylinder, the top edge
forms a helix or spiral line, as in the accorapauying
Development of Spiral Flute
on a Column.
Fig. 2.
Reservoir for Paraffin Blowpipe.
the method shown by Fig. 1 the flow of oil is regulated
by a tap ; the oil flows through the holes in the inner
tube (tlie top of the Inner tube being closed) into the
outer tube, where It burns.
Cutting Letters on Polished Granite.— Letter cutting
on polished granite headstones is executed in the follow-
ing manner. Set out the letters on tracing-paper (care
being taken that they are evenly spaced) and paste or gum
the paper on the stone, keeping the letters in line with
a straightedge. When the paste is dry, nick in all the
, letters with a sharp chisel and remove the paper, it
necessary; It is, however, sometimes advantageous to
keep the paper on till the work is flnished, as the paper
saves the surface polish from being scratched. Another
way is to cut a slice off a raw potato, make a few cuts on
the flat side of the slice, and rub it on the polished
surface of the stone ; the potato juice dries quickly,
furnishes a medium that can be pencilled on, and is
easUy rubbed off with a piece of damp paper. "White of
egg, or a very thin smear or coating of size and whiting,
can be used for the same purpose. The letters are cut
with small cup-headed chisels of various sizes, termed
splitters ; they are similar to the tools employed for
cutting marble, and are used with an iron hammer,
rue best chisels for this class of work are' made from
old finely cut guUeting saw flies, which are manu-
tactured from the very best steel ; these old files may
ue bought at a very cheap rate per hundredweight,
and are easily made up by any toolsmith. The chisels
should be tempered to a dark straw colour, and kept
pertectly sharp; a better edge will be preserved if,
alter every few blows of the hammer, the chisels are
clipped into turpentine ; turpentine should also be rubbed
on the whetstone. The edge of each letter should be
kept perfectly clean and correct- in outline, and the
internal mitre or depth should form a i ight angle ; the
letters need not be cleaned out or flnished at the bottom
II they are to be leaded. For the lead or imperishable
illustration. The larger the angle A, the steeper the
pitch of the spiral. The simplest method of developing
a spiral flute would be to first dress the shaft of the
column to a cylindrical surface, then mark off the base
of each flute at the lower end, cut a piece ot brown paper
to triangular shape to give the required pitch, wind it
round the column and pencil the outline formed by the top
edge. The pitch is found by making the length ot the
triangle equal to the circumference of the shaft, and the
height ot the triangle equal to the height the spiral is
requii-ed to rise in one revolution.
Making Amber Varnish.— In making amber varnish,
place Mlb. of rock salt dissolved in spring water and 7 lb.
of ordinary amber in a crucible over a fire till the
amber is perfectly white. The bleached amber is then
heated in an iron pot till entirely dissolved. When
cool, the amber is taken out and well washed in spring
water to eliminate the salt. It is then placed in the
pot again and heated till dissolved, then poured out
and spread over a clean marble slab to dry, any
humidity that may remain being removed by gentle
heat or sunshine. The amber is then powdered and
again heated, with frequent stirring, till it is ot the
desired fluidity. When cool, purest turpentine in a
warm state is added till the composition is of the required
consistency. The gum also readily dissolves in pure
chloroform, or in a mixture of spirits of turpentine and
alcohol, the whole being heated for several hours in a
closed vessel. It also yields to the action of sulphuric
acid The manufacture of amber varnish on a small
scale without the aid of special plant is not recom-
mended.
Restoring Polish of White Marble.— In order to
impart a high lustre to white marble which has become
dim cover it with a solution of pure beeswax in oil of
turpentine, and then rub dry with a linen or cotton cloth.
The hard rubbing generally produces a good polish.
324
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
Photographic Lenses of Different Angles. — The
angle of a lens refers to the amount of subject It
includes in the picture, and therefore depends upon the
6lze of the plate it is used to cover. The term is only
comparatiye. If, (or example, a wide-angle lens of 8-in.
focus, intended tor a 10-iu. by 8-in. plate, is used to take
a picture on a half-plate, the lens ceases for that speciflc
fiurpose to be a wide-angle lens. When the focus of a
ens is less than the diagonal of the plate for which it is
used, the lens is termed a short-focus or wide-angle lens.
If the focus is considerably greater than the diagonal
of the plate, the lens Is called a long-focus or narrow-
angle lens. In Pig. 1 the courses of rays proceeding from
six points and passing through a lens are traced. Those
rays issuing from A and A' and focussing at Y and Y' are
assumed to make an angle of 90" with X. So that if these
rays were used the lens would be a wide angle. Similarly,
if the rays B and B' only are included, a minimum angle
of 53° would be obtained, whilst the rays and C give an
angle of 28°. The angle of a lens must, therefore, be
measured as shown in Fig. 2. Draw a line A B e'qual to
the diagonal of the plate ; from the centre erect a per-
pendicular the length of the focus. Connecting the three
outside points gives the angle. It happens, however, that
if so great an angle as shown between A and A' (Fig. 1) is
used, curvature of field will preventthei'aysbelngfocussed
on a flat surface unless the lens is specially constructed
for such a purpose. Short-focus lenses must be of small
Fin 9
Photographic Lenses of Different Angles.
diameter. The shorter the focus the sharper the curve,
and the sharper the curve the smaller the circle, of
which the surface of the lens is a segment. It must
even be proportionately smaller, and work with a small
stop, to cause the centre of the picture to be formed
by the centre of the lens (and vice versa) and prevent
spherical aberration.
Setting Out Gradient of Watercourse.— Below are
given instructions on setting out with an ordinary
spirit level a new watercourse. Make a straightedge
of wood, say 9 ft. or 10 ft. long, 6 in. broad, and 1 in.
thick (see A, Fig. 1), and true up one edge accurately.
Some kind of supports will be required to carry the
straightedge at a convenient height for sighting
along ; for this purpose, a couple of roughly made
light trestles (see B, Fig. 1) will do. Cleats nailed on
top of each trestle make a slot into which the straight-
edge may be placed with its true edge upwards. Wedges
are placed under one end until the spirit level, when
placed in the middle of the length of the straightedge,
indicates that it is level, and by looking along its top edge
a horizontal line may be sighted with a fair degree of
accuracy. Fig. 1 shows the arrangement. The total fall
in the full length of the proposed watercourse should be
oscertained in the following manner. Set up the levelled
fctiaightedge at the top of the course, as at A (Fig. 2),
directing it along the intended course. Send a man
along as far as can be conveniently seen, say to the point
B,and let him hold up a staif ijerpendicularly, and in
front of it a piece of white paper, such as an envelope.
The man at the level, by signalling, dh'ects the man at
the staff to raise or lower the paper until the top of it is
exactly in a line with the edge of the straightedge. If
the staff is n->: graduated In feet and inches, a pencil
mark may be made and the height of the mark from the
ground measured. Supposing the height of the straight-
edge from the ground at A (Kig. 2) is 3 ft., and the height
sighted on the staff at B is 4ft. 91n., there is a falfof
lit. 9 in. in the surface between these two points. The
straightedge is now shifted to B, and a further sight
taken towards in the same manner, and so on until
the whole course has been traversed. The sum of the
whole of the falls, less any rises there may be, will give
the total fall available. Suppose the fall to be 2ft. Sin
in a total length of 900 ft. ; this is equivalent to 1 ft. of
fall in 400 ft., or 1 in. of fall in 400 in., or 33 ft. 4iu. To set
out this gradient on the ground, so as to cut the new
watercourse to an even fall, it is advisable to have sight
rails put up at distances of 100 yd. or 150 yd. apart.
Sight rails are an arrangement of two uprights and a
horizontal cross-piece spanning the line of the excava-
tion In the manner shown in Pig. 3, and they are used in
conjunction with a loose staff, called a boning rod,
which has a small cross-head at the top. Supposing the
depth of the excavation to be, for the most part, about
3ft., a convenient length for the boning rod will be 6 ft,
so that the sight rails will be approximately 3 ft. above
the level of the ground. The first sight raU will be fixed
at the height of the boning rod, i.e. 6 ft. , over the starting
Fig 3
Setting Out Gradient of Watercaurse.
point of the watercourse. Now, with a gradient of 1 in
400, if the second sight rail be fixed 100yd. along the line,
it will require to be 9 in. lower than the first one ; for
100yd. equals 300 ft., and it the fall in 400ft. is 1ft., the
fall in 300 ft. will be 9 in. To get the correct height tor
the second sight rail, fix up the levelled straightedge
immediately underneath the first sight rail, measuring
with a rule how much it is below tue top edge of the
sight rail. Suppose the measurement is 14in. Let the
man with the staff mark the height of the horizontal
sight line as before, and it is evident that the height so
marked will be 14 in. below the first sight rail ; and as the
second sight rail has to be 9 in. lower than the first, then
f) in. above the point marked on the staff will be_the
right height at which to fix the rail. Whenthe sight
rails have been put in in this way, the boning, rod is
used to try the level of the bottom of the cutting, as
shown in Fig. 3. If the cutting is at the right depth, the
tops of the sight rails and of the boning rod will be all
in one line.
Grain Fillers for Teak and Oak.— The following. wiU
be found a useful filler for most kinds of coarse-grained
woods. Take 3 parts of finely crushed dry whiting. 1 part
of finest grade pumice powder, and tint with brown
umber ; mix to the consistency of thick paint with tui-
pentine. The pigment used fortinting purposes is vanea
as required. This filler will do tor oak and teak, U
not tinted too strongly. As both oak and teak may be
termed hungry woods, the chief thing to aim at is to set
the filling instead of swilling it out. Allow the gootts,
after filling in, to stand overnight, then start to pohsn
with the rubber not too wet, and work out fairly dry ine
first two or three rubbers of polish.
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
325
Cement for Repairing Plastering.— A auick-drying
?la6tev for repairing and patching may be made with
'arian cement. It does not need time to dry, and the
sooner it Is painted (If in a painted wall) the better.
There are two qualities, the superfine and the coarse.
Cutting a Wooden Ball inside another. — For
cutting balls one inside another, sycamore,' about
3i in. in diameter, is most suitable. Determine the
top and bottom of the ball, and bore there holes i in.
deep with a i-in. Jennings' auger-bit. Then bore eight
Bimilar equidistant holes around the middle, eight on
each side of the middle series, and four around the top
and bottom holes, always directing the point of the bi%
towards the centre. Pig. 1 shows how to distribute the
holes. With a sharp gimlet, bore from hole to hole in
all directions about i in. below the surface ; then cut all
ways with a fretsaw or keyhole blade (see Pig. 3) until
the interior ie disconnected, taking care not to roughen
branches with small leaves attached, trayersing the sur-
face at eyery available blank. Application of colour
makes the pattern more conspicuous. A number of
variously coloured dots differing in size and shape
represents a mottled surface. Hollow balls are obtained
by boring holes as for the perforated inner ball, and
then removing all the interior with the knife and riffler.
Use sycamore about 2iin. in diameter; bore 5-in. holes
at the top and bottom, and three series either of four
or six holes instead of the series suggested at first.
Re-painting and Re-varnis]iing a Mail Cart.— If
a mail cart is to be re-varnished only, provided it is
in good condition, and is not cracked on the surface, a
flatting with pumice powder and water should suffice
previous to the varnish being applied ; and if a second
coat is given, the first coat should stand two or three
days to get hard, and be only lightly flatted down
to remove any nibs that there may be on the surface.
Fig, 2
Cutting a BaU Inside Another.
the edges of the holes too much. ITow cut downwards
(see the thick lines. Pig. i) from the gimlet holes to the
?i J . ® ^"™- holes with a wood-oarvihg knife having
a blade similar to Pig. 5, and remove the splinters,
leaving a solid ball enclosed by a thin covering. Then
trim the inner baU and all the holes in the outer shell
with a riffler resembling Pig. 6. To obtain a hollow
perioratea ball somewhat larger than the solid one,
Dore holes in the same positions but right through to
tne centre, so that opposite holes meet; thus the in-
terior of the ball is graduaUy hollowed. Use the
gimlet and saw as before j then carefully work over
ii?i,^il.™9|, ^"li interior of the inner perforated ball
SPtherifBerand the knife passed through the holes,
w nen the two balls are quite independent, remove the
saw marks from the inside of the outer ball. The
number, size, and shape of the holes can be varied in
SW^nt specimens. Pig. 2 illustrates one style of
nnisn, but to avoid complications the inner ball is not
„i + "•> scatter numerous small holes (as around the
Sfniv 't°I®'" *^® ^^^' giving it the appearance of net-
7^1 f^P^rnux stars, crescents, etc., and square off
w T ^^ holes, or imitate roughly the outline of a
lear. instead of cutting holes, indent continuous
If the cart has to be painted, well glasspaper all over,
and give two coats of lead colour, stopping up any
holes, etc., between the first and second coats. The
ground colour should then be put on, giving two or
three coats as required. The first coat should be made
to dry fairly sharp, the second coat medium, the third
coat being made as a glaze, by adding about half of
varnish to some of the colour. This coat will reciuire
flatting as previously described, after which the lining
outis done and the whole thoroughly washed off and given
a full coat of varnish. To make a good job, pale carriage
varnish should be used, as oak varnish turns the colour.
Soldering Jewelled Ring.— In order to prevent the
bursting of the jewels of a ring whilst the latter is
being soldered, out a juicy potato into halves and
make a hollow in both portions, in which the part of
the ring having jewels may fit exactls. Wrap the
jewelled portion in soft paper, place it in the hollow,
and bind up the closed potato with binding wire. Now
solder With easy-flowing gold solder, the potato being
held in the hand. Another method is to fill a small
crucible with wet sand, bury the jewelled portion in the
sand, and solder in the usual way.
326
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
window Board for Flower Pots.— Fie. 1 is a section
through a window hoard for flower pots snowing how it
Ij fixed with brackets and screws to the sash frame.
\:mmmzmzi
and the end shaped as shown at A j this will improve the
appeai-ance. The board should be about 1 in. thick, and
may be of any width from 6 in. to 11 in. It should be cut
round to flt the brickwork and just overhang the stone
sill, as shown at Fig. 2: the bracket pieces should be
nailed to the board underneath. A strip of moulding
nailed round the edge, so as to project as shown, will
prevent the flower pots slipping oil.
Annealing Malleable Iron Castings.— Malleable iron
castings are produced by heating castings made of white
or mottled charcoal iron, smelted from hematite ores.
The patterns should be made with a double allowance
for contraction, and in the foundry the " gates " should
be wide and thin. The thickness of the metal should be
uniform, and no greater than is necessary. When ready
for annealing, the castings should be brushed and packed
in iron boxes, each casting being surrounded by a mix-
ture of fresh hematite (red iron ore), hematite already
used in the annealing process, and iron scale
from the rolling-mills. The box is covered up,
placed in an annealing oven, and fired at a bright
red heat for from three to seven days. After
withdrawing from the furnace, the boxes are
allowed to cool, and the castings are cleansed
from the adhering ore. The castings will now
be tough, strong, flexible, and much softer, and may be
forged. If the process has not been carried far enough,
there will remain a core of unconverted iron. Cast-iron
contains a high percentage of carbon, whilst the con-
verting material is rich in oxygen. It is generally con-
sidered that the change which takes place Is due to the
oxidation of the carbon contained in the iron. Bends,
tees, crosses, etc., for steam-pipe connections, also small
brackets for brake levers on omnibuses, are often made
of malleable cast-iron for the sake of lightness and
strength. Sometimes flexibility is sought, as in orna-
mental castings for umbrella stands, etc., which may be
cast flat, leaves, tendrUs, etc., being afterwards bent and
twisted to the desired shape.
Plumber's Glossy Black.— A little brown sugar, or
a little stout, added to plumbers' soil or smudge will
make it more tenacious, and cause it to dry with a
slightly glossy surface. Some plumbers boU their joints,
after they are made, with black japan or thinned Bruna-
Window Board for Flower Pots.
The board can be kept level with two or three pieces
of li-in. or 2-in. wood cut wedge-shape to the splay
of the sill, and the outer end can be fitted over the sill
wick black. But it is doubtful whether the effect is so
good as when a " dead " black, such as given by ordinary
soil, is used.
Cvclopaedia *of Mechanics.
327
BectUinear and Perlscoplc Lenses for Photo-
erapblc Use.— The term perisoopic is applied to lenses
Intended for spectacles, which are uncorrected lor
colour or non-aohromatic. For use in a camera they
are, of course, much cheaper than the proper achromatic
combination, but will never give a sharp image. The
reason tor this is as follows. When a ray of light is
refracted or bent (as happens when it passes through
a prism i see Kg. 1), this ray is split up into its com-
ponent parts, that is, into rays of different colour.
(It is, of course, well linown that the impression pro-
duced by a ray of white light is the combination of the
eeiisations produced by each of the different coloured
rays.) The violet rays are bent most, and the red
rays are bent least : that is to say, the violet rays
cross , each other or come to a focus nearest tlie
lens (see Fig. 2), and the red rays cross or oome to a
focus at a point farthest from the lens, blue and yellow
being focussed at diil'ereut points between the violet
and the red. Now. if two prisms are put base to base a
diagrammatic or cru de kind of len s is formed ; and If the
courses of two rays r are traced (see Fig. 2), the ex-
planation given above will be intelligible. Thus the
violet rays which crossed at , V will have spread out
again Bumoiently at the point E, at which the red rays
are focussed, to form a halo or confused disc around
each point of violet light, and the red rays form a
similar halo at T. The principal rays used in ordinary
vision are nearer the red end of the spectrum or colour
scale, whilst the rays that are most active, chemically,
nre at the violet end of the scale, hence the terms
visual and chemical foci. In using a periscopio lens,
therefore, it is necessary after focussing to rack in the
and smaller quantities from other sources. TlnpoUuted
waters from any of the above named sources will vary in
composition according to the nature of the soil or rock
on which the water is collected, or over which it ilows,
or through which it percolates; but the figures given
in the following tabular statement may be taken as
examples of the average composition of water from the
five sources of supply referred to above. The figures are
compiled from the sixth report of the Kivers Pollution
Commission, 1874, and from other sources.
Parts per 100,000.
1
2
4
5
Total Solids fi-67
28-20
43-78
15-80
20-21
Organic Carbon ■323
■056
-061
-048
-341
°'ifft?i|en } -032
■013
-018
-007
•034
Free Ammonia
•001
•012
•001
Nitrogen as \ .„„„
Nitrates j .™
•383
•495
-033
•266
Chlorine 113
2-49
5-11
2-85
1-9
Hardness li'i
18-5
25-0
9-3
14-0
Hydrogen 66,655-624
66,633-57 66,617-016 66,647-308 66,642-165
Oxygen 33,327-812 33,316-785 33,308-508 33,323-654 33,321-082
The organic carbon and nitrogen in upland surface
water, and in river water of very excellent quality, would
not be more than -250 and '025 part respectively. -Waters
highly polluted with sewage contain more than -3 of
organic carbon, -03 of organic nitrogen, and -02 of free
NII3 ; nitrogen as nitrates and nitrites may be very low
or very high according to the amount of a6i'ation the
water has received, from none to more than -5 ; chlorine
5 parts per 100,000. No amount of filtration would render
Rectilinear and Perlscoplc Lenses.
screen usually about one-sixteenth of the focus. Spec-
tacle lenses may be purchased for threepence each, an d if
used on suitable subjects will yield very satisfactoi-y
results. The defects of these lenses are greatly reduced
by using a small stop. An achromatic lens consists of two
lenses, one of flint (lead) glass ,and one of crown (soda)
glass, cemented togetbei*. It is found that although both
lenses may disperse the colours equally, yet they have
diiferent refractive indices, or bend the rays to a dif-
ferent extent; In Pigs. 1 and 3, although the angles
of incidence A and the angles of dispersion A' are
equal each to each, the angle B is greater than B'. If,
therefore, the prisms be placed in opposite positions, the
dispersion of one prism will be neutralised by the disper-
sion of the other, but the ray will proceed as shown
in Fig. 4. In all the diagrams, B. indicates red rays, and
V violet rays.
Cement Wash.— For a cement wash to go over old
cement stucco, plflce a few handfuls of cement in a
bucket, and add water until the cement is of the con-
sistency of thin cream. The wash should be mixed in
small quantities as required, and should be kept con-
stantly stirred while being used. The old work must
be well cleaned down, and rubbed with a stiff wire or
bristle brush to remove a.11 dust. If the cleaning down
is properly done, the cement wash should adhere without
rubbing oft. Try first 1 sq. yd. of surface, and wait
until it is dry. If the wash rubs off, a little size may be
mixed with it ; but this admixture of size is not to be
recommended, and should be avoided if possible.
Composition of Water.— In judging the quality of
water that is to be used for drinking purposes, it is
necessary to take into account the source from which
the water is procured, because the surroundings of the
gathering ground have great influence upon the com-
position of the water obtained therefrom. Drinking
water is obtained (l) from upland surfaces and collected
In resei'volrs; (2) from springs; (3) from deep wells;
(4) from shallow wells ; (5) from rivers and sti-eams ;
fit for drinking purposes water that is polluted by sewage.
In such eases the polluting matter is, to a large extent,
held in solution, and cannot therefore be filtered out.
A filter deals only with matter held in suspension, and
possesses no other protective power. Water that is
polluted by matters held in solution can be pui-ifled only
by chemical action artificially induced and promoted,
or by such natural chemical agencies as are supplied by
air and sunlight and friendly bacteria.
Stove for -Vapour Bath.— The stove for a vapour bath
really consists of a little lamp containing methylated
spirit, with a saucer above, in which Is placed about
Jpt. of water (plain or medicated). For a hot-air bath,
the saucer of water is omitted. In either case the stove
is placed beneath a chair which has a solid seat, not
perforated, and the bather sits on the chair. The stove
or lamp can be in any simple form. A shallow tin
canister with three or lour wick tubes through the lid
would do. The wicks should be of loose cotton wicking,
and they can be adjusted with a needle or piece of wire ;
a pinion wheel for the wicks is not needed. ■ methylated
spirit in moderate quantity can be burned without a
wick if desired. Make a tin saucer with taper sides, so
that the diameter at the top is about IJ in. and at the
bottom 2iin. ; the depth should be about lin. This will
probably hold enough spirit to give one bath. It is,
however, safest to have a stove with wiclis. The saucer for
the water may be as wide as possible, say 6 in., and should
be of very thin metal sp that the water will boil quickly.
Chlorate of Potassium.— Chlorate of potassium
(KCIO3) may be made thus. Pass chlorine gas through
a warm and fairly strong solution of caustic potash or
carbonate of potash until the alkali is quite neutralised ;
boil for a few minutes, and evaporate until a scum forms
on the surface, and then set aside to cool. The chlorate
crystals which form as the solution cools are collected,
-washed in cold water and purified, and again dissolved
and crystallised. 'Chlorate of potassium crystallises in
four-sided and six-sided pearly scales.
328
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics,
Imitation Granite Flooring.— A Tery good imitation
of granite flooring may be made by using granite
cbipplngs smali enough to pass througli J-in. mesh,
IJ parts; granite duet to pass through t-in- mesh,
li parts; and Portland cement, 1 part. This flooring
may be laid 14 in. thick on a bed 5 in. thick compossd of
5 or parts o£ broken stone to 1 part of cement.
Hipped End of a King-post Truss.— Fig. 1 shows
part plan of trusses, ridge, and hips of a kmg-post roof.
Fig. 2 shows the tusk tenon joint between the tie beams,
with necessary straps and bolts ; also the connection of
becoming rancid or deteriorating in any way. Besides
linseed oil, cottonseed and earthnut oil are much
used in soft soap manufacture, and for the cheapest
and most filled kind-^, oil sediments full of stearine are
often employed. These answer in the summer, but are
apt to cause trouble by effloi'escing in cold weather.
Linseed-eil soft soaps are principally used for house-
hold purposes, and are of many yai-ieties. Unfllled
natural-grain soft soap is the best, and is prepared from
two parts of pile linseed oil and one part of good tallow.
If the evaporation is carried on till nearly all the froth
has disappeared, the soap will be more durable, and
Fig. 2
Hipped End of a King-post Truss.
king posts and straps and bolts at head and at C. Fig. 3
is part elevation of main truss, showing king post and
section of tie beam of half truss. Fig. 4 is an isometric
view of the lower ends of king posts and portions of tie
beam.
The Manufacture of Soft Soap.— According to the
Soapmaker and Perfumer, the chief fat used in the
manufacture of either smoothed or grained soft soap is
linseed oil, and this, if pure and good, gives a lasting,
fine-transparent soap, and allows more filling than any
other fat. Properly made, linseed-oll soaps stand cold
the best of any, and even if they have become some-
what turbid during exceptionally sharp weather, they
recover their apjiearance as soon as it gets warmer.
The seed yields from 26 to 30 per cent, of the oil by
pressure, and the oil will keep a long time without
faster graining ths.n if the action is pushed farther. For
technical purposes oleine gives better results than lin-
seed oil, and produces more soap, weight for weight, bvit
the oleine must not have undergone decomposition.
Distilled oleine is often found to have been partially de-
composed in the distillation. For some purposes, too,
tallow-oleine grain soap is not soluble enough. In
washing fleeces, for instance, the hard grain soap often
lodges undissolved in the wool, especially it old sdap has
been used. This is a waste of soap, and hindei's the sub-
secLuent dyeing operations. For such use, the soap is best
made from oleine alone; or a hard potash soap with
plenty of carbonate in it may be used. Good soaps tor
the pui'pose can also be got from mixtures of oleine
with its own weight of palm oil, but if these soaps are
kept too long in stock they lose in solubility. A good
recipe for a natural-grain textile soap is oleine, 51b.;
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
329
cottonseed oil, 4i lb. ; hard fat, 6 lb. ; bleached palm
oil, a lb. ; and raw palm oil, 2 lb. A few pounds o£
tallow not containing too much stearine can also be
worked in, and the hard fat mentioned can be replaced
by bleached palm oil. Good Lagos oil giTes a flue
round grain. Such soaps can be filled easily to some
extent, and in winter best with 1,5° B. potash, in
Bummer with 13° B. potassium chloride. It is most
important to attend to the composition of the lye. In
using oO' B. potash lye, it should, in the colder season of
the year, be mixed with a quarter of its weight of 97 to
98 per cent, carbonate of potash in solution, so as to
make a 25° B. lye. As with all natural-grain soaps, these
soft soaps must be got as nearly neutral as possible; If
this and the evaporation are properly seen to, the soap
will dissolve easily -and the grain will not be too solid.
Tlie washing power of a soap depends upon its solu-
bility and lathering power. As potash soaps containing
resin are the most soluble, the latter substance in-
creases the cleansing power. Most soft soaps, too,
contain an excess of alkali, especially those filled with
meal, and this alkali still further increases the washing
capabilities of the soap. Linseed-oil soft soaps are made
quite unfilled, or containing a high percentage of filling.
To get the soap as tr^insparent and as light in colour as
possible, even the palest oil sometimes is bleached, and in
summer cottonseed oil is used with it. The bleaching
is usually done with a 30° B. potash lye not too caustJL-.
When a strong lye is used, the dark precipitate which
contains the colouring matter, and also the product of
the saponification of the free fatty acid originally
present, can be utilised in- manufacturing low-grade
soaps. One hundred pounds of linseed oil can be bleached
with 61b. to 71b. of the above lye, the lye being run
whilst warm Into the oil in a thin stream, and being well
crutohed into it lor half an hour. By crutching is meant
the stiiTing together of the ingredients by means of a
perforated piece of wood or iron attached to a pole. If
the oil is very pale, 5 lb. of lye will suffice for the bleach-
ing ; but in any case bleached oil wan ts a stronger lye
for saponification than unbleached. With the latter
the lye should not contain much carbonate, and
should not exceed 18° B. in strength. Later, stronger
lye is added to prevent the soap getting too thick.
For the saponification of 100 lb. of oils, 150 lb. of
25" B. potasK lya are used generally. To 100 lb. of oil
in a pan, 25 lb. of 20° B. lye and 10 lb. of water are
added. To ensure quicker union, about 51b. of resin
should also be added. Heat all up and crutch repeatedly ;
when an emulsion is formed, boil it in the pan. Now
gradually add the rest of the lye, boiling up after each
addition. Finally, evaporate over not too strong a fire.
In winter it is better not to use soda lye, but in summer
soda to the amount of 30 per cent, of the fat can replace
part of the potash. The soda is put in all together, after
about one-thl»d of the potash lye is in the pan. The
resin is often added at the end, and if the soap is rather
alkaline, usually makes it about right. A well-finished
soap must be thick in the sample glass, should show a
good flower, and be quite clear when cold. 'When soda Is
used, less evaporation is needed. Summer soft soaps
must not show so much flower as a winter-made soap,
and should keep better. There may be rather more
carbonate in the lye if the soap is not to be filled, and
carbonate of potash can be added. The above process
gives a very pale amber soap. For filling, the best sub-
stance is 13° B. solution of potassium chloride, which is
crutched in when the finished soap has partly cooled.
In ad.iusting or fitting a soft soap, the use of carbonated
alkali is essential. Ail soft soaps boll tough before they
are properly adjusted. When right they break off rather
short from the spatula. A piece, as big as a half-crown
should be set at the edges, but should yield liquid soap
on pressure with the finger in the middle. Subsequent
filling will not do away with the bad results of careless
fitting, and in any case the soap will turn rancid , if
deficient in alkali, and brittle and un satisfactory if there
IS too much. The following is a good recipe for a well-
flUed soap. Linseed oil, 100 lb. ; resin, 20 lb. ; meal,
521b.; potash (15° B.), 581b.; potassium chloride (23° B.),
20 lb. ; and waterglass, 15 lb. Besides this, the addition
of from 561b. to 581b. of fitting lye of 30° B. will be
made necessary by the filling. It is often asserted
that more filling is wanted in svimmer than in winter.
This is only correct when soda lye is not used. With
filled soaps, excess of lye is to be particularly avoided.
If the soap is to be made grain, very fine indigo is
ground to the finest possible powder, boiled in weak lye,
and added to the pan at the lery last, when the soap is
just going off the boil. The colour is better and more
uniform if the indigo is ground up with its own weight
of fuming sulphuric acid, and then left to stand for_
several days in a warm place. The solution is then
Wirred up with soda crystals until fairly neutralised,
in this way the colour is made very soluble in the soap,
and IS crutched into it very easily, giving an even-
coloured product. About 1 oz. of indigo is used for every
odlb. of soap. Formerly hemp oil was used always for
green soft soaps. This oil resembles linseed iu its pro-
perties, but has a fine green colour. It gives a good leaf-
green soap, but the high price of hemp oil precludes its
extensive employment.
Framework for Punch and Judy Show.-For a
Punch and Judy show, 2-in. square quartering should
be used for making the frame, which should be about 3 ft.
square and 9 ft. high. The four uprights should be in lO-f t.
lengths, halved in the centre so as to work telescope
faahion iu clamps, and put together with 3-in. carriage
bolts, so that the frame may not only be portable, but
will allow of being reduced in height if desired. The
side pieces of the framework may have iron angle
fianges, one-half of the angle being 6 in. long, and the
other half 2in. long. Screw the longer half 4in. on to
the batten; thiswiU leave a square of 2 in., which goes
round the uprights and is fixed to them by a 3-in. carriage
bolt. Twelve short lengths will be required for the sides
of the framework. Upon the four bottom pieces, about] ft.
from the ground, boards are placed as a platform for the
operator; a shelf about 6 in. wide is also fixed on which
the figures are worked. Above the shelf is the pro-
scenium, which is about 2ft. 6in. high. Make a green
baize covering in two parts, so that the top half may
drop over the bottom half.
Aerated Water Machine. — In an asrated water
machine, the carbonic acid may be generated in a
small cylindrical gas vessel A (see illustration) made
of stout sheet copper lined with sheet lead. The
charge of bicarbonate of soda may be put in by
unscrewing the cap B and dropping the soda down
Aerated Water Machine.
the wide tube C ; the cap should then be screwed on
again. The diluted sulphuric acid must be poured
through the cap D, and remains in the cistern E until
required, when the tap E is opened and it is run into
the solid charge in G. The carbonic acid passes by
the pipe H, which is bent to prevent spurting of the
contents into it. It passes into the charging vessel J,
also of stout sheet copper, but plated with pure tin.
The aerated water is run off by turning the valve on
the counter. Sulphuric acid and bicarbonate of soda
are used in preference to the seltzogene charges on
account of being much cheaper. A gauge may be put
on J, if desired, to show how much aerated water has
been drawn off.
Renovating Faded Crocodile Leatlier.— Faded
crocodile-leather coverings of furniture are restored to
their original dark-green colour in the following way.
Remove aU grease and dirt from the leather by wash-
ing with warm water and soda with a large spoonful
of ammonia added. Now take 1 oz. of powdered borax
and 2 oz. of bleached shellac, add this to 1 pt. of hot
water, and let it stand in a warm place until the gum
dissolves. This wiU take about twenty-four hours. Then
strain through a piece of cotton. Now place in the
warm solution a packet of olive-green diamond dye ; mix
thorougtily together, and add a teaspoonful of glycerine.
Apply this to the leather with a swab of soft rags or a
sponge, rubbing well into the faded portions. When dry,
wipe with skim milli.
Preparation of Whiting.— Whiting, Paris white, or
Spanish white is mere prepai-ed chalk. To make ordin-
ary whiting, mix ground chalk with water, and allow
the sand contained in the chalk to settle in wooden
troughs; then transfer the liquid to other vessels
whei'e the whiting itself will fall as the sediment. This
is dried by the aid of heat. A similar procedure is
followed in making Spanish or Paris white, but the chalk
is more thoroughly washed and a better and harder
quality of chalk— cliff stone— is used.
330
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
Renovating Copper and Iron Lamp.— Below are
instructions on repolishiiig and lacquering an iron and
copper standard lamp. Take the lamp bracket to pieqes,
and reraoTe from the copper parts all the old lacquer
by boiliuK in a potash solution ; then swill in several
changes of clean water, and dry in warm sawdust. The
parts must then be polished, and afterwards lacquered
either hot or cold, using a very pale lacquer. The iron
parts must be smoothed down, and may then he painted
with cycle enamel if a polished surface is required. If a
dull black finish is desired, after removing thoroughly
all grease and dirt, the ironwork may be painted with,
or dipped into, a solution consisting of 1 part bismuth
chloride, 2 parts mercury bichloride, 1 part copper
chloride, 6 parts hydrochloric acid, 5 parts alcohol, and
.TO parts water, well stirred together, when dry, place in
boiling water, and keep boiling for halt an hour. Should
the colour not be dark or black enough, repeat the
operation. The black is fixed by coating with boiling
oil and heating till all oil is driven off.
Putting Spring Seat in Armcbalr.— Here are in-
structions on replacing with a spring seat the wooden
seat of an armchair. Kemove the wooden seat, and fix
three battens across. Sin. wide by fin. thick, to act as
spring rails. It the seat rails are 2in. deep, nail on the
top all round pieces of stuff, 14 in. thiclc, for stufBng rails
(see sketch). These rails should form a rebate, as shown.
Six 8-in. upholsterers' springs will be required. These
ai*e secured to the spring rails with 5-in. staples placed
round the bottom coil and driven into the wood. A
cover of coarse canvas is put on the top, and tacked fast
at the front ; then pull the cover down at the back until
the springs are compressed by about one-third of their
same time, moving the thumbs inward tfi bring the
bubble to the right, or moving them outward to bring
the bubble to the left, and leave It central. Then place
the telescope over the other two screws, and bring the
bubble central in the same way. The bubble should
now remain central in any position of the telescope.
Turn the eyepiece clockwise while drawing it in or out
until the cross wires can be distinctly seen, then direct
the telescope to the staff and focus the object glass by
the milled head at the side of the telescope to show the
figures clearly. The reading Is now taken by the
apparent position of the horizontal wii-e. The two
vertical wires enable the surveyor to see when the staff
is upright in the direction of the line of vision. The
staJt is kept in such a position by the skill of the staff-
holder, or is slowly waved to or from the surveyor so
that he may take the lowest reading at the time the
staff will be upright. Two additional horizontal wires
may be so placed that they will show, say, I ft. on the
staff at a distance of 100 ft. ; the difference of reading at
the upper and lower wires will then be the approximate
distance. For example, 3'47 — 215 = a distance of 132ft.
Circular Saw Attachment for Cutting Floor
Blocks. — For cutting floor blocks to various lengths the
accompanying illustration shows a simple wooden
arrangement that can be used with a circular saw
bench. A piece otwide board B is fixed with screws to
two sliding pieces A, which must tit close to the edges
of the table as shown. The fence pieces should be
firmly fixed to B with a few screws. The lengths of the
Putting Spring Seat in Armchair.
length, and tack them fast in this position. The springs
are securely stitched by the top coil to the cover with
strong twine. Loop the edges with twine and fill them
hard with well -pulled fibre or rag-flock, cover with
scrym, and bUnd-stitch, and fasten with not less than
three rows of stitching. Fill up with flock or hair, well
picked on, and cover with sheet wadding, cased in with
unbleached calico. Any staining, polishing, etc., should
be done before the outer covering Is put on. Should the
covering be of leather or leather-cloth, fluish the edges
with leather banding secured with brass or leather-
headed studs ; if covered with soft material, such as
velvet, repps, etc., run a narrow scroll gimp round.
Making School Slates.— Most of the school slates
used in Great Britain come from Bangor, In North
Wales, and are cut and faced by machinery. To make
a single slate, get a Welsh rooting slate, and mark off
with chalk to the size wanted. With any sharp point
prick a number of holes about 1 in. from the chalk mark,
and break off the useless portion. Lay the slate flat on
a board and make the chalk mark coincide with the edge
of the board. The slate may be cut to size with the
edge of a half-round file, a heavy knife, a trowel, or with
a joiner's tenon saw. To put a wi'iting face on the slate
it is polished in the following way. Select a slate as
smooth as possible, fix it on a bench, and rub with a
piece of soft sandstone, using sliarp sand and water.
Finish with a block of wood and finer sand, moving the
rubbers with a circular motion. Or, instead, the face of
the slate may be smoothed on a grindstone.
Adjusting Surveyor's Level.— In adjusting a sur-
veyor's level , see that the two plates are parallel, with the
screw points touching the lower plate. Open the legs to
an angle of, say, 30^ Stand between two of the legs and
grasp the head of the legs with the left hand. With the
right hand place the telescope at right angles to the
direction of the leg on your right and move the leg to or
from you to bring the bubble central. Then, still
grasping the head of the legs with the left hand, with
the right hand place tlie telescope at right angles to its
former position -that Is, In line with the leg on the
right. Move the leg in or out to taring the bubble
central in this direction. Then press the legs down
firmly and remove the left hand. Now place the telescope
over two diagonally opposite screws ; turn both at the
Apparatus for Cutting Floor Blocks,
pieces of wood to be sawn can be varied by the gauge
block D, which is fastened to by a bolt and wing nut.
It will be seen that a slot is formed in for the bolt to
be moved backwards or forwards, as shown at E. When
set, the stuff can be placed against C {as indicated by
the dotted lines) and the apparatus pushed forward so
that the saw just cuts through the stuff; it can then
be drawn back and the timber adjusted for cutting
another block.
Transfer Paper for Carbon Process.- Any paper
having a grain or texture suitable to the subject under
treatment may be used as transfer paper in the carbon
process of photography. The paper is coated with a
solution of gelatine containing chrome alum, which
forms an insoluble surface to which the tissue may be
squeezed. The final support' '(when the picture is first
developed on waxed opal and transferred by squeegeeing
a sticky surface to it) is coated with soluble gelatine,
which, placed in warm water, readily attaches itself to
the insoUible tissue, and, on drying, adheres so firmly
that the latter will spontaneously leave its waxed sup-
port. The paper is coated by drawing it over melted
gelatine contained in a trough, the gelatine being kept
liquid by an outer water jacket. These transfer papers
cauuot be well made in small quantities as cheaply as
they can be purchased.
Polishing Lead Pencils. — Lead pencil cases are
polished by hand with lac solutions as used by French
polishers. The rounded st»ips are 22 in. long, the leugtli
of three ordinary jDencils. Their handling in larjie
quantities greatly facilitates the polishing operation.
The colouring matter may be gamboge for yellow, Bis-
marck for red, and French black or ebony stain for
black. The staining is usually done first, the lac solu-
tions being used clear in order to gain a gldze-like or
enamel finish. Staining and polisliing the pencils at one
operation by dipping would give them a very common
appearance.
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
331
Waterproofing Underground Water - tank. — To
make an old underground tank water-tight from the
outside without entirely reconstructing it is a difficult
matter. Any solution or composition applied to the
inner face of the walls would he forced off by the
outside hydraulic pressure. But a lining of asphalt
may be put on, and then, if the tank is very deep, an
inner wall of bricks set in cement should be bnilt over
the asphalt in order to resist the outside pressure of the
ground water when the tank is empty. Another remedy
that would doubtless be effectual is to excavate the
ground for a width of 12 in. to 18 in. outside the walls,
and All the space with puddled clay well consolidated by
ramming. It the water comes through the bottom of the
tank, lay down a new floor of good Portland cement
concrete about 10 in. to 15 in. thick, well consolidated,
and with the surface trowelled smooth. If such a floor
is laid, the ground water must be kept down by pumping
for about thli-ty-six or forty-eight hours, or until the
cement has had time to set properly.
Making a Garden Pump.— A common form of garden
pump used for spraying flowers and fruit is shown in
the accompanying Illustration. It is simply a brass tube
with three rings soldered, or rather sweated, on the
outside to stiffen the tube. This forms the barrel ; a
fine thread is usually chased on the bottom to screw
Into a shorter piece of tube that forms the valve box.
To this is soldered a very much smaller piece of tube to
connect with the top valve and air vessel. The air
vessel consists of two tubes ; the outside piece is of the
Cutting Out Stepped Flashings for Roofs.— In mark-
ing off, cutting out, and fixing lead step flashings proceed
as follows. The lead should be out out 13 in. wide, 6 in. of
it to lie on the roof and 7 in. to stand against the wall.
The folding line and water line should be marked with
chalk, and the lead folded at right angles on the folding
line. As roofs vary in their pitch or angle of slope, and as
the joints of the brickwork are not always at exactly the
same distance apart, the lead, after folding, should be
laid in the position it is to occupy, and, with the help of
a wooden straightedge, the bottom edge of the joint in
each course should be marked with a pointed piece of
chalk as far as the water line, as shown at A A in the
accompanying illustration. The lead should then be
laid on a board on the wall side, and the lines B B marked,
one end of this line being lin. from the edge of the lead,
and the other end cutting the joint line on the water
line. Outside the lines A A, mark those shown at 1 in.
distant. These lines indicate the place of folding for
turning into the brickwork. The folding is done with a
step turner, which is an iron tool like a double-bladed
chipping knife. A temporary tool can be made out of
a piece of IJ-in. hardwood, with one end cut to a bevel,
and having a saw-cut eaual to the thickness of the lead
on one edge. In the illustration, which is drawn for a
roof having a slope of 45", the shaded parts al'e those
which are to be cut away.
Hanging Hall-rack.— The hall-raok described below
is intended for the accommodation of clothes, with
convenience for hats, clothes brush, etc. A mirror
Cutting Out Stepped Flashings for Eoofs.
kf
h
Uakiug a Garden Fump.
Hanging Hall-raok.
same bore as the barrel, and is strengthened in the same
way. A disc-like piece is fastened to the top, through
the centre of which a much smaller pipe runs. The
space between the two pipes forms the air vessel, a large
one. These pumps are made with brass valves, but
leather ones are better. The plunger is an ordinary cup
leather. Sometimes two pumps are put back to back.
Usually two 30-ft. lengths of hose pipe are attached to
these ptimps.
Preparation of Chalk.— Chalk (carbonate of lime) is a
soft white rook in a pulverent or only slightly consolid-
ated state, being composed of minute fragments of
shells, sponge spicules, etc., as may be seen on examina-
tion with a microscope. As far as is known, chalk m
large quantities is to be obtained only in the South of
England and in the North of Prance. Precipitated chalk
is prepared thus. Add a solution of carbonate of soda
to a solution of chloride of calcium until a precipitate
ceases to fall ; well wash the precipitate with pure water.
To make prepared chalk, rub up pure chalk with sufficient
water to form a smooth cream ; stir into a large quantity
of water, allow the coarser particles to settle, and decant
the mUky fluid j the prepai'ed chalk will fall as a sedi-
ment in this, and must then be dried. To prepare cam-
phorated chalk, reduce i lb. of camphor to a fine powder
by triturating it in a mortar with a little alcohol ; mix
thoroughly with lib. of precipitated carbonate of lime
(chalk) and 3i lb. of powdered orris root, and sift through
finest bolting cloth. ^Another process of preparing cam-
phorated chalk is to mix together 1 oz. of camphor and
15 oz. either of precipitated or prepared chalk ; the in-
gredients must be in ,the finest powder.
might be added in the centre, and a shelf or box for
gloves might be fixed. The centre panel may be round,
diamond shape, square, or oblong, and may be of japan
lacctuer work. The outer rim can be readUy removed, or
an otherwise plain panel might be made decorative by
the aid of transfers, painting, or carving. The size may
be such as space will permit; 4ft. long by 14 in. wide,
outside measurements, will be found useful. There can
then be four hat hooks and four coat hooks. The rack
would look well if made of hard woods, as oak, walnut, or
mahogany ; it could be made of clean pine, stained light
walnut, the chamfer edges being picked out in black.
The wood should be at least 2i in. wide and i in. thick,
the corners being halved and glued together— not mitred.
A hook planted on each corner will thus give greater
security If the screws are sufficiently long. The centre
panel, if intended to be merely decorative, should be
rebated in, thus bringing it forward ; to form the back-
ground of a cupboard, box, or shelf this will not be
necessary. Hooks may be fixed to this panel if required.
The chamfer edges should be cut after the rack is framed
up, the outer chamfer being carried right round and the
inner ones being stopped at equal distances from the
corners and centre panel as is shown in the illustration.
Two stout serew-eyes or brass plates, by which to hang
the rack, will be sufficient.
Washers for Callipers.— Washers for callipers are
best made of mild or spring steel. The hole is drilled,
and then the material is made round with a file or emery
wheel, put on a mandrel, and turned exactly to size.
The ordinary washers, black or bright, would not stand
the rivet.
332
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
Fitting New Barrel Arbor to Watch.— In fitting a
new barrel aibor to a watoli, first centre a rough barrel
arbor by flliug a centre on eaeli end. Affix a screw
ferrule to ono end and turn the central portion to
a diameter ecxual to one-third that of the internal
The pine boarding is then covered with canvas, which Is
well glued down ; and over the canvas is glued a cover-
ing of stout brown paper or Willesden paper. The sur-
face of the paper is then covered with a strong solution
of glue and litharge and sprinkled over with sharp
diameter of the barrel. Then turn one pivot to nearly-
fit the barrel bottotc, and a second pivot to fit the
plate. Eeverse the ferrule and turn the other pivots.
Then drill the hole for the mainspring hook. Harden it,
and temper to a blue colour. INow place it in the turns
again and finish all the pivots to fit their holes, and
polish them first with oilstone dust and oil on a flat steel
polisher, and finally with crocus and oil on the same
polisher.
Ingle Nook witb Sanded Roof,— The ingle nook with
a shingle roof shown in the illnatratlons is intended
for a dining-room. The pillars are Sin. thick, part
square and part turned, and have caps as shown; these
pillars support the root at each corner. Artistic effect
will be obtained by introducing the two semi-arches at
the side and the elliptical centre arch shown in Fig. 1.
These arches are surmounted by a frieze and cornice ;
the frieze may be fluted or decorated with carton pierre
or Lincrusta decoration. The lower framings are 2Jlu.
thick, flush on the inside. Each end of the lower fram-
ing on the outside is ornamented as shown in Pig. 2 ; and
the front, forming the end of the seat, is ramped. These
framings have a substantial capping over them. If
desired, the capping may be continued horizontally and
finished without the ramps, and the pillar at the angle
repeati^d. The roof is formed of concave ribs (see Fig. ■!)
and horizontal ceiling joists. The ribs are covered with
thin pine boarding free from knots and firmly fixed.
building sand sifted through a ^'a-in. mesh sieve. The s(>
called shingle roof is now complete. Pig. 1 shows a front
view of ingle nook, Pig. 2 is the end view, Pig. 3 a Bee-
tional plan, and Pig. 4 a section through one end of the
ingle nook.
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
333
Making a Hand-cart.— The hand-cart shown in Pigs. 1
and 2is very shallow and light in eonstruetiou. The sizes
of 1 the Tavious parts are shown in the illustrations, hut
space does not permit full instrnotions on dressing up
the material and the method of framing It together.
The hottom framing should he of JJnglish oak. The
hottom-sides A (Fig. 1) are 2i in. wide hy 1| in. thick, the
ear-bedB (Figs.land 2) is 2iin. deep hy li in. thick, and the
front oapplng-bar (Pig. 1) 2 in. wide hy li in. deep ; two
centre summers, II in. deep hy liln. wide, are framed in
end; when fixed in place, the springs should measure
2 ft. 10 in. outside. The axle Is secured on each side by
two yVin. iDolts V (Pig. 1), and it cycle-pattern wheels are
used there should be a clear space of 3Jin. between the
spring bearing and the collar of the axle. The wheels are
3 ft. high. The bottom boards, of |-in. red deal, are run
orossways of the body, flush with the top of the ear-bed.
Seclpes for Paste Blacking.— Becipes for paste
blackings are the following. (1) Mix together 8
as shown at D (Pig. 2). The corner pillars E
(Pigs. 1 and 2) are of English asn, H in.
sauare; the hind one is stump-tenoned into
the ear-bed, and when fixed for good has a
light strap bolt let in to fix it down. The
front corner pillar is stump-tenoned into the
oapping-bar, and has a bare f-in. holt running
through to keep the whole together. The
side boards V (i'ig. 1) are 3 in. deep by 1 in.
thick, and are let into the pillars level oh
the inside, hard down on the bottom sides, to
which they are fixed \>y screws. The top rails
6 (Pigs. 1 and 2) are 14 in. deep b.y li in. wide,
framed to the pillars as shown'; the iron rods
H are I in. round, let into the board at the
bottom and into the top rail I in. The front
cross rail J (Pig. 1) is of the same size as the
side rails, being notched down bare iin. to
the side rails, and is fixed by the bolt through
the pillar. To strengthen the back part,
shore-stays K (Pig. 2) , having a flap at the top
part to screw on to the pillar and top rail,
are fixed. The door is made as shown in
Pig. 2, and is hung, with 3J-lu. wrought-iron
butts having brass pins or rivets, which will
prevent conosion. The door may be fastened
with a hools and eye on the inside, or a pin
and plate on the top rail. The handles L
(Pig. 1) are 2 in. deep by l^in. wide, bolted on
. the inside of the bottom side with three A-in.
bolts, projecting at the front end a distance
of 2 ft. 1 1 in., at which point a cross - bar M
(Pig. 1) is notched on and bolted down.
The legs K (Pig. 1) are made of ^-in. round
iron, but the bottom parts are rather
stouter; they are fixed underneath the han-
dles at the front part, and beneath the
bottom side at the back end. In the centre
alight round iron stay (Fig. 1) is secured by a bolt end
.through the boss at the lower part of the side leg, the
stay being swept up so as to fix underneath the centre
or the capping-bar (Pig. 1) . The swinging leg P (Figs. 1
and 2) at the back is also of 4-in. round iron, and is
attached to the body by two staples E (Pig. 2) fixed into
the bottom of the ear-bed. To the leg is attached a
hght iron rod S (Pig. 1), which fastens on a hook at
the front end, and when not in use the leg is drawn up,
as indicated by the dotted lines in Fig. 1. The springs
are 3 ft. long to the centre of the eyes, and the compass
irqm the centre of the eyes to over the last plate T
(iig. 1) is iin. There are four plates li in. wide. The
scroll irons u (Pigs. 1 and 2) are 24 in. deep at the front
pan and 3Jin. deep at the back, and are attached to the
springs by bare |-in. bolts, with shackles at the back
Fro. 2
Making a Hand-cart.
parts (hy weight) of ivory black, i parts of treacle,
and 1 part of sweet oil, afterwards adding 2 parts
of oil of vitriol diluted with 4 parts of water. Moisten
to the required consistency with water or stale beer.
(2) Superior blacking. Mix together 31b. to 41b.
of lampblack, ilb. of animal charcoal, moisten with
glycerine, and add 5 lb. of molasses. Fuse 2i oz. of pure
guttapercha in an iron vessel over a fire, and stir in first
f pt. of olive oil and then 1 oz. of stearin. Add the
warm mass to the former mixture, and then add a solu-
tion of 5 oz. of gum Senegal in li pt. of water, and 1 dr.
each of rosemary and lavender oils. (3) Rub together
lib. of molasses, U lb. of ivory black, and 2 oz. of sweet
oil, and add a little lemon juice or strong vinegar. (4)
Bub together 7 lb. of ivory black, 5J lb. of molasses, ipt.
of common oil, 12 oz. of oil of vitriol, and sufficient water.
334
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
Development of Photographic Plates.— The formuleo
for developers supplied by the malters of the plates used
cannot he improved, and in nearly all cases these de-
velopers consist of jiyrogallic acid and soda. The pyro-
soda developer, as it Is called, is admittedly the best
all-round developer, and can he used for almost every
kind of dry plate that is made. Pyro begins to de-
teriorate, however, directly it is mixed with water, and
cannot therefore be kept in solution for any great length
of time so as to be reliable always for occasional use.
But if the pyro is used dry— that is, if sufficient for the
plates to be developed is weighed out as required — the
drawback to its use as an occasional developer is over-
come. The right moment at which to stop development
can only be learnt by experience. As a general rule, it
when viewed by transmitted light the shadows are be-
ginning to veil over, the plate should be removed from
the developer. To determine when this veiling begins is
a little diflioult to a beginner, as the unaltered silver in
the plate tends to give a foggy appearance to the image.
The growing piotui-e must be carefully watched, and
when it contains all the detail that is desired develop-
ment may be stopped j the final print wUl show whether
development was carried too far or stopped too soon,
and it is in this way that knowledge is gained by ex-
perience. The time that elapses between the application
so that its pin will come well in the lever notch. Drii
it with a small drill and broach it out until a pin fitted
in it just enters the lever notch freely. Then file the
passing hollow for the guard pin to pass at each beat.
Try the action in the watch, and, if correct, harden the
roller and temper to a red colour. Polish the roller on
the face, and especially on the edge, with crocus and oil
on a steel polisher.
Imitating Dove Marble.— For an imitation of dove
marble, the ground colour must be a bluish-grey, and
must be worked on while it is wet, in the following
manner. Provide a little dark blue-grey paint, a little
black paint, a little white paint, and a pot containing
turpentine. Dip a feather into the turpentine, then
into the dark blue-grey, and occasionally into the black.
Streak the groundwork with the feather, running always
in one direction. Use the white paint in the same way,
and put in a few small solid white patches, which
should be softened at the edges. When dry, scumble
the surface with thin white paint.
Back for holding Greenstuff Food.— The illustra-
tions show the construction of a rack for holding the
greenstuff with which poultry are fed. The wood for the
middle and side frames should be about 2 in. by li in. ;
. Fig. I .Fig. J^
Rack for holding Greenstuff Food.
of the developer and the first appearance of the half
tones will in the case of development with a normal
developer, if multiplied by 3, give the additional time in
which development is complete. Thus, if thirty seconds
elapse between the application of the developer and
the first appearance of the half tones, development would
be complete in ninety seconds more. The appearance of
the back is important with any thinly coated plate.
When the high lights show at the back of the plate,
these lights can become no denser ; further development
can only allow the half tones to catch up, and the
operator must decide how far this is desirable, and act
accordingly. A good dark-room lamp with a steady
flame is of vital importance, especially to a beginner,
and it is sound economy to pay a fairly good price for
a lamp. The usual amateur candle lamp makes the
proper judging of a plate almost impossible, and much
is left to chance.
Grease-proofing Wooden Pill Boxes.— A reliable
method of making wooden piU boxes grease-proof is to
dip them into moderately strong warm glue size. The
dipping should be so arranged that both interiors and
exteriors may be coated. Or, if desired, the insides of
the boxes may be coated with the glue size, applied
with a brush.
Fitting New KoUer In Lever Watch.— In fitting a
new roller and pin in a lever watch, first procure a soft
rough roller and broach out the centre hole to go on the
balance-Btaff to the coiTect height. Plaije it on ^n arbor
and in the turns ur watch lathe, turn the pipe to the
right diameter and length, turn both sides of the roller
flat, and reduce its diameter until, when on the balanoe-
staiE and in the watch, the lever has just a little shake
at each side when the guard pin rests against the, roller
edge. Then measure the position of the ruby pin-hole
the joints should be halved together. The bars may
be of l-in. round galvanised iron.
Oil of Amber.— Amber oil is a product of the dry distil-
lation of amber, and consists, in its crude state, of a
mixture of water, succinic acid, and oil of amber. On
standing, it separates into three layers, the lowest con-
sisting of water, the next containing the bulk of the suc-
cinic acid, while the top layer contains the oil of amber.
This oO, when drawn off, is found to be a dirty brown,
fluorescent liquid, possessing a nauseating odour. It is
insoluble in water, but is soluble in alcohol, ether,
benzene, and many other solvents. The oil is scarcely
acted upon by dilute mineral acids, but concentrated
sulphuric and nitric acids react violently with it. By
the action of nitric acid much succinic acid is produced,
and an orange-coloured resin possessing a strong odour
of musk is produced ; this is used as an artificial musk.
Keducing agents do not affect amber oil, and treatment
with animal charcoal and other decolorising agents does
not in the least improve its colour. In distilling oil of
amber, first water is obtained, then a yellow oil, followed
by a green oil, and lastly a dark green oil. The tempera-
ture during distillation ranges between 15!)" and 360° 0.
A tarry matter remains behind amounting to about
15 per cent, of the crude oil used. The distillates ob-
tained still possess the repugnant odour of the original
oil. By carrying out the distillation, however, in a
current of steam, almost odourless distillates are ob-
tained. These distillates can be bleached by adding to
them about 8 per cent, of permanganate of potash or
bichromate of potash, together with the reauired quan-
tity of dilute sulphuric acid. The oil is then left to
separate from the water, the latter drawn off, the oil
completely dehydrated by the addition of common salt or
plaster-of-Paris, and then filtered. In the bleachir.g
from 7 to 9 per cent, of the oil is lost.
Cyclopsedia of Mechanics.
335
Bemovlng Weather Stains from White Marble-
Weather discoloured marble may be bleached with a
Bolution ot soap lyes and whiting. Mix the soap lyes
and whiting to the consistency of paste, aiid apply a
good coating with an old brush. Let the paste remain
on the marble tor a coiiple ot days, then wash off with
clean water— rainwater for preference— repeating the
Process two or three times until the stains are removed,
'o make the lyes, obtain, say, 71b. of American potash
and dissolve in a pailful of rainwater. The lye is of such
a caustic nature that it is dangerous to fingers and nails.
If, therefore, any of the liquid gets on the hands, they
should be at once well washed in water containing a few
drops of vinegar or acid.
ConBtructing a Cesspool.— Assuming that the quan-
tity ot sewage amounts to 300 gal. per day, and that
the cesspool could be emptied every three months, a
-cesspool should have a capacity ot about 4,300 cub. ft. It
the pool is 10 ft. deep (measured below the inlet drain).
It must be not less than 20} ft. square, or ot an equiva-
lent area it of any other shape. If the pool is to be
of a reddish colour owing to the presence of oxide of
manganese ; blende or "black jack," a sulphide which is
a black or yellowish-black or0, with sometimes a reddish
tingo imparted by galena; calamine, a carbonate; and
electric calamine, a silicate. Zinc is very volatile, and
thus has to be extracted from its ores by distillation.
In reducing blende, it is first oxidised and then treated
with carbon and carbonic oxide, or by hydrogen and
hydrocarbons. The powdered blende Is roasted in a
reverberatory furnace until most of the sulphur has dis-
appeared, and the zinc oxide remaining is heated in fire-
clay retorts to a temperature ot about 1832° F. (1000"O.),
and the vapours are condensed.
Making Divan Settee.— Pig. 1 is a front view of half
the framework. Fig. 2 is a side view, and Fig. 3 a section
of a divan settee showing the position of the springs,
etc. The extra length of the settee wiU necessitate it
being supported in the centre with a pair ot additional
legs. The three back legs are 3 ft. long by U in. thick,
with a sweep of 3 in. The three stump feet are turned
from 3-in. by 6-in. blocks. The seat rails and back rails
Fig. 1
Making Divan Settee.
emptied every six weeks, half the area given above would
sumoe. The method of construction is as follows. After
marking out and excavating to the required dimensions
(the pool being either circular, or rectangular with in-
ternal buttress walls) , the bottom ot the pool should be
covered with concrete from 6 in. to 12 in. thick, according
to the nature of the soil. The walls should be of brick
in cement j and if the pool is rectangular in shape, the
bays between the buttresses should be curved outwards
to resist the thrust of the earth when the cesspool is
empty. It the surrounding soil holds much water, the
. walls ot the pool should be puddled outside with clay,
otherwise the cesspool wiU quickly fill up with water
that has drained in from the adjacent land. Bi-iok
arches, or H-iron joists with concrete filling, can be used
for covering the cesspool, a manhole with cover being
coiiEtraoted to afford access to the pool when required.
The best way to empty a cesspool is to raise the sewage
into a night-soil cart by means of a chain pump. Cess-
pools are generally unsatisfactory, and are being super-
seded by systems of bacterial tanks which dispose ot
the sewage daily without offence.
Zinc.- Zinc (Zn), a bluish-white and highly crystalline
metal, is very malleable when pure, but impure com-
mercial zinc is inclined to be brittle. It melts at 773' F.
and has a specifij gravity varying from 6'86 in the cast
state to 7'21 when rolled or forged. Cast zinc is named
speltei\ only the rolled metal being known as zinc, as a
rule. Zinc oxidises at a red heat, but the rolled metal
will form a film of grey suboxide at an ordinary tem-
perature If in a damp situation. Zinc is hardened by
rolhug, and is annealed at a low heal to make it malle-
able again. Pure zinc is dissolved by nitric acid and
"■ff alies, but not by hydroehlorie or sulphuric acid,
^though the commercial metal is readily dissolved by
either ot these latter acids. Zinc is much used as a pure
metal, and also in alloys. " Galvanised iron " is sheet-
steel coated with zinc. The chief ores of zinc are zincite
(red oxide ot zinc), a white ore when pure, but usually
Fig. 3,
are 2 in. square, and the stufBng rails 2i in. b^ 1 in.
Mortise joints can be used in preference to dowels, For
the seat, eighteen 8-in. springs, placed in six rows ot
three each, will be required, and tor the back, twelve
6-in. springs put in zigzag form ; if spring bolster arms
are placed on, put three 4-in. springs to each arm. For
the covering will be required four 22-ln. bags, two for
the seat and two for the back; and two 18-in. bags for
the bolster arms. About 6 yd. of Utrecht velvet wiU be
wanted for the surrounds, and 4 yd. of 6-in. fringe for the
trimming. The settee will flU a recess 7 ft. by 2 ft. 3 in.
83,6
Cyclopsedia of Mechanics.
Making Incense.— To obtain a, Blow-burning incens3,
add cedar-wood powder or wood charcoal and nitre to
gum olibanum, gum benzoin, and gum galbanum; the
gums in this mixture are volatilised without burning,
and diseemlnate their odour through the air. The
following is given as a recipe for incense. Sandal- wood
powder, 1 lb. ; oasoarlUa bark powder, i lb. i benzoin
powder, ilb. ; myrrh, 2 oz. ; nitre, 2 oz. j and grain musk,
i dr. A portion of the benzoin might be replaced by
olibanum and galbanum, but this will not alter the
odour very much. Storax can be added to such a mix-
ture, and would be absorbed by the sandal- wood powder ;
it may also be absorbed in charcoal.
Connecting Musical Box to Striking Clock.—
Properly to arrange a musical box to work in connection
with a striking clock to play one tune at each hour, a
warning and letting-ofif mechanism, similar to that in
the train of a striking clock, must be added to the
miisical-box train. But possibly a quick rebounding
blow upon the starting lever is sufficient to start the
tune. If so, the clock could be arranged to lift a spring
hammer as each hour approached, and to let it fall at the
hour, thus striking the musical-box starting lever. The
hammer should be arranged so as to be just free of the
starting lever when at rest. Its soring allows it to hit
the lever in falline.
A Bamboo Camera Stand.— To make a small
bamboo stand foi supporting a hand camera, pre-
Eare a cylindrical block of hard wood like A (Fig. I),
oring it through the centre and, making cuts B,
m
iA|K
from leakaga of mercury In wiiatever position the
barometer may be placed. The rule for height in using
a mercurial barometer is as follows. Kead the barometer
to the nearest hundredth of an inch ; subtract the upper
reading from the lower, leaving out the decimal point;
and then multiply the diiference by 9, which gives the
elevation in feet. Thus : Lower station iJ9'25in., upper
station 28'02 in. i difference, leaving out the decimal point,
= 123 ; this multiplied by 9 = 1,107 ft. elevation. There
are small corrections to be made for capillarity, tem-
perature, gravity, etc. The height of a mountain has
perhaps been more often determined by observing the
boiling point of water than by any other means. It is
found that with the barometer at 30in., which may be
taken as mean pressure at sea level, pure water boils at
212° F., and at a lower temperature as the atmospheric
pressure decreases. The self-evident reason of this is
that the steam can escape more easily from the water
when there is less pressure on the surface. There is a
simple rule for height of mountain from boiling point
which may be seen more clearly from the following:
212° boiling point = datum level ; 211° = 511 ft. elevation ;
2in° = 511 + 513 ft. elevation ; and 209° = 511 + 513 + 515 ft.
elevation, and so on, increasing the added figures by two
each time.
Fhotographing with Telescope.— A telescope or
an opera glass may be used as a telephoto lens
(that is, a lens for obtaining larger images of distant
objects with less extension of camera) in the following
way, Supporf the telescope with clamps at the neces-
sary angle, the object-glass facing the object. A front
fitting the eyepiece must be made to slide into the
front grooves of the camera. For the best results it
is essential that the focus of the eyepiece should be
either one-half or one-fourth the focus of the object-
glass, and the distance of separation must always be
gi-eater thau the diiference between theirtwo foci. Itmay
therefore be necessary to substitute a new eyepiece.
B
Fig. I
Fig. 2
[luim
H C
Bamboo Camera Stand.
C, and D. Into these fit firmly the hinges or upper parts
E of the caps (Fig. 2), passing a pin or rivet through each
on which the caps turn (see dotted lines P and G).
Through the central hole H pass a brass rod L about 1 ft.
long with a screw thread cut on it, to go into the camera
base. At K insert a coarse-thread nut to take a thumb-
screw M, which bites against L, for fixing it at any
height. Fit each of thi-ee small bamboo canes witli
ferrules and insert tightly in the metal caps, and the
stand is complete.
Determlniog Height above Sea Level.— The mode ot
ascertaining the height above sea level of a hill depends
on circumstanfes. The term " sea level " indicates the
mean half -tide level ot the sea, and it the distance is short
and the height limited, the height of a hUl may be most
accurately taken by using an ordinary dumpy level and
stafi!. If the distance and height are more extended, a
surveyor's compensated aneroid barometer, which is
actuated by the pressure of the atmosphere, may be
used. A good instrument is divided to show heights
varying by 20 ft., but may be read by estimation to 5-ft.
intervals. It is adjusted to zero at the lower level and
then carried to the top of the hill and read off, but if it
is important to ensure accuracy, and the distance to be
covered or the time occupied be great, it is advisable to
have a second instrument left with an observer at the
first station, and the indications recorded eveiT half-
hour, so that a correction ot the observed heights may
be made for the natural fluctuations of atmospheric
pressure, the time of each observation being duly
entered. When the height of a mountain is to be deter-
mined, a mercurial mountain barometer made on
Fortin's pl:in may be used. This construction per-
mits the mercury cistern to be closed entirely secure
Tbotograpliy with Telescope.
Find the principal focus of the object-glass and, sup-
posing this to be 36 in., then a concave lens of 18in. or
of 9 in. should be fitted at a distance of, say, 19 in. or of
28 in. respectively, giving an equivalent focus of 648in. or
of 324in. With such a lens the magnification for any
given extension of the camera may be found by dividing
the distance between the negative lens and the ground
glass by the focus of the negative lens and adding 1 ; thus,
q +1 = 3. The illustration shows the course of rays A
through the object-glass B received by the negative leua
C and widened out until they reach the plate D. Thus
the magnification (that is, the number of times larger
the image will be at D than at C) will depend firstly on the
dispersive power of (that is, the focus) , and secondly on
the extension of the camera or the distance between
and D. Unless both lenses are corrected for chromatic
aberration, sharp definition must not be expected. The
equivalent focus shows the focus necessary for a single
lens when an image of the same size is required under
similar conditions.
Boring Gun-barrels.— Gun barrels are bored with
square bits of suitable size; as soon as one bit is
used, another is put through the barrel, until the
desired diameter is obtained. The barrel is secured
on a carriage, the latter being at liberty to traverse the
whole length of the bench.
Preparation of Benzene.— Benzene is a hydrocarbon
CeHe formed during the dry distillation of organic sub-
stances. It is contained in coal tar, which, on being
distilled, yields a light oil that is washed with sulphurio
acid and with a solution of soda and again carefully
distilled ; the portion passing over between 80° and 90° 0.
is separately collected and forms benzene. Benzene is a
light volatile liquid, very retractive, and has a peculiar
gas-like odour. It readily mixes with oils, etc., but not
with water, and is a powerful solvent for fats and india-
rubber. It is used largely in the manufacture of aniline
dyes, for cloth cleaning, and in rubber working. It in
very inflammable, burning with a bright, smoky flame.
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
337
Priming for Woodwork.— A priming for outdoor
woodwork, which is to be painted white, is made by mixing
together white lead, 16 oz. ; red lead, 1 oz. ; and driers, 1 oz. ;
thin with halt raw oil and turps. No hard and fast rule
can he laid down, however, as some white lead will
carry dovible as much thinners aa others, according to
the quality and age of the lead and whether it is
ground stiff or not. For the following coats put less
turps In each time— tor the first coat, say, one-third
tui'ps, for the second coat, one-sixth turps, and for the
third coat, no turps. The paint should be of about the
consistency of cream.
Wall Kacte for Drying Clothes.— Pig. 1 shows a wall
rack for use with a gas stove or oven in drying
clothes. The rack has a base 2ft. 6 in. by Sin. by
lin., with five I'ods 3 ft. by lin. by iiu. These
a"- niortised in, and glued and wedged. Pig. 2
shows a method of cutting out the rods with economy.
As this contrivance may have to support considerable
weight, it will be necessary to plug the wall from which
it is suspended. Therefore mark off on the wall over the
gas stove the positions of the screws, cut the paper in
the form of the letter H, and gently raise the two flaps.
With a cold chisel, chop out two holes of 6, rectangular
shape about li in. by lin., and fit in each hole two taper
plugs with the broad ends inside j then, after glueing the
centre wedge, drive it in, and when set, cut it off flush to
the wall. The paper may now be pasted back in place
and the screws inserted, as in Fig. 3. Cut the holes and
slots in the base as in Fig. 4, and place the base, etc., in
position; the appliance will he perfectly secure but
the thumb and finger, the knife-edge resting on the lap
at something less tban a right angle, so that the knife
meets the lap edge foremost when the lap is revolved.
The knife is held very slenderly so that it is caused to
,1ump and vibrate and thus make a series of slight
grooves or furrows in which the finely powdered rotten-
stone can lodge. The wheel, afterwards, is revolved in
the opposite direction and cross grooves are cut. If the
stones have a diameter less than lin., and if they are
rather hard, pewter polishing-laps are used ; copper laps
are employed for the smallest and the hardest stones,
but in all the cases the laps require to be hacked and
fed with powdered rottenstone and water. Rounded or
convex stones may be worked with emery on a wood
mill, then with pumice powder on a list mill, and
finally with putty powder on a leather lap. These
laps have greater elasticity than the metal ones,
and are more suited to the globular forms of stones.
To cut facets, a lead wheel with emery, and then a
pewter wheel with rottenstone, are employed ; for harder
stones, a copper lap replaces the pewter one. Small
stones, which ctanot be held in the fingers, are cemented
centrally in the end of a wooden stick. By holding the
stick vertically over the lap, the "table" or central
facet of the stone is cut ; the stick is inclined to certain
angles for the eight, twelve, or more facets contiguous
to the table. Two, three, or four series of these facets
generally are required at different inclinations. The
horizontal position of the stick serves to cut the girdle
or central band around the exterior edge of the stone.
The correct inclinations of the stick are found by
placing its upper end into one of several holes in a
vertical post fixed alongside the lap.
Device for Photographing Cyclists.— The illustra-
tion shows a very simple device for supporting a person
on a cycle in an erect position whUst being photo-
graphed. The block is painted to match the foreground.
FiG. 3 Fia 4
Wall Kack for Drying Clothes.
easily removed when not wanted for use. Whenever the
gas is lit, the surplus heat ascends and is utilised.
Cutting and Polishing Carnellans.— The follow-
ing instructions on cutting and polishing car-
nellans, or cornelians, are equally applicahle to
other stones of a medium degree of hardness, such
aa a«ate, amethyst, aquamarine, beryl, bloodstone,
Brazilian topaz, carbuncle, cat's-eye, chalcedony, chrys-
olite, chrysoprase, crystal, elvans, emerald, fejspar,
flint, fluorspar, garnet, heliotrope, jade, jaspar, lapis
lazuli, mina nova, onyx, opal, paste gems, peridot,
plasma, porphyry, quartz, sard, sardonyx, serpentine,
and topaz. First, the rough carnellan is slit on the
slitting mill, which is a thin iron plate revolving at a
moderate speed round a vertical spindle, the edge of the
filicer being charged with diamond dust and plenty of
the lubricant-roil of brick. The carnelian is lightly
pressed against the edge of the slicer. The second
operation is rough-grinding on a lead mill which
resemble the slitting mill, except that the revolving
table is of lead. The carnelian is moved to and from the
centre of the rapidly revolving lap, which is fed with
coarse emery and water, until the marks made by the
slitting mill are removed. The coarse emery marks are
removed on the lead mill with flour emery, and then, in
the case of stones not smaller than iin. in diameter, the
polishing is commenced on a hacked or jarred lead lap,
the abrasive material being rottenstone moistened with
water; rottenstone would not adhere sufBeiently to a
smooth polishing-lap. The lap is hacked or jarred by
holding an old table-knife blade near the middle between
•a
Block for supporting Cycle.
and is light on one side and dark on the other. The
cyclist places one treadle on the top of the block,' and
mounts the machine, keeping his foot on the lower
treadle on the block, which is behind the machine.
Stripping Silver from Plated Articles. — One
method of removing silver from plated articles needs
the use of a cold bath; The objects are hung in a large
vessel filled with a mixture of 10 parts of sulphuric
acid, 66" B., and 10 parts of nitric acid at 40" B. The
length of the immersion depends on the thickness of
the coat of silver to be dissolved. The liquid when it does
not contain water dissolves the silver without sensibly
corroding copper and its alloys; therefore avoid intro-
ducing wet articles into it, and keep the liquid perfectly
covered when not in use. The articles must be placed
in the liquid so aa not to touch each other, and in a
vertical position, so that the silver salt will fall to the
bottom. As the strength of the liquid diminishes, add
nitric acid. This process is regular and certain, but
slow, especially when much silver is to be removed.
The second method needs a hot bath. Nearly fill an
enamelled cast-iron pan with concentrated sulphuric
acid and heat to a temperature of from 300" P. to 400° F.
At the moment of using the hath, pinches of dry
powdered saltpetre are thrown into it ; hold the articles
with copper tongs in the liquid and the silver will rapidly
dissolve without the copper or its aUoy being corroded
sensibly. It the process proceeds rather slowly, add
saltpetre. All the silver has been dissolved when, after
rinsing in water and dipping the articles into the
cleaning acid, they do not present black or brown opota,
but have the appearance of new metal. These two
methods are not suitable for removing the silver from
wrought- and cast-iron, zinc, or lead ; in these cases it
is preferable to employ an electrical method or a
mechanical process. Old dissolving liquids become
green after use ; to recover the silver they are diluted
with four or five times their volume of water, and then
hvdrochloric acid or common salt is added. The pre-
cipitation is complete when the settled liquor does not
become turbid by a new addition of common salt or
hvdrochloric acid. The resulting chloride of silver la
separated from the liquid either by decantinK or by
filtering, and is afterwards reduced to the metallic stata
by one o^f the usual methods.
338
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
Muslo Shelf for Piano.— The shelf illustrated here
is intended to be fixed on a piano fitted with a
halt lid ; this extends only half-way back, with a
long hinge running from end to end. These pianos
lire usually fitted with a turnover, or overhanging
music deslf, which, when wanted (or use, neces-
sitates the uplifting of the front portion of the lid and
consequent upsetting of any articles or music placed
thereon. The shelf illustrated will obviate this annoy-
ance, and will at least minimise the jarring noises which
generally result from utilising the top of the instrument
lor the display of ornaments, etc. ; it will, moreover,
tend to do away with that loss or heaviness of tone often
due to the storage of articles on the top of the piano.
The shelf should be the same size as the top A, with a
moulded edge corresponding to that on the lid i I in. or
lin. is the usual thickness. It may be fixed about 9in.
above the top by cast-iron or wood brackets as shown in
the illustration, or by the use of ornamental shelf
brackets such as can be obtained at most Ironmongers'.
A top-heavy appearance must be avoided, and a spindle
gallery, 2in. high, will add to the effectiveness; instead,
fretwork panels might be used. Whether the piano is
furnished with a canvas or gauze backing, it should be
an easy matter to locate the bracings, which may
consist of five or seven uprights forming the framework.
The two strips to support the shelf brackets should be
BPAjurely screwed to those that are 9 in. from the sides, a
mixture boiled gently until reduced to about 3 pt. Strain
off the liquid, add 1 lb. of brown sugar and 5 pt. of
water, and when it is sufBoiently cooled, stir in a cupful
of yeast. After fermenting for twelve hours, the beer
may be again strained and run into stoneware jars, the
corks of which should be tied down. The beer will be
ready in two or three days. Herb beer may be kept on
draught by storing it in a stoneware jar having a tap
at the side. Bottles containing fermented drinks should
be kept in a wurm place for the first two or three days,
and afterwards removed to a cool place to prevent the
fermentation proceeding too rapidly. If a cold drink is
required, the bottles may be placed in a box and packed
with ice and sawdust shortly before being used ; or they
may be put into a shallow dish of water and wrapped
round with a piece of damp muslin kept constantly wet
and cool by contact with the water. The evaporation of
the water from the muslin causes a considerable fall of
temperature. " Still " drinks, that is, those having but
little effervescence, such as lemonade and lime juice,
may be cooled in a similar way.
Swing Back Camera in Portraiture,— The purpose
for which the swing back is employed in portraiture
is just the opposite to that for which it Is used in
architectural work. In the former it is used to accom-
modate the focus to a figure that does not present a
plane surface to the camera. The result is a certain
amount of distortion in the figure, but the detect is
scarcely apparent unless overdone, and is compen-
sated for by shortening the time of exposure and
Kuslc Shelf f6r Piano.
Use of Swing Back in Portraiture.
strip of woollen cloth being placed between the iron and
the wood to prevent jarring should the screws work loose.
To apply this sheU to a piano fitted with a whole
lid, a modified system of fixing will be required. The
strips at the back to support the shelf brackets must be
hollowed out if of wood, or bent if of iron, to allow the lid
to open easily when required for tuningpurposes, etc. The
ironwork should be enamelled to accord with the wood.
Ginger and Herb Beers.— Ginger beer may be made
in either of the following ways. (1) Boil 2 or., of bruised
(not powdered) ginger with 2gal. of water for halt an
hour, add 21b. of white sugar and loz. of lemon juice,
or one sUced lemon, and strain the liquid, which may be
allowed to remain in an open' bowl for four days and
should then be bottled, the corks being wired in. Place
the bottles on their side and leave the beer to ferment.
It will be brisk in about three weeks. (2) Over lib. of
lump sugar, 1 oz. of ginger, i oz. of cream of tartar, and
two or three sliced lemons, contained in a large bowl,
pour 1 gal. of boiling water, and when cold, stir in a
teibcupf ul of brewers' yeast, and cover the bowl with a
cloth. Allow the fermentation to go on for twelve or
fourteen hours, strain off the yeast, and again strain,
this time throagh two or thiee thicknesses of flue
muslin ; bottle it, and wire dowh the corks. The ginger
beer is ready in two or three days. Herb beers are made
from herbs possessing medicinal properties; among
these are dandelion, nettle, and sarsaparilla, which may
be used alone, mixed, or (vlth other herbs; porter,
Spanish juice, or liquorice may be added to give the dark
tolour. Tiie herb may be extracted by filling a large pan
either with freshly gathered dandelion or nettle plants,
or with the dried sarsaparilla ; in place of the latter loz.
or i oz. of sarsaparilla extract may be used ; 5 pt. of
water should then be poured over the herbs and the
improved definition. Cameras for portraiture and for
architectural work should have swing backs capable
of an outward and an inward swing. For this reason
the reversing frame must swing from the centre, or the
side stays must be specially constructed to lift the
travelling frame out of the way of the base. Most field
cameras are made to swing forward only. When photo-
graphing a sitting figure (represented by the hatched
lines in the illustration) , it will be seen that the knees
are much nearer the camera than the head ; therefore,
either a much smaller stop must be used, thus greatly
increasing the time of exposure, or the swing hack or
the camera must he altered as shown in the illustration,
so that the plate may repeat the plane of focus as in-
dicated by the dotted lines A B.
Cleaning White Leghorn Hats. — To renovate
white Leghorn straw hats that have become slightly
soiled, wash in hot soap and water (white curd or
oastile soap for preference), then in clean water, and
carefully brush with a stiff nail-brush to remove dust
and dii-t. Then dip them in a thin size made from parch-
ment cuttings or white gelatine. Shake off the excess
and hang up to dry. If the hats have become yellow
they will probably need bleaching. This is done by
exposing them to the vapour of burning sulphur while
they are wet. White Leghorn hats may be cleaned as
follows also. Well brush them to remove dust, and
wash them with salts of lemon (binoxalate of potash),
using a hard nail-brush or tooth-brush. Then rinse
the hats in cold water to remove any traces of the
acid, and stiffen as described above. The hats, if
properly cleaned, will not require bleaching. Should
any of the salts of lemon stain the operator's clothes,
the stains may be removed by immediately sponging
with strong liquor ammonia.
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
339
Etching in Gold on Glass Below is described how to
etch in gold on glass a dull letter with a hurniehed edge.
The glass must iirst be well cleaned and polished
with an old newspaper. A sketch of the letter having
been placed on the glass, all those parts of the design
that afenot to show a dull or matt surface must be care-
fully covered with asphaltum or embossing black. The
glass plate is then surrounded with a raised border
composed of wax and Burgundy pitch, and when the
protecting asphaltum is dry the plate is flooded with the
etching acid. When the glass has been etched to the
required depth, the acid is poured off and the plate well
washed in cold water and dried and polished. The plate
is then sized for gliding, the size being made of a little
isinglass boiled in distilled water or Altered rain-water.
Apply when cold with a flat camel-hair brush. The gold
leaf 18 then laid on, and when dry Is weU rubbed with
cotton-wool until all the marks are removed. The letter
is then backed with red lead ground in quick-drying
hardvarnish, thinned with benzoline. "When the backing
is dry, wash oif the surplus gold.
Fowls' House with Span Koof.— The accompanying
drawings show a fowls' house 6 ft. long, 5 ft. wide, and
6 ft. high to ridge i it has a span roof. The run may
be of any length desired. A is a halt-longitudinal sec-
tion showing the nests, etc., B Is a half outside elevation.
mixture of hydrocarbons and succinic acid. Sometimes
amber encloses Crustacea, centipedes, tmd insects
belonging to species which do not exist now ; amber has
been found enclosing leaves. The most valuable amber
is of an opaque lemon colour, and is known as fat
amber. An efficient solvent for amber is not known.
Amber may be worked in the lathe, the rou^h amber
flrst being sawn to shape with a bow saw having a fine
wire for the blade, tripoli or emery powder being used
with It. Whilst the amber runs in the lathe, it may be
heated from beneath by a small lamp or a pan of char-
coal, as thenitsoftensandis more easily worked; worked
cold, it is liable to 6hip out. On the same principle,
when drilling or tapping amber, warm the tool flrst, and
allow it to remain in the amber whUst the latter hardens
again ; if the tools are made too hot, the amber will b»
spoilt. By a simple process of polishing amber, it is
smoothed with whetstone and water, and then is rubbed
with whiting and water, followed by oil applied on a
piece of flannel. When the friction heats and electrifies
the amber, lay it aside to cool or it may fly to pieces.
Perhaps the more general method of polishing amber is
the following. First it is filed to a fairly smooth surface,
which IS improved by rubbing with Trent sand and
water or with scraped Flanders brick and water applied
with a flannel. E,ottenstone and oil are then rubbed on
with a flannel, followed by di-y rottenstone applied with
Fowls' House with Span Boof.
C IS a half elevation of the end facing the run, and D is a
half cross section showing the nests, etc. The posts
and rails should be of about 3-in. by 3-in. stuff, and
the rafters of 3-in. by 2-in. stuff. The boarding should
be about i in. thick, grooved and tongued; matoTilining
will be suitable. The roof should be covered with
lelt. Perches should be fixed where most convenient.
, Amber.— Amber (known in mineralogy as succinite)
IS the mineralised or fossil resin of an extinct pine-tree
(probably Pmites sitccmi/er), and though its colour is a
transparent pale yeUow usually, often it is reddish or
brownish, and sometdmes tinged with green, blue, or
violet i some varieties of amber are almost opaque. It
occurs in beds of lignite and in alluvial soils, but it is
found in greatest abundance on the shores of the Baltic,
between Eftuigsberg and Memel, where it is thrown up
by the sea: its form may be round irregular lumps,
grains, or drops. It is hard, rather brittle, and has a
perfectly conohoidal fracture, that is, the sui-face of the
iracture has convex elevations and concave depressions.
Amber becomes negatively electric by friction, and the
power of electrified amber to a;ttract light bodies was
known as early as 600 B.C. Its specific gravity varies
from 1-05 to I'OT, sometimes reaching I'l. It is without
taste or smell, but when heated by friction or otherwise
emits an agreeable odour ; 'it burns with a clear fiame
and a pleasant smell, leaving about 1 per cent, of ash ;
it melts at 536" P. It contains from 3 to 8 per cent, of
^ooinic acid j also, it contains two resins— one melting
at 295' P. and soluble in ether, but not In alcohol ; and
another resin melting at 221° P. and soluble in alcohol
and other bodies. When its soluble constituents have
been dissolved out by means of ether, amber, has a
similar composition to camphor— CjnHioO. On distilla^
tjon, amber yields an enjpyreumatic oil which is a
the palm of the hand. Amber turned in the lathe is
smoothed with glasspaper, and polished with rottenstone
and oil. The lapidary polishes amber flrst on an iron
lap with diamond dust and oil of brick j then on a lead
lap with coarse emery and water, followed by fine emery
and water; then with flour emery and water on a
mahogany lap; then on a list mill with pumice powder
and water; ana finally on a leather lap or piece of buff
leather with fine putty powder and water. Sometimes
moist putty powder applied by the palm of the hand
follows the leather lap. Amber that is to be polished
with facets is treated on pewter laps with crocus.
Except that the amber is held in the unaided fingers, the
process resembles the cutting and polishing of gems.
Amber may be , tested by (1) warming it slightly ;
artificial amber will then sraell of camphor. (2) Hold-
ing a small chip in a flame, when amber meltS and burns
slowly, whilst most artificial amber burns vigorously.
(3) By weighing. The real is not so heavy as the
artificial, substance. To distinguish amber from fossil
copal, heat a particle and hold a piece of moistened lead
acetate test paper in the fumes. If it is amber, the
paper will be blackened ; if copal, the paper will not be
discoloured.
Setting Steel Plates.— Steel plates, say of No. U
gauge, are straightened or set by using a hammer and an
iron setter. If, when the sheet is laid flat, there are raised
places along its centre, they must be worked down flat
by hammering from the edge of the raised part out-
wards towards the edge of the sheet. If the centre of
the sheet rests flat, and the edges are wavy, then tho
sh^t is loose on the edge, and must be hammered
from the wavy or loose parts in towards and ahjug the
centre of the sheet until the edges are drawn tight and
true
340
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
Octagonal Fountain In Sheet Metal.— Fig. 1 shows an
eleTation of a greenhouse fountain which could be made
of copper or zino. The parts A^, B", and the moulded
part of the foot 0^ are of curved sheet metal, which,
when mitred at the different edges, will form an
octagonal hasin, the oenti-e piece and foot resting upon
a circular base. The fountain is supplied through the
pipe shown projecting at the base, and on the opposite
side of the fountain an overflow pipe should be arranged,
the top of which projects through the bottom of the part
convenient number of eijual parts, and draw projectors
from these division points. A, B, B', ete., to Join the mitre
line b^o (Pig. 2). To work the pattern for the basin,
transfer the divisions B to H (Pig. 1) to a straight line,
as shown by B, B', C, D, B, r, G, and H (Pig. 3) . Through
each of these division points draw lines at right angles
to and on both sides of the centre line. Now take the
length b V ( Pig. 2) , and set it off on each side of the centre
line (Pig. 3) as B 6''. Also transfer the lengths b' b», c c',
dd", etc., from the plan (Fig. 21 to the lines with eorre-
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Octagonal Fountain in Sheet Metal.
&? to a height equal to the depth of water that is to
remain in the basin. To work the patterns for forming
the fountain, draw to the required size an elevation as
shown by Fig. 1, the curved outline on the left-hand
side representing the true shape of a section of one face
when cut by a vertical plane containing the line o in
plan (Pig. 2) . To draw the plan, take half the diameter
of the top of the basin as radius, and any point on the
centre line, say O (Pig. 2), as centre. Draw the circle
shown, then inscribe an octagon within the cii'Ole and
BO arrange it that the side of the octagon containing
the points b b' is at right angles to the ground line.
Bisect this side of the octagon and draw the line of
bisection Ob. Now divide the curve AH (Pig. 1) into any
spending letters in Pig. 3, and through the points found
draw a curve on each side of the pattern, as b'', b*, c', d\
etc. Then take the radius a from the plan (Pig. 2) , and
with this length mark a point from b" at O (Fig. 3) j then,
using O as centrCidraw the top curve A b° to complete the
basin pattern. The pattern for the centre piece and
foot (Pig. 1) Is worked in the same way, the divisions
from H to Y being the distances to he transferred to the
centre line (Pig. 1) . The widths to he set off on each side
of the centre line are shown in plan on the octagon face B'
ra'ig. 2), those for the foot being shown on the face C CPlg.2).
Fig. 6 IS the pattern for the circle forming the top of tec
cylindrical base. This pattern will be a rectangle, whose
length will equal the circumference of the base, and
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
341
whose width will equal the depth of the cylinder. When
making the tountaiu, e9,ch section should he bent to the
shape shown hy Fig. 1, Fig. 3 being made to the shape
Bliown for the basin. Fig i Is shaped as shown by the
part B" (Fig. 1), and Fig. 5 is bent to the shape of the
moulding for the foot. The sections for the bashi are
then soldered togellier, and a small octagon, in which
holes are punched in suitable positions for the passage
of the pipes, is cut of the same size as the bottom of the
basin, and soldered to it. The sections of the centre
piece and foot are then soldered together, the foot is
joined to the centre piece, and this to the basin.
Aluminium —Aluminium (symbol Al, melting point
varying from 1,050° to 1,292' F., specific gravity 2B), when
of 985 per cent, purity, is bright white in colour, some-
what resembling silver, thoiigh its appearance depends
much on the temperature at which it has been worked.
It is capable of taking a high polish. Its melting point
may be increased greatly it impurities are present or it
it is alloyed with another metal. Aluminium is only
slightly elastic ; it is, however, fairly malleable and
ductile, but these latter properties are impaired by the
presence of its two chief impurities, silicate and iron.
sublimes over with the salt (sodium chloride) and forms
a double chloride of aluminium and sodium. This
double chloride is heated in a reverberatory furnace
with suitable fluxes and with metallic sodium; the
sodium combines with the chlorine and leaves the
aluminium free to fall to the bottom and to be drawn
' off into ingot moulds. The chemical method of pro-
ducing aluminium now has been superseded hy the
cheaper and more satisfactory electrical process. The
three best known electrical methods are the Cowles, the
Hall, and the Herault, the first-named depending on the
heating effect of the electric current and producing alu-
minium alloys only, whereas by the other two methods
aluminium salts are submitted to electrolytic action at
a high temperature, pure metal being in these cases
produced.
Plumbing Work Aboard a Troopship.— The old-
fashioned troopship is now practically abolished, and
troops are carried in hired transports, which have to be
specially fitted up. The sanitary arrangements for the
troops are here briefly described. Great cleanliness
is especially necessary among troops who are packed
aboard a ship. Every sanitary appliance is thoroughly
PlumbiBg Work Aboard a Troopship.
It ol more than 99 per cent, purity, it can be rolled,
it is said, into leaves i^Jjin iu. thick, in this respect beihg
Interior only to gold. Aluminium has a tensile strength
of 7 tons to the sctuare inch. "When pm-e, it is non-
corrosive and resists the oxidising action of the atmo-
sphere, but this advantage has to be partly sacrificed to
obtain increased hardness and elasticity by adding
small quantities of copper, nickel, or zinc. It dissolves
in hydrochloric acid and in most solutions of the
alkalies, but it is only slightly affected by dilute sul-
phuric acid, and not at all by nitric acid. Rolled or
forged metal breaks with a fine silky fracture. Alu-
minium is not found in a metallic state, but when in
combination with oxygen, various alkalies, fiuorine,
silicon, and acids, it is the base of many clays and
soils. Common compounds of aluminium are felspar,
mica, gneiss, and trachyte, whilst other aluminium com-
pounds, classed as precious stones, are the ruby, sap-
fihire, garnet, turquoise, lazullte, topaz, etc. The ores
rom which aluminium is commercially reduced are
bauxite, cryolite, and corundum. In reducing bauxite,
it is mixed with soda ash in a furnace, an alumlnate of
soda being obtained afterwards, and the insoluble sub-
stances are separated bylixiviatlon. Bypassing carbonic
acid gas through the solution, pure alumina is precipi-
tated, and this is formed with salt and charcoal into
balls, which are heated in an earthenware retort
through which chlorine gas is passed, the result being
that the chai'coal combines with the oxygen, and the
shlorine with the alumiuiura; the aluminium chloride
flushed by a ship's hose several times a day. Pig. 1 shows
a section of a latrine, A A indicating water supply in lead
pipes, the size of the pipe (from i in. to li in.) depending
on the size of the latrine and urinal to be supplied.
B indicates the latrine, which is covered inside with
sheet lead in the same way as a sink or cistern, and is
usually about 18 in. wide and 18 in. deep; the length
depending on the number of troops to be accommodated.
C indicate lead wastes of 4 in. and 2 in. diameter
respectively ; D D, taps to regulate the water supply ; E,
urinal made of sheet lead, same as latrine.. Pig. 2 shows
a section of a washhouse, PI" indicating a tipping
chamber made of sheet lead; G G, tin-plate tipping
bowls ; H H, cam-action taps for water supply ; J J. 2-in.
waste pipes of lead. Pig. 3 shows a slop shoot. There
are usually four of these, two fore and two aft. They
are covered with sheet lead, tacked and soldered as
shown. They are placed at the side of the ship, so that
all slops may be shot overboard. The latrines and wash-
houses are placed on the upper deck above water level,
and the wastes empty into the sea. They are temporary
timber structures, the roof being covered with canvas
to keep it water-tight.
Cleaning Gilt Bronze Ware.— (Jilt bronze ware. It
greasy, should be dipped in a hot solution of caustic
potash, washed in hot soapsuds, and rinsed in clean water,
if not greasy, dip in a mixture of 10 parts of nitric acid,
I part of aluminium sulphate, and 40 parts of water, ana
then rinse in clean water.
342
Cyclopsedia of Mechanics.
Scoop for a Coal-welghluK Machine.— A scoop
(Pig. 1) for a oonl-weighing machine siiould be made
of No. 19 S.W.G. best charcoal iron. To mark out
the pattern of the body (Fig. 2), first square a sheet
of iron and set off along the edge a distance' A B equal
in length to the required measurement around the
scoop. At A and B ana at C, which Is the centre pf the
line A B, erect perpendiculars ; then set off the distance
CD equal to the length of the scoop. Prom D along the
line D measure D £ equal In length to A C. With E as
centre, and £ D as radius, describe a semicircle as F D G.
Then A r D G B will be the pattern required. Extra
allowance, represented by the dotted line, must be made
lor wiring. Cut out the pattern, roll it to shape, and
set off the wiring edge. Up-end the scoop on a piece of
iron and mark round the pattern of the back. The laps
for riveting and the wiring edge at the top, shown in
Vig. 8, are additional. Punch A-in. holes in the laps, and
with a safety tube, and containing 1 oz. of water. Heat
the contents of the flask, conduct the disengaged gases to
the wash-bottle, and thence, by means of a glass tube,
to a bottle containing 124 fl. oz. of distilled water; in
this bottle the tube dips i in. below the surface. Con-
tinue the process until 16i fl. oz. of muriatic acid are
obtained. The last bottle must be kept cold during the
operation. Commercial hydrochloric acid is a secondary
product of the manufacture of carbonate of soda.
Regulator for Reciprocating Water Motor.— When
the reciprocating motor described on p. 298 is used lor
organ blowing, an automatic speed regulator as shown
by the accompanying illustrations will be required. In
Fig. 1 the feeders are lettered F. The cord A passes
over the pulleys B, one end being fastened to the top
of the reservoir E, and the other to the lever C which
actuates the valve. To keep the cord tight, two weights
D are used. E is an ordinary 1-ln. lull-way valve; the
screw spindle must be replaced by a plain rod to
work through the stuflinS box. The lever passes
through an eye (Fig. 2) at the end of the spindle. The
length of the lever C should be adjusted so that the
Scoop for a Coal-weighing Machine.
bend them at right angles to the back ; set off the wiring
edge also, but in an opposite direction. Fit the back on,
mark the holes, punch them, and then rivet the back in
place. The scoop should now be wired, the rod being in
one piece and meeting in the centre of the back ; otner-
wise the strength of the scoop will be sensibly decreased.
A wrought-iron handle is next riveted to the back as
shown in Fig. 1. Two pivots, which should be case-
hardened, are riveted to the side of the scoop so as to
allow It to rest in position on the machine, and also to
enable it to be freely turned lor delivery.
Hydrochloric Add.— The liquid known as hydro-
chloric or muriatic acid, or spirit of salts, is an aqueous
solution of the pure muriatic acid, which is a colourless,
Invisible gas possessing a pungent odour and an acid
taste, and fuming when in contact with the atmosphere.
This gas is irresplrable, uninflammable, has a sp'eciflc
gravity of r2695, and becomes liquid under a pressure
of forty atmospheres. Muriates or hydroohlorates are
combinations of this gas with a base. One method of
producing the Uqnld ordinarily known as muriatic acid
18 to slowly pour 11 fl. oz. of sulphuric acid into 8 fl. oz. of
water, and, when cold, add to 12 avoirdupois oz. of dried
chloride or sodium contained in a quart flask ; through
s cork in the neck of the latter passes a glass tube which
Is connected with a three-necked wash-bottle, furnished
Regulator for Beciprocating Water Motor.
friction of the valve spindle through the stutBng box is
overcome, and also so that when the reservoir is full the
valve is closed as shown. While the motor is not work-
ing the valve wUI be fully open. On opening the starting
valve water will be admitted to the motor, which will
now run at lull speed. As the reservoir bellows fill, the
regulator valve will gradually close, the speed of the
motor being thus reduced. On air being withdrawn
from the bellows, more water will be admitted, and the
speed will increase ; a constant air pressure will thus be
maintained in the reservoir bellows.
Papering a Ceiltng. — The paper for a ceiling is
prepared in the same manner as for hanging on a
wall. Special attention is, of course, paid to the past-
ing of the paper, and for obvious reasons it is almost
useless to attempt to put a common paper on a ceiling.
The paper should be of good quality ; and if the paper is
a heavy one, it may, as in the case of heavy wallpapers,
be temporarily kept in place by drawing pins. In the
case of a paper hung on a wall, the paper, until it is dry,
is held in place partly as the result of friction, but prin-
cipally by the adhesiveness of the paste ; but when
paper is hung on a ceiling, contact is maintained solely
by the adhesiveness of the binding medium. It is neces-
sary, therefore, to prepare the celling so that the paper
may more readily adhere to it by first thoroughly
cleaning the ceiling and then coating or sizing it with a
solution of glue and whiting. When this is dry the paper
may be hung. If the ceiling is at all rough, it should be
smoothed with pumice-stone, as paper will not readily
adhere to a rougn surface.
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
313
Making Small Filter.— A small Alter for purifying
water may be made in this way. Procure a large
earthenware flower pot, well clean it, and fix a piece of
glass tube in the hole at tlie bottom. Put in a layer
of very small gravel (flint pebbles tor preference) ;
upon this place a layer of fine clean sand, and over
this a layer of granular animal charcoal about 4 in.
deep: Above all place another layer of clean sand. The
filter may be supported on a large jug or other suitable
receptacle, and the water run in at the top. Plenty
of water should first be run through the filter so that
the sand and charcoal may settle down properly and the
filter become efficient ; it will be working at its best
when the water falls only in drops.
Soldering Catch on Gun-barrel.— In soldering a
catch on a gun barrel it will be necessary to tin the barrels
and also the catch, and then to bind the latter to the
barrels with strong wire ; also bind the barrels for some
distance from each side of the catch, making the ribs
secure with wedges. To melt the solder, use heaters ; these
are generally made of copper with iron handles ; or iron
rods can be used, theends being made red hot and inserted
in the barrels. Cut some small slips of thin solder and
place them on each side of the catch, using powdered
resin. As soon as the solder melts, remove the heaters
and cool the barrels.
Sheaths for Hand Camera with Changing Bag.—
The accompanying diagram shows the pattern for a
sheath for a hand camera with changing bag arrange-
ment. The sheath should be out in the zinc and bent
on the dotted lines. It fairly thick sheaths are used,
and if the sides of the sheaths are bent over, and not
f"
)X
vl
U/
Sheath foi Hand Camera with Changing Bag.
merely the top and bottom, as , is often done, there
should be no fear ot scratching the plates.
Preparing Snlphuric Acid.— Sulphuric acid, H2SO4,
known also as oil of vitriol, is an odourless, dense, oily
liquid having a specific gravity of 184i2. Pure sulphuric
acid is colourless, but the commercial acid Is of a straw to
brown colour. It is a typical acid. It occurs but rarely
in a free natural state, but combined with certain ele-
ments it is common in the animal, vegetable, and mineral
kingdoms. A simple method of preparing sulphuric acid
on a small scale is to boil sulphur in aqua regia or in
nitric acid; the oxidation of the sulphur will produce
the sulphuric acid. The two principal commercial
methods of preparing the acid are based on discoveries
made in the fifteenth century by Valentine. By one
process, sulphate of iron (green vitriol, hence the term
" oil ot vitriol ") is distilled in earthenware retorts, the
vapour passing into a receiver containing a little
ordinary sulphuric acid and forming a brown, fuming,
oily liquid having a specific gravity of 1'9 ; this is the
process employed at Mordhausen, Germany, the product
being known commercially as ifordhausen acid. The
English process may have two forms (1) in which sulphur
1b used, and (2) in which sulphide of iron (iron pyrites)
is used ! both of the processes depend on the production
of sulphurous acid. Sulphur is ignited and burnt in a
conical brickwork oven ; just above the sulphur is sup-
ported a pot, known as the nitre pot, which is filled with
a mixture of sulphuric acid and either soda nitrate or
potash nitrate, from 81b. to 101b. of nitre with from 5 lb.
to 61b. of acid being allowed for every hundredweight
of sulphur. If iron pyrites is used, it is roasted in arched
chambers. Under the action of the heated sulphuric
acid the nitre decomposes, the nitric acid fumes passing
into another chamber along with the sulphurous acid
obtained by burning the sulphur. The sulphurous acid
abstracts from the nitric acid sufficient oxygen for its
conversion into snlphuric acid, the nitric acid becoming
nitric oxide, which quickly becomes nitric peroxide by
taking oxygen from the air supplied for the combustion
of the sulphur. Steam is iutroduced, and the sulphurous
acid constantly being produced takes oxygen from the
nitric peroxide and continues the supply of sulphuric
acid : thus the cycle of actions and reactions continues
u itil the whole of the sulphur is consumed. The sul-
phuric acid falls into water, which is drawn off tor con-
centration when it reaches the specific gravity of 1"1.
The solution is concenti-ated first by evaporation in
lead pans until the specific gravity is 1'6, and then by
boiling in vessels ot platinum or fiint glass.
Glazing with Putty.— In glazing a window lay the
sash on a bench, and with the thumb run along
the rebate a bed ot soft putty; this is called back
puttying. Next lay the piece of glass in its place, and
with the second finger gently press along all sides near
the rebate to get an even bed. Now get more putty, ot a
stiffer kind, and run along on all sides. Stand the sash
on end, slightly inclined to the vertical, and cut in with
the glazing knife (see Fig. I) , allowing the knife to rest
on the arris ot the wood rebate, inclined at an angie
according to the depth ot the rebate. Work along each
side from the mitre, finishing off in the centre each
time. No difficulty will be experienced if the putty is ot
the proper consistency, but it the putty is too oily it will
drag. A little dry whiting in a dusting brush will remove
all loose putty after glazing. Fig. 1 shows a proper
glazing knife, and Pig. 2 an ordinary stopping knife.
The glazing knife should be shorter and firmer than the
knife required for ordinary stopping. Only experience
can insure proficiency in glazing.
Theatrical Grease Faints.- The base for grease
paints is 2 parts of clarified lard or coooanut fat
mixed with 1 part of white wax ; or vaseline or paraflln
wax may be used. Grease paint is put up in cylinders
Fia 2
Glazing Knives.
about lin. long and Jin. in diameter, and in making
a stick ot flesh-tinted paint, pigments in the following
small quantities will be required. No. 1 tint, deepest :
As much vermilion as will cover a sixpence. No. 2
tint, medium: One-third larger quantity ot a mix-
ture of equal parts ot vermilion and zinc white. No. S
tint, palest: Same quantity as No. 2 ot a mixture
of 1 part of vermilion and 2 parts ot zinc white. In
mixing the colours with the base, warm the latter and
rub in the pigments with a palette knife; force into
a tube, which is to serve as the mould, and when
cold, push out the grease paint with a round piece ot
wood and wrap in tinfoil. Another way ot making flesh-
tinted paint is to mix together 3 dr,. of vermilion, 2 dr. of
tincture ot saffron, 5 dr. of powdered orris root, 20 dr.
ot precipitated chalk, 20 dr. of oxide of zinc, 20 gr. of
camphor, 20 minims ot oil ot peppermint, Idr. of bouquet
essence, and sufficient almond oil to form a paste. Broimi
grease paint — Melt 6 parts of cacao butter or other
base, mix in 1 part of burnt umber, and when nearly
cold add 5 drops ot oil of neroli. Also see under yellow,
below. Deep red grease pamt— Make into a paste, with
sufficient almond oil, 15 dr. each of oxide ot zinc, sub-
nitrate ot bismuth, and plumbate ot alumina; colour
with 30 gr. of carmine dissolved in 80 minims of water
ot ammonia, and perfume with 12 minims of oil of
peppermint, 12 gr. of camphor, and lidr. of bouquet
essence, Rose colmt/r grease paint — Colour the lard
and wax base with madder lake. White grease paint—
Mix together loz. each ot oxide ot zinc, subnitrate or
bismuth, and plumbate of alumina, and 5 dr. or 6 dr. ot
almond oil. This paste is perfumed by incorporating
with 12 gr. ot camphor, 12 minims of oil ot peppermint,
and 1 dr. of bouquet essence. Yellow grease «amt— In-
corporate equal parts of yellow ochre, precipitated chalk,
and oxide ot zinc, and make into sticKS with mutton
suet or the base given above; for pale yellow, use more
oxide ot zinc ; for brovra paint use burnt umber, and tor
blue use ultramarine instead of yellow ochre. Grease
paints containing bismuth injure the skin.
344
Cyclopasdia of Mechanics.
Using Neat Portland Coraent.— When neat Portland
cement is used in thin layers that ai'e exposed to the
air, it cracks and breaks oil. Thus it is \infitted for
skimming walls or floors, or for pointing brickwork,
and in such cases should he mixed with sand in the
proportion of 1 of cement to 1 of sand, or 2 of cement
to 1 of sand. Cement may be used neat for jointing
drain pines when the drains are to be filled in quickly,
but in most cases the question of expense will prevent
neat cement being used for this purpose. The cause
of the cracking, and of the brittleness, is attributed
to unequal .shrinking. Where the cement will not be
exposed to air, as in the interior of brickwork, it may
be used neat if necessary.
Cleaning Sponges.— To clean sponges, soak them for
about halt an hour in warm dilute hydrochloric acid
(1 part of strong acid to 5 parts of water) ; remove, rinse
in water, and then steep in methylated spirit for a
further thirty minutes. The hydrochloric acid decom-
poses the lime soap which is precipitated in the cells
of the sponge, and dissolves the lime, leaving the fatty
acids of the soap, which are removed by the spirit.
A Tripod Plate-stand. — The hardwood stand for
toast, etc., shown by Pig. 1, Is simple, quaint, and useful.
However it is placed, three of its legs must rest on the
floor whilst the other three are ready to support the
plate. Fig. 2, which is one-twelfth full size, is a section
through the hub. This is a ball 2 in. in diameter, and
through it are bored two i-in. holes, which cross at right
angles. Four of the legs or spokes are fixed in these
holes, and a third hole (shown in the centre of Fig. 2)
is bored at right angles with the two former ones, for
the two remaining spokes. Bach of these is 8 in. long
and i in. in diameter at the greatest widths i they are
80 shaped as to have some resemblance to racks, this
preventing any article set on the stand sliding up either
of the spokes, and thus getting tilted aside. A i-ing of
soft metal round the middle of the hub is useful to
both of Its sides with a stick so that it may be detached.
Using this disc.as a template, the succeeding glasses'are
obtained very easily. The circles which are cut out
touch each other, and leave as waste only the very
smallest possible quantity. An able workman will ci>t
6,000 glasses a day. After the separation, the glasses
are m the form of more or less concave discs,
following the shape of the sphere from which they
were cut. Their edges require to be deepened for
the purpose of raising them sufHciently over the
surface of the dial to leave a free circulation for the
hands. One way of doing this is to place the discs
over moulds of fine earth containing a receptacle of the
form which the glass is desired to take. These moulds
are thrast in an oven, and when the glass is softened by
the heat a workman with a plug of paper forces down the
glass into the receptacle. After this operation. It is
necessary to polish the whole of the glass on a stone ;
but, to avoid this, a different moulding process may be
used. The glass is placed over a mould of the same kind,
but of convex form, and of such dimensions that the
edges of the disc pass all round It. In softening it. in
the oven, the sides fall the length of the mould ; a work-
man completes the operation by capping the mould with
a wood model. The edges are bevelled on a grindstone
and polished on another stone. For costly watches thick
glasses are made, and from these the outside convexity
is ground off, leaving a flat surface ; such glasses are
known as " flettage "; from some the central part only
of the convexity is removed; these are known as
" poin tillage."
Electric Arc Lamp for Portraiture,— An automatic
feed arc lamp for photographic portraiture is expensive.
A Tripod Flate-stand.
Electric Arc Lamp for Portraiture.
prevent splitting. The same device might be utilised
on a smaller scale for fancy articles; a stand thus
Brraifged might carry a receptacle for odds and ends on
a lady's worktable, or a smoker's ash-tray.
The Manufacture of Watch Glasses.— The flrst
watches, the " Eggs of Nuremberg," were oval in shape,
and had glasses which had been cut on a stone from a
solid block of crystal. Later, when the watches took a
round shape, this costly process was again used for the
best watches, but for the inferior ones glasses were ob-
tained by cutting, with a red-hot ring, two caps in small
spheres of blown glass, the edges being trimmed on a grind-
stone. As the mechanism of watches lost its bulk, these
glasses were found too protuberant, and again glasses
out in the mill from crystal blocks were used ; these
" cheves " glasses were veiT expensive. An attempt to
reduce the cost was made by blowing small phials whose
bases affected the form of the desired glasses. This
foundation was separated, and its edges were finished
on the millstone. But it was necessai-y to blow as
many phials as glasses, and the price remained high.
The modern manufacture of watch glasses differs from
the early methods only in the perfection of its tools and
better division of the work, but the principle has not
altered. A tube has its end dipped in the glass pot and
a workman blows a small bulb ; this is softened by hold-
ing it near the, door of the furnace, and, the end of the
tube being put into communication with a reservoir of
compres.-ed air, a big sphere is blown. This sphere, about
1 yd. in diameter, must be produced without rents, and
must be of the requisite thickness. From it ai'e cut
convex discs of the size required. Formerly, this was
done by marking round a metal template with the end
of an earthenware tube at white heat ; cold water being
thrown over the glass, the sudden contraction of the cold
material detached the disc. The modern method is to
use a "tournette," which is a compass having a diamond
as its marking point. Its use is delicate work. The
diamond having traced the circle, the latter is struck on
A clockwork arrangement or an electro-magnet causes
the carbons to be drawn together or separated until
the correct position is obtained automatically. A hand-
feed lamp, however, although demanding more atten-
tion than an automatic rapiparatus, would serve the
purpose, and could be fitted up for about one-tenth the
cost of the automatic lamp. The apparatus merely
consists of a bar A (see illustration) to which is fixed a
clamp B. Travelling along A is a similar clamp for the
carbon C, adjusted by a rack I) and ratchet wheel £,
worked by the wheel F. An opal reflector G is fixed as
shown and receives the rays of light, reflecting them into
the larger drum H, which in turn throws the light on
the figure. The drum is made to turn somewhat tightly
in I at J. A counter-balance L is fixed as shown, and the
whole swings from the ceiling at M. By means of the
ball socket at K the lamp may be instantly placed In
any position. Wires N and convey the current to the
carbons P and (J. Of course, the clamps carrying the
carbons must be insulated from the rest of the appa-
ratus. For this purpose the grip of the clamps is gener-
ally made in sections with sheets of mica between.
Preparing Calf Skin for Banjo.— To prepare a raw
calf skin for a banjo, place the skin in a warm damp spot
until sufficient putrefaction has taken place to enable
the hair to readily slip ; or the skin may be pat into lime-
water with lime in excess. The latter method is quicker,
but Involves more risk to an amateur. The hair is now
scraped off, and the skin placed in the liraewater (if
this has not been previously done) to remove the grease.
The skin is now put on a frame and well stretched in
every direction, thoroughly scraped on both sides to re-
move dirt, loose cells, fat, and flesh, and to reduoa the
thickness, and then allowed to dry. The above is
subject to little modifications. For example, the flesh-
ingknife used by the practical man may be replaced by
an ordinary knife and scrubbing brush; the thickness
may be reduced by pumice-stone, and the colour im-
proved by dusting on powdered chalk, etc.
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
345
Liauld for Pry Shampooing. — A UcLuld for dry
Bhampooing may be made by dissolving 2oz. of Castile
Boap in U P*- of spirit of wine and adding 3i pt. of
vater. If desired, the liquid may be scented with a few
drops of essence of bergamot. A sti-onger material ma,y
be made by using carbonate of potash (pearlash) in
place of soap, but in this case It would be better to wash
the head with water afterwards.
Temporary Outdoor Photographic Studio.— Fig. 1
shows a simple form of temporary outdoor photographic
studio. It is merely alight structure fitted with a double
set of bUnds, one blind being of darkish green material
fairly opaque, and the other of thin cotton. The thin
blinds should be nearly always kept down, but the darker
ones are arranged according to the effect desired. The
dark blinds should be fixed on spring rollers, which can be
purchased, and are Inexpensive. The roller consists of a
cylinder through which* passes a rod, around which Is
wound some fairly stout wire to form a spiral spring,
one end being attached to the rod and the other to the
revolTlng cylinder carrying the blind. The ends of the
rod. are cut square and fit into square openings in side
supports. When woi-king in this studio, a hood or sky
Fig. 2
Temporary Outdoor PhotograpMo Studio.
shade should be fixed to the lens of the camera as in
Fig. 2. The simplest arrangement for a sky shade
consists of two rods at A passing through tubes B
screwed on each side of the camera ; a cloth may be
thrown aci'oss the rods. This ai-rangement serves the
purpose of a sky shade and also of a focussing shade.
PoUshing and Ke-sUvering Brass ClocU Dials.—
For polishing brass dials of clocks a lathe is required,
although It Is not absolutely essential. If only a few
dials have to be done, the following hand method,
although tedious, will doubtless answer well. The
snrtaoe of the dial must fl,i-st be well rubbed down
with a pad of leather and veiT fine emery powder;
then go over it again with another leather pad
and a mixture of oil and powdered pumioe-stone
01' trlpoli. Now prepare a silvering bath made as
loUows. Dissolve i lb. of cyanide of potassium m 16 oz.
of distilled or boUed water ; in another vessel dissolve
■ i oz. of nitrate of silver in 16 oz. of water, and, when dis-
solved, throw into the vessel a spoonful of common salt,
stir well with a stick, and allow to settle. Now dissolve
soma salt In water, and when the silver solution has settled
mix in a few drops of the salt water solution. If there is
any cloudiness, salt must be added; stir and allpw to
settle., If the salt water does not produce cloudiness,
the water must be run off and the white deposit or pre-
cipitate carefully preserved. Well wash the deposit with
boiling water by mixing, allow to settle, and run oft.
Now to the white deposit add about 1 pt. of clean
water, and afterwards, by I oz. at a time, the first pre-
pai-ed cyanide solution, till the white powder is dis-
Holved i stir well after each addition of cyanide. Make
up the bath to i gal. If, on placing the article to be
kilvered in this solution, a black deposit results, water
must be added ; if it coats slowly, add white precipitate.
Now well warm the clock face, and coat with a layer of
beeswax the part that does not need silvering. Immerse
the article in the silvering solution till well covered with
silver, then take it out, well wash, clean off the wax, and
polish the whole surface with .iewellers' rouge and oil
applied with a very soft cotton pad. An alternative
methodforsUveringisas follows. Dissolve ioz. of nitrate
of silver in i pt. of cold water, and add ^ lb. of cream of
tartar with li lb. of common salt ground fine ; mix and
stir well, adding water till of the consistency of thick
paste. Hub this paste on the dial, after rough polishing
as at first, for amlnute or so. When silvered, clean with
a little wet whiting, wash in cold water, and dr.v. Coat
the brass face with thin transparent hard varnish.
Self-propelling Chair for Invalid. — A common.
Windsor armchair can be converted into a merlin chair
by adding a pair of bath-chair wheels with a polished
wood driving rim (see A In the sketch) ; the axle la
Self-propelling Chair for invalid.
bolted to the cross spindles. The chair is supportedi
at the back by a wrought-iron fork and an 8-ln.
wheel; this fork passes through the back spindle (not
shown). A footboasd is housed into the front leg;
stumps and is secul-ed by a chain as shown at B.
Renovating Old Leaded Lights. — Old and leaky
leaded lights to be renovated should be taken out of the
window frames, laid flat on a board, and painted all
over with a rather stiff paint of red and white lead
and linseed oil, using an old, nearly worn-out paint
brush. To force the cementing material well into the lead
cames, pressure must be applied to the brush, which
should be drawn across the cames. The glass can be-
cleaned by rubbing with old rags or wisps of hay, and
finally polished with clean pieces of rag or hay and
wood ashes. The cement may have to be picked out
with a pointed piece of wood from the corners of the
squares of glass. Finally dust some lampblack over the^
whole to darken any edges of the cement that ma,y be-
visible. Both sides of the lights should be treated with
the cement.
Frosting Sliver.— Polished silver is frosted by a few
minutes' immersion in nitric acid diluted with an equal
volume of water. A better effect is gained by frequent
dipping and withdrawing. On removal from the acid^
rinse in water. Immerse for afew momentsina strongbath,
of potassium cyanide, and then rinse in cold clean water.
During these processes, handle the silver with woodea
tongs or clamps, and do not touch it with the fingers.
346
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
Correcting Barrel of English Lever Watch.— One
cause of the barrel of a tuBee lever watch rubbing on the
pillar plate may be that tlie barrel is too low down, or has
too much side shake upon its arbor : or the barrel arbor
may have too much endshalie inside the barrel. Takeout
the barrel, hold it square in a pair of sliding tongs, and
test the inside endsnalce. It this is excesslTe, the barrel
<!over can be sprung down in its centre by placing it
OTer a hollow in apiece of boxwood and using pressure.
A little endshalie is necessary. When corrected, place It
in the frame and see whether the whole barrel Is too low,
■or it there is so much side play as to allow fouling ot the
plate. It there is, the holes in the bari'el bottom and
cover will reciuire bushing. If the barrel recLUires rais-
ing, spring down the bottom in the centre, and correct
the endshalie by springing in the cover a little more.
Stick and Umbrella RacU. — The stick and um-
brella rack shown by Fig. 1 Is intended tor use where
there is not room for a hall stand. Prepare two
pieces of i-in. walnut or mahogany 3 ft. 11 in. by
3 in. by J in., and two pieces each 2ft. 6 in. by Sin.
Plane these and gauge them to thickness and
width, and halve the corners together, taking care
to lieep the frame square. Knock it to pieces, shape
"the cox'ners, etc., clean up carefully, and fill in with
generated, the heat to which it is raised, and tne
rapidity with which it Is formed. Charcoal supplies
the body to be bui-ned, nitrate ot potassium the oxygen
to support combustion, and sulphur raises the tempera-
ture 01 the gases, and thus Increases their expansive
foi'ce, which, for heavy rifled guns and large charges,
is as much as 25 tons to the square inch. All the
powder used In the Bhglish service is of the same com-
position, and varies tor different purposes only in the
size and density of the grains to vary the rate of
explosion. By this means, without lessening the velo-
city given to the projectile, the strain on the gun
can be reduced. The larger the gun the greater the
density and size of the grains. Thus for 80- and 100-ton
guns, prismatic powder ot hexagonal shape, from 1 in. to
IHn. thick, and having a density of 1'7.5, is used, whereas
for rifles and machine guns fine grain is employed,
having a density of n2.
Driving Piles on a Batter.— The guides of the pile-
driving machine must be set to the batter at which
It is intended that the piles are to be driven. The
easiest way to do this with a machine having upright
guides will be either to shorten the back raking shores
Fjq. 3
Stick and Umbrella Rack.
Trench polish ; then glue together. Next prepare two
pieces, each 1ft. 91u. by 3Jin., tor the rack, and shape
them as shown by Pig. 2. Polish them and fix them
to the frame with three or four screws through the
back. Then turn ten hat pegs (Pigs. 2 and 3) , which may
be polished while in the lathe. They can be fixed to the
frame by i-in. dowels, turned on the back ends and glued
into centre-bit boles in the top and bottom rails ot the
frame. Brass hat pegs may be used it preferred. The
rack can be finished by polishing.
Gunpowder.- The proportions for the Ingredients of
funpowder employed at the end of the nineteenth oen-
ury are given in the following table :—
Nitre.
SulpTvur.
Gliarcoal.
England
75
10
15
France ")
Prussia >
75
12-5
12-5
United States.)
Russia
73-78
12'63
13-59
Austria
76
12-5
11-5
"Gunpowder is an intimate mechanical mixture, not a
•chemical compound, chemical action taking place when
it is ignited. The gaseous products formed by ignition
«,re carbonic acid gas, carbonic oxide, and nitrogen.
'The explosive force depends upon the amount of gas
FiG. 2
Driving Piles on a Batter.
or else to set them farther back at the foot, if the
sillB are long enough to allow of this being done. The
piles will most likely require guiding by walings
placed one row near the top and another row as low
down as possible, as shown in Fig. 1. Sometimes a
hinged Joint is provided at the head of the piling
machine after the fashion indicated in Pig. 2, where
wrought-iron straps are shown bolted to the guides and
shores, hingeing on a spindle that serves to carry the
pulley. By this arrangement the machine may be set
for driving vel-tically or at any required batter.
Making Alcohol from Sugar.— Alcohol is made from
sugar by the following process. Dissolve lib. of brown
sugar in 4 gal. of wai-m water; when the temperature
has faDen to blood heat, mix a little of the solution
with a teaouptul ot fresh brewer's yeast and add the
mixture to tne remainder of the solution. Allow it
to ferment for from thirty-six to forty-eight hours,
then skim off the yeast. Place the fermented liquor
in a still and distil off about a quarter of it ; tlie first
portion passine over will contain most of the alcoh9l,
but it will still be a weak spirit. To concentrate it,
throw away the residue in the still and re-distil the
portion that passed over, this time at a very low tem-
perature. By careful rectification it is possible to
obtain spirit containing 84 per cent, of alcohol! the
16 per cent, of water is removed by chemical agents.
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
347
Plumbers' Soil or Smudge. — JPlumbers' soil or
emudge is made in small ctuantitlee, as it deteriorates
i{ kept. To make a soilpottul, place in tlie pot Jl^. of
size or diluted molten glue and a little water ; gfently
warm until tlie size dissolves, tut do not boil. Mix
^cub. in. of cbalk ground to a fine powder with a penny-
worth of lampblack, and then with a pallet knife in-
corporate some of the melted size with the mixture on a
flat board or stone to form a thin paste, after which place
the whole in the pot, warm, and stir together thoroughly.
Try the soil on a piece of lead ; if when dry it peels olf ,
add water ; if it is rubbed off easily, the size is not gocl,
or the lead is greasy. Old and thick soil is thinned with
porter or stout, but do not add too much or the soil
will become so sticky that the solder will cling to it.
Tyring Cart Wieels.— After running off a wheel on a
bar of iron to get the exact length it is necessary; to
know how much should be left to allow for the bending.
No hard and fast rule can be given, as some brands
of iron contract in bending moi-e than others ; but if
lin. longer than the circumference is left, it will be
sufBcieut. Having cut off the bar and bent the tyre,
place the wheel tq be tyred back uppermost on a tub or
on the anvil, putting an iron rod through the centre of
the stock and the hole in the anvil ; traverse tlie
sole with a measuring wheel, as Fig. 1, marking a joint
on the wheel, starting from the normal point on the
measuring wheel at A, and setting the dial hand to the
point of starting after the wheel has been traversed.
Then run round the inside of the bent iron, marking the
dial point at the finish ; this will give the approximate
with malt or with sulphuric acid. The alcohol produced
is extremely weak j it is then distilled carefully, and
leaves most of the water and all the solid matter in the
still. Another distillation produces rectified spirit con-
taining 84 per cent, by weight of alcohol. To prepare
stronger alcohol, distillation should be repeated several
times with quicklime, the final distillation yielding
absolute alcohol, which should contain 95 to 99 per cent,
of alcohol. Proof spirit contains 49 per cent, by weight
of alcohol. Methylated spirit is rectified spirit to which
10 per cent, of wood spirit, or i per cent, of petroleum
naphtha, has been added to render it undrinkable ; it
passes free of duty for manufacturing purposes. Whisky
is made from malt and distilled as for rectified spirit!
rum is made from molasses, gin from malt, etc., and
brandy from French wines. Brandy, whisky, and rum
must not be sold weaker than '25" under proof, i.e. con-
taining not less than 40 per cent, of alcohol ; and gin not
less than 35' below proof, containing 37 per cent, of
alcohol. Potato spirit made from potatoes, and "corn "
spirit made from Indian com or maize, are common
alcohols containing much fusel oil. Still commoner
alcohol is made from beet treacle. The three last are
made and used largely in Germany, but not much in
Great Britain. Wines contain from ID to 20 per cent, of
alcohol i beer as a rule contains about 5 per pent.
Joint for Hot-water Pipes. — The accompanying
illustrations show a simple and efficient metliod of
making joints in hot-water pipes. Fig. 1 is a section
of the finished joint. To make the .loint, first caulk
tightly to the bottom of the socket two turns of yaru
measuring Wheel for Cart Wheels.
point tor cutting off previous to upsetting and welding,
which on an ordinary tyre generally take about S in.
Bear in mind that the tyre when welded up must be
smaller than the wheel, to contract it together when
shrunk on ; this varies according to the make and sub-
stance of the wheel, from iin. for a Warner wheel up to
It in. smaller for larger and heavy wheels. After the
tyre is welded, run it round again ; it can be easily seen
by the dial hand how much smaller the tyre is than the
wheel, bearing in mind that the part made hot in
welding will shrink about i in. in cooling ; this must be
Kiaiefully noticed in light work, otherwise, if the tyre is
too tight, the spokesot the wheel will be crippled. Fig. 1
is the measuring wheel, ready for use ; Fig. 2 is a side
view of the handle of the measuring wheel.
Alcohols.— Alcohol is one member of a large series of
organic products known by the generic term of alcohols.
The lowest member of this series Is methyl alcohol, which
is contained in wood spirit; the next is ethyl alcohol,
which is the ordinary alcohol ; higher stiU are propyl
alcohol and amyl alcohol, contained in fusel oil. There
are also several others. Oi-dinary or ethyl alcohol ia
formed by the fermentation of sugar by means of yeast.
There are two stages in the fermentation ; in the first
place, cane sugar takes up water and becomes " invert "
sugar. This is then decomposed, yielding alcohol and
carbonic acid. There are other minor products, but
alcohol and carbonic acid are the principal ones. Starch
in the form of potato starch, rice, barley, and Indian
<oru are also used in the preparation of alcohol, but they
have first to be converted into sugar. This is done either
FIG. 2
Joint for Hot-water Pipes.
as shown In the section at A. ITow cut a length of yarn
sufficiently long to go once round the pipe, and to form
a lip as shown at B (Fig. 2) . Wrap the yarn round the
pipe, and just press it into the socket, leaving a space
between it and the back two turns, lay the ends
outside on the top of the pipe so as to form the lip
shown at B (Fig. 2). The space between the yarn is now
filled, as shown at C in the section, with neat Portland
cement mixed with water to the consistency of cream,
by pouring it in at the lip B. Before the cement is set,
turn in the ends of the yarn and caulk the last inirn up
against the liquid cement. When the joint is set, neatly
plaster a ring of neat Portland cement D round the end
of the socket, when the joint will be complete. The
pipes may be filled with water in about twelve hours
after completing the joints. These joints, if carefully
made, will be perfectly tight, and not so liable to crack
the sockets by expansion as a rust joint.
Renovating Bronze Ornaments.— To clean and re-
novate bronze ornaments that have gone dull and rough,
try brushing the articles with a fine brush and
powdered pumice-stone and water ; if this does not have
the desired effect, they will have to be dipped, cleaned,
and re-bronzed. Well boil them in a solution made by
dissolving 4 lb. of caustic potash in Igal. of water, then
dip them in clean water and dry. Any rough places must
be smoothed down with a fine file or fine emery-cloth.
Now dip the articles in an acid bath, wash, and dry.
Make up a solution consisting of I gal. of water and 2J oz.
of iron perchloride or nitrate of iron, the latter for
preference. When the iron salt has dissolved, immerse
the bronzes for a short time ; if not satisfactory, con-
tinue the immersion till the desired shade is obtained.
The above solution will give any shade from brown to
black. When the articles are quite dry, they may be
preserved from furthei* damp by coating with a very
pale lacquer.
348
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
Weight of Air.— Begnault ascertained that at the
freezinK point of water (32° P.) a cubic centimetre of
perfectly pure, dry air had a weight of 0'i;012'J32 of a
gramme when the barometer stood at 76 centimetres at
Paris. Of course, the earth atti'acts bodies more strongly
at the poles than at the equator, though the slight
difference can in ordinary practice be ignored. In
IJngUsh equivalents, a cubic foot of air has a weight of
0-080681 lb., or 129 oz., at 32" P. and at ordinary atmo-
spheric pressure— that is, 14'7 lb. per sq. in. at sea level.
The density, and consequently the weight, of air yary
with its pressure and temperature. In ascertaining the
weight of air exceedingly delicate apparatus is neces-
sary, or there will be a large percentage of error in
the result. The usual method Is to weigh a bulb of
glass or other material filled with airj the air is exr
nausted, and the bulb weighed again, the difference
in the two weighings being the weight of the quantity
of air that is sufficient just to fill the bulb. By ascer-
taining the cubical contents of the bulb, it is an easy
matter to calculate the weight of any given quantity
of air. The table below gives the absolute weights of
a cubic foot of air under varying conditions of tem-
perature and pressure. The weights given are those
that would be obtained by weighing the air subject to
means of getting the ferment in this country is to shake
the millc in a bladder or to add some rennet. According
to the American Druggist, koumiss commonly is made lu
America by adding yeast to cows' milk and then ferment-
ing. The best results are, however, obtained from the
use of mares' milk, this being the basic ingredient of the
original Bussian koumiss. Mai-es' milk is less rich in
casein and fatty matter than cows' milk, and is therefore
more easy of digestion. In the United States of America
cows' milk is used always, and generally it answers the
purpose well, but it is better to dilute the milk with
water to reduce the percentage of casein, etc. Mares'
milk contains 8*75 per cent, of milk sugar, cows' milk
only 5'35 j therefore it is necessary to add sugar to the
preparation when made from cows milk. The following
'recipe has been found to answer well. Dissolve 3oz. of
mUk sugar in 32 oz. of water, and add the solution tot
96 oz. of milk ; rub together i oz. of compressed yeast and
2i oz. of brown sugar in a mortar witli a little of the mix-
ture, and then strain into the other portion. Strong
bottles are essential, champagne bottles being frequently
used, and the corks should fit very tightly and be wired,
down ; if the cork does not fit properly, the carbonic acid
gas as formed will escape and leave a worthless pre-
paration. The koumiss must be kept at a moderate
■WEIGHT OP CUBIC
FOOT
OE
AIR
IN
POUNDS.
Pressure in pounds per square inch, above atmosphere.
t
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
S
9
10
15
20
30
40
60
60
70
SO
90
100
125
1.50
200
0-
•0863
._
•1150
•1450
•1741
•2037
•2624
•3211
•3798
•4385
•4972
•6559
■6146
■6733
•8201
•9669
1^2604
10"
■0345
•1132
•1419
•1706
•1994
•2568
•3143
•3717
•4292
•4866
•5441
■6016
•6590
■8026
•9462
r2335
20°
■0827
•1108
•1390
•1671
•1952
•2515
•3077
■3640
•4202
•4765
•5328
•5890
•6453
■7859
•9265
1-2078
30°
•0810
—
•1086
—
—
•1361
•1636
•1912
•2463
•3014
■3566
•4117
•4668
■6219
•5770
•6321
•7699
•9076
n832
32"
•0807
•0862
■0917
•0971
•1026
•1081
■11361 •1191
•1240
•1301
•1356
■1630
•1904
•2453
•3002
■3551
•4100
•4619
■5198
•6746
•6295
-^
•9039
1-1784
40"
■0791
•1061
—
•1334
■1604
•1874
•2414
•2954
■3494
•4034
•4574
■5114
•5654
•6195
•7545
•8895
fl695
60"
•0778
•1043
■1308
•1572
•1837
•2367
•2896
•3426
•3955
•4485
•5011
•5544
•6073
•7397
•8721
1-1368
60"
•0763
•1023
—
■1283
•1512
•1802
•2321
•2841
•3360
•3879
•4398
•1918
•5437
•5956
•7254
•8553
ril49
70"
•0749
•1004
■1258
•1513
•1768
•2278
•2787
•3296
•3806
•4316
•1825
•5334
•5841
•7118
•8391
l-093»
80"
•0735
—
■0!lt5l —
— .
•1235
•1485
•1735
■2235
•2735
•3226
•3736
•4236
•4736
•5236
•6736
•6986
■8236
1-0736
90"
•0722
„_
•DDG7
—
•1213
•1458
•1704
■2195
■2686
•3176
•3658
•4169
■4660
•5140
■5631
•6859
■8086
1-0541
100°
■0709
•OiloO
_
•1191
•1432
•1673
•2155
•2638
•3120
■3602
•4084
■4566
•5019
•5531
•6736
•7942
1-0353
110"
;0696
■0933
_
•1170
•1407
•1644
•2118
•2591
•3065
■3539
•4013
■4486
•4900
■5431
•6618
•7802
1-0171
120"
■0684
■0917
•1150
•1383
•1616
•2081
•2547
•3012
■3478
•3913
■4409
•4875
■5310
■6504
•7668
-9996
130"
■0673
■0902
•1130
■1359
•1588
•2046
•2504
•2961
■3419
•3877
■4334
•4792
■5250
■6394
-9826
UO"
■0062
—
■os-s:
•1112
•1337
•1562
•2012
•2462
•2912
■3362
•3812
■4262
•4712
■5162
■6287
.—
-9663
160'
■0651
•U872
•1094
•1315
•1536
•1979
•2422
•2864
•3307
•3760
■4192
■4635
■5078
•6181
-9604
160°
■0610
■0io8
•1076
•1291
•1511
•1947
•2382
•2818
•3254
•3690
•4125
■4560
■4996
•6084
-9351
170"
■0630
■085 i^
•1059
•1273
•1487
•1916
•2345
•2773
•3202
•3630
•4059
•4488
•4916
•5988
•7069
-9203
180°
■0620
—
■08.il
•1042
•1253
•1464
•1886
•2308
■2730
•3152
•3574
•3996
•4418
•4840
•58P4
•6949
-9059-
190°
•0611
•0818
^
•1026
•1234
•1442
■1857
•2272
■2688
•3519
•3934
•4350
•4766
•6804
•6842
-8920'
200°
•0601
■0806
•1011
•1215
•1420
•1829
•2238
■2647
•3465
•3875
•1281
■4693
•5716
■6739
-8784
210°
•0592
•0794
•0996
■1197
•1399
•1802
•220.i
•2608
•3414
•3817
•1220
■4623
•5630
•6638
-8653
212'
•0591
•0631
•0671
■0711
•0751
•0792
•0832
■0872
•0912
•0952
■0993
■1194
•1394
•1790
•2198
■2600
•3002
•3404
•3805
•4207
■4609
—
•6618
-8627
220°
•0584
—
^ —
—
•0782
_i^
—
—
—
■0981
■1179
•1378
•1775
•2172
■2569
•2966
•3364
•3761
•4158
•4555
•5548
•6640
■8526
230°
•0575
'
•0771
_.
•0967
■1162
•1358
•1749
•2141
■2532
•2923
•3315
•3706
•4097
•4489
•5167
•6446
-8402'
250°
•0559
—
—
—
•0749
—
—
—
•0939
•1130
•1320
•1700
•2080
■24611 •2841
•3221
•3602
■3982
•4362
•5313
•6264
-8166
275"
•0540
•0724
•0907
•1091
•1275
•1642
•2011
•2377, ^2744
■3112
•3479
•3847
•4214
•5133
•6051
-7888
300°
•0522
—
—
—
•0701)
—
—
•0878
•1055
•1233
•1588
•1944
•2299
•2654
■3010
•3365
•3720
•4075
•4964
•6852
-7628
325°
•05(16
•0678
'
•0850
•1022
•1194
•1538
•1882
•2226
■2570
■2915
•3258
•3602
•3946
•4806
•5666
-7386
350°
•0490
—
—
—
■0657
—
—
—
—
•0823j^0990
•1157
•1490
•1824
•2157
■2490
■2824
•3157
•3490
•3824
•4657
•5401
•7158
the given conditions in an air-tight ease surrounded by
A vacuum ; if the case were surrounded by the ordinary
atmosphere, the case of air would appear to have a less
weight. For example, 1 cub. ft. of air, temperature
70' i'., pressure 80 lb. per sq. in. above the atmosphere,
has an actual, absolute weight of 0-4825 lb. ; weighed in
air having a temperature of 70° P., the weight would
appear to be only 04076 lb. The table printed above is
on the authority of the Locomotive.
Making Koumiss.— Koumiss (spelt also kumyss) is a
fermented liquor made originally by the Tartars from
mares' milk ; a somewhat similar liquor, called lebau or
yaourt, is made from cows' milk by the Arabians and
Turks; it is also prepared by the Eussians under the
name of kef. To prepare it, the milk is diluted with a
little water, then placed in bags made of hides, and
shaken till the cream is thrown up ; it is then placed
In earthen vessels and kept in a warm place until fer-
mentation takes place. To hasten this, a little koumiss
is added from a previous fermentation. The liquid is
frequently well stirred to Incorporate the curd and fat,
and must be shaken before being drunk. The process is
a ti"ue fermentation, the milk sugar being destroyed by
a peculiar ferment with the production of lactic acid,
alcohol, and carbonic acid. The liquid is said to have an
agreeable sourish taste, and is sometimes recommended,
though it is rarely seen, in England. One of the few
temperature, and to ensure it being properly finished
the bottles containing it should be gently shaken ea,cb
day for about ten minutes to prevent the clotting of
the casein. It is well to take the precaution of rolling
a cloth round the bottle during the shaking process,
as the amount of gas generated is great, and should
the bottle be of thin glass or contain a flaw it may
burst. Some few days elapse before the fermentation
passes into the acid stage, and when this has taken
place the preparation is much thicker. It is then in
the proper condition for allaying sickness, being
retained by the stomach when almost everything
else is rejected. A fairly good quantity of koumiss
may be prepared in a small way in the following
manner. Fill a quart champagne bottle to the neck with
pure cows' mUk, add two tablespoonfuls of white sugar
dissolved in a little warm water, and a very small
quantity of compressed yeast. Then securely fasten the
cork In the bottle and shake the mixture well ; place it
in a room having a temperatui-e of from 70" to 80" P. for
six hours, and finally in an ice box for about twelve
hours, and it then should be ready for use.
Removing Tar from Black Cloth.— The best way ta
remove tar from black cloth is to immerse the soUed
portion in benzene. After soaking for several hours
renew the benzene, and with a hard nail-brush carefully
brush away the stain.
Cyclopaedia of , Mechanics.
349
Sliding Sasbes In Railway Carriage Doors.— Fig.
1 is an ele-vation of the inside of a railway carriage
door showing the strap for lifting the sash ; Fig. 2 is a
section throngh the door ; whilst Pig. 3 is a detail showing
the bottom rail of the sash and the method of holding
the same in position when closed. The brass angle bar
A is screwed to the vmderside of the bottom rail of the
sash, and hooks over the bar B, fixed to the middle rail
of the door. Sufficient space is left at the top to allow
it to clear the bar B and fall into the groove E (Fig. 2).
Differing in detail from the above is the railway carriage
door with sliding sash, of which Fig. i shows a half
inside elevation. From the section (Fig. 6) it will he
seen that the door pillar is grooved from the top to within
a few inches of the bottom, where a padded, rail is put
At D the method of fastening the strap and the bottom
plate is shown. The sashes are planed, grooved, mortised,
etc., by machinery, and knocked togfether; then the
corners are cleaned up roughly by hand. The frame is
then puttied and the glass put in. The joints are next
cramped up, and the wedges (see Pigs. 6 and 7) are dipped
in glue and driven In. When these are dry the ends of
the tenons and wedges are out off level, and the frame is
fitted into a gauge or into a door. It is then cleaned up,
a piece of zinc being used to prevent the sandpaper
scratching the glass ; the top edge is then rounded, and
the plate put on the bottom edge, when the sash or glass
frame, as it Is generally called, is ready for varnishing
and polishing. On many railways the ang:le plate is not
used, the rail under the sash inside being hinged to
r.' .^
■t '
HG. 7
Sliding Sashes in Railway Carriage Doors,
across the door ; on this the sash falls. To take out the
sash, the door is opened ; the sash may then be pushed,
up through the top of the door, although some eompanies
screw stops into the grooves above the sash to prevent
the sashes being removed without the use of a screw-
driver. In Fig. 6 the joint at the top of the sash at A has
a circular corner, the square-cornered joint of the bottom
rail being shown at C, Fig. 7. Sometimes the corner at C
Is mitred jVin., but as a rule the round is stopped on the
stile and the mitre of the round worked up with the
chisel. B, Pig. 6, is a section of the top rail and D, Fig. 7, a
section of the bottom rail finished. The grooves are run
right through the length of the stiles and rails, the
tenons being made of the same thickness as the width
of the grooves. From A-ln. to i-in. polished plate glass is
used, and the grooves a,re made larger to allow for a
bedding of white-lead putty stained a mahogany colour.
fall under the glass frame when it is raised; also some
railways use both the angle plate and the falling " gar-
nish" rail.
Renovating Maroon Repp Chair Covers.— To reno-
vate faded and soiled maroon repp furniture covers,
proceed thus. Strip the gimping, then with an old screw-
driver knock up the tack heads sufficiently to allow them
to be gripped with a pair of pincers j care must be exer-
cised so as to damage the cover as little as possible. The
majority of repps are very poor and threadbare at the
back owing to the thick diagonal cord being forced up
with the weft yarn, leaving only the warp yarn slightly
bound to form the backing ; therefore the best method
would be to have the covel-s French cleaned. Then put
new gimp on the chairs ; old gimp Is not worth the
trouble of relaying, unless it is of excellent quality.
350
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
Working Copper-platine Solutions.— Oopper-platlng
solutions, made by dissolviug the green precipitate
Irom a copper sulphate solution with potassium
cyanide, should be worked hot. A temperature of
from 150° P. to 180° P. giyes the best results, the copper
deposit being brighter and more coherent than at lower
temperatures. When large bulks of alkaline copper
solutions are necessary, and it is found inconvenient to
heat them, it is adyisabie to precipitate the copper from
X solution of its sulphate with liquor ammonia, then add
more of this to dissolve the precipitate, and flnally^add
the potassium cyanide. Work this cold and revive by
adding a little liquor ammonia from time to time.
Splayed Linings to Segmental Opening. — The
correct way of getting the true shape of the soffit of
splayed framed-up linings, sides and soffit to have the
same angle of splay, is the following. Set out the
plan and elevation (Figs. 1 and 2), and the section
through the centre as shown at Fig. 3. Draw the
Horizontal line A B passing through the centre O of
the segment. Produce the section line 1 8 of the soffit
until it cuts the line A B in D. This is the centre required
for the true shape of the soffit. With D as centre and 1
taut brass and bronze aUoys. Copper sometimes occurs
native, being then often covered with an oxide and
carbonate crust; it Is sometimes found In grains in
sand, but is more generally obtained by the reduction
of its ores, which are very plentiful. The ores may be
reduced- (1) by treating them in reverberatory or blast
furnaces, or in both ; (2) by the " wet " method x or (3)
by the electro - chemical method. By one German
furnace process the ore is oxidised and the sulphur
expelled by roasting, and the ore is then smelted in a
cupola, two cisterns receiving respectively the slag and
metal which flow through tap-holes. Repeated roasting
Is necessary, and then all sulphates are removed by
Splayed Linings to Segmental Opening.
and 8 as radii, draw the arcs 7, 1, 14, and 13, 8, 15. Now
divide halt of each of the upper and lower arcs in
elevation (Pig. 2) into any number of equal parts
as shown, then on the development (Pig. 3) set off
distances exactly equal as shown by the corresponding
figures. Join 7 to 13 ; this gives the true shape of the left-
hand halt of the surface of the soffit ; the other half, of
course, will be the same. The arcs drawn through E and
1' (Pig. 3) show the amount of bevelling to each edge. To
get the bevel for the top of the jambs (or side linings) ,
. with H (Pig. 1) as centre draw the arc K L and project
up to M, then project horizontally from 7 to M. Join
JI to 13, which will give the bevel G required, as shown.
Particulars of Copper.— Copper (Ou) is a highly
malleable, ductile, and tenacious red metal greatly used
in many industrial arts. It does not reeist the action of
acids, and even moisture affects it, causing it to form
an oxide known as verdigris; this, under the action of
carbonic acid, turns to a green carbonate. Copper is
also caused to oxidise hy heat : it is volatile only at a
great heat. It has a specific gravity of 8'9, and melts at
2,000'' P. Commercial copper contains many impurities,
amongst them being iron, silver, bismuth, antimony,
arsenic, cuprous oxide, lead, tin, and sulphur. Copper
is much used in its cotnmercially pure state, but is
greatly in demand as the chief ingredient of the impor-
lixiviation. Silver is removed with lead, which is after-
wards separated by cupellation. By another furnace
method the copper pyrites is roasted together with
chloride of sodium, sulphuric acid being formed; this
attacks the soda, and the copper is turned into a
soluble sulphate, the iron of the pyrites being then
in the form of peroxide. The fumes of the chlorine,
set free from the sodium chloride. Impregnate lime, and
this becomes a bleaching agent. The wet method of
reducing copper ore is to grind and roast it, mix it with
salt, and again roast it so as to form copper chloride
and sodium sulphate, which are then dissolved in dilute
acids. Any silver which may be in solution is precipi-
tated by the action of zinc iodide, and the copper
chloride solution is siphoned off and precipitated with
scrap-iron. After washing the precipitate, it is refined
in reverberatory furnaces. The copper from these may
be cast into slabs, and to make these into thin sheets
the slabs are annealed and rolled repeatedly, the rolls
being brought nearer at each successive operation ; the
copper is annealed after each rolling.
Cleaning Gold.— To clean gold wai-e, mix together
2 parts, of acetic acid, 1 part of oxalic acid, and 2 parts
or sulphuric acid ; stir in 2 parts of rouge, and mix with
200 parts of distilled water. Eub this on with a clean
clotn, rinse off with hot water, and dry.
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
351
Gliding Metal Chains without Battery.— As metal
chains, etc., gilded without the aid oi a battery
only tsike on the thinnest film of gold, they cannot
he expected to stand any real wear, as the film of
gold is easily nibbed off. The following solution
may be used in gilding hi-ass and copper chains.
Dissolve i oz. of gold chloride in 1 qt. of distilled water,
add lib. of potassium carbonate dissolred in Iqt. of
distilled water, and boil the mixture for two hours.
Swill the chains in the hot solution for a minute,
rinse in hot water, and dry by shaking in sawdust.
Silver and other metal chains may be gilded without
a battery in an ordinarj'' gold cyanide gilding solution
by attaching a strip of zinc to the article. But in
this case the gilding solution soon becomes contamin-
ated with zinc.
Making Flags,— Flags are made of bunting joined
bya double seam, the two edges being turned in. Sewing
bunting out diagonally is a rather a.wkward job. Silk is
. used for small and finer flags. Material may be econo-
mised by careful cutting ; for example, the square of
blue cut from the centre of the letter P (see illustration)
ore is stibnite. The antimony is recovered from this
ore by two distinct processes; by the first of these is
separated the antimony sulphide, which is in its turn
refined by the second process. In Germany, whence is
obtained much of the commercial antimony, the ore is
placed in covered pots having perforated bottoms, below
which are receivers. Between the pots is the fire, the
heat of which fuses the sulpliide, which runs through
the holes Into the receivers. Crucibles heated in circular
wind-furnaces are employed to refine the sulphide in
England. The charge is 401b. of sulphide and 201b. of
scrap-iron, and the product is antimohy and Iron sul-
phide, which is again melted, this time with sulphate of
soda and some slag, a product of the next process. The
resultant metal is melted with pearlash and slag, and
cast into ingots. Antimony can be produced by electro-
deposition.
Wire Gauges.— The table shows the value in inches oi
the sizes on the principal wire gauges.
Signal Flags.
will do for the centre square of the code letter S. The
red circle from the pennant P will come in for the centre
of the peunant 0, the white circle from for the circle
in D, and so on. Paint and prints are not satisfactory
for making flags. The illustration shows the dis-
tinguishing colours and forms of the code. The flag
, shown at the top left-hand corner is the code signal and
answering pennant. The flag hoisted alone at the
mainmast head signifies that the ship Is in ttuarantine.
The flag P hoisted alone at the foremast head signifies
that the ship, if in dock, is about to sail that day ; If in
the fairway, that the ship wants a pilot.
Antimony.— Antimony (Sb.) is a bluish white metal,
crystalline and brittle, and so can be powdered easily.
Its specific gravity is 61, and its melting point about
430° C. Its chief use is in the formation of service-
able alloys, such as Britannia metal, pewter, and
Queen's metal, to which it imparts brittleness. The
melted metal rapidly oxidises if exposed to the air,
and it highly heated burns with a white flame,
giving off fumes of antimony trioxlde. Antimony is
issolved by hot hydrochloric acid, hot concentrated
sulphuric acid, and aqua regla, and If treated with
nitric acid forms a straw coloured powder known _ as
antimonie acid. Commercial antimony contains im-
purities In the form of potassium, copper, iron, lead, etc.
Antimony occurs native, but generally the metal Is
found In combination with others ; the chief antimony
Numier
of Gauge.
London
or Old
EngUsh
Legal
Stuhhs or
Si/navng-
Brown
and
Roehling.
English,
Standard.
ham.
Sharpe.
Inches.
Inches.
Inches;
Inches.
. Inches.,
0000000
•5
^_
000000
•464
■46
00000
•432
_
—
■43
0000
•454,
•4
•454
•46
■393
OOO
•425
■372
•425
•40964
•362
00
•38
■31S
•38
•364
•331
•34
•324
•34
•32486
•307
1
•3
•3
■3
•2893
•283
2
•284
•276
•284
•25763
•263
3
•259
•252
•259
•22943
•244
4
•238
•232
•238
•20431
•2-25
5
•22
•212
•22
•18194
•207
6
•203
•192
•203
•16202
•192
7
•18
•176
•18
•14428
•177
8
•165
•16
•165
•12849
•162
9
•148
•144
•148
•11443
•148
10
•134
•128
•134
•10189
•135
11
■12
•116
■12
•09074
•12
12
•109
•104
■109
•08081
•105
13
•095
■092
■095
•07196
•092
14
•083
■08
•083
•06408
•08
15
•072
■072
•072
•05706
•072
16
•065
•064
•065
•05082
•063
17
•058
■056
•058
•04525
•054
18
•019
■048
•049
■0403
•047
19
•04
■04
•042
•03589
•041
20
•035
•036
•035
■0il96
•035
21
'0315
•032
•032
•02846
•032
22
•0295
•028
•028
■02534
•028
23
■027
•024
•025
•02257
•025
24,
•025
•022
•022
•0201
•023
25
•023
•02
•02
•0179
•02
26
•0205
•018
■018
•01594
•018
27
•01875
■0164
•016
•01419
•017
28
•0165
•0148
•014
•01264
•016
29
•0155
•0136
•013
•01125
•015
30
•01375
•0124
•012
•01002
•014
31
•01225
•0116
•01
•0D893
•0135
32
•01125
■0108
•009
•00795
•013
33
•01025
•01
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•O07O8
•Oil
34,
•0095
■0092
•OOT
•0063
•01
35
•009
•0084
•005
•00561
•0095
36
•0075
•0076
•004
•005
■009
Cleaning Silver.— To clean silver ware, with a soft
brush rub on a thin paste of equal parts of levigated
(not precipitated) chalk and sodium hyposulphite rubbed
up vrith distilled water. Rinse In clean water and dry in
sawdust. Or let the paste dry on the sUver, then rub
off and rinse In hot water. To clean silver coins,
immerse the coin in a bath of 1 part of sulphuric acid
and 9 parts of water. In from five to ten minutes the
. crust of silver sulphide will have been dissolved ; then
rinse in dean water, rub with a soft brush and castlle
soap, rinse again, dry with a soft cloth, and rub with
chamois leather. Silver-plated ware may be cleaned In
this way. With a soft linen rag rub on a moistened
mixture of 2 parts of cream of tartar, 2 parts of
levigated chalk, and 1 part of alum, all in dry powder,
and keep until required lor use In a tightly corked bottle.
Eub the plated ware lightly, rinse in hot soapsuds, and
then in clean water, and dry in sawdust. Small plated
articles blackened with silver sulphide may be dipped for
an instant in dilute hydrochloric acid and then rinsed
In clean water. Large articles blackened in the same
way may be immersed in a 10 per cent, solution of sul"
phuric acid, or may be wiped with a swab carrying dilute
nitric acid ; always after applying acid rinse in clean
water.
352
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
Preparing ■Whitewash.— A good way ot preparing
whitewaeh is to break up 6 lb. of whiting in a pail
containing just suJlicient water to cover the whiting:
when the latter is thoroughly slaked and settled
down, pour off the surplus water, stir the dissolved
whiting with the bare hand and arm, and add 1 qt.
of hot double size. Incorporate the two and set aside
in a cool place to form a jelly. To prevent a yellow
shade, grind a little indigo or ivory black in water and
mix with the whiting and strain before! adding the size.
When required for use, dilute with cold water and use at
once. Excess ot whiting will cause the distemper to
crack and flake j excess ot size will impart an " egg-
shell" gloss. To prepare a good ceiling whitewash, pro-
ceed as above as far as the slaking of the whiting j
thoroughly mix it with the hand and stir in a hot
solution of Young's patent size i use a cupf nl of size to
every 2 gal. of the dissolved whiting. If the wash is to
be perfectly white, potato starch may be used. Set
aside to jellify, and then with a distemper brush rub it
through a piece of coarse canvas stretched over the top
of a pall. For use, dilute with cold clean water.
Fancy Dog-kennel.— Here is a design for a fancy
panelled dog-kennel suitable for a room. The kennel
may be about 20 in. long, 15 in. wide, and 14 in. high.
Pig. 1 is a side elevation showing opening. Fig. 2 an end
elevation. Fig. f 3 a plan of the top, and Fig. i a cross
and washed, most of the mechanical Impurities being
removed. The ore then is partially roasted or calcined tor
two hours in a reverberatory furnace, some of the ore
becoming lead oxide and the rest beeomint; lead sulphate ;
some of the sulphur in the ore helps to form sulphurous
acid, which escapes as gas. On raising the heat of the
furnace, the oxide, sulphate, and vnaltered sulphide
react mutually, and form sulphurous acid and mecallic
lead ; lime is thrown into the furnace during the latter
stages of thfi process, at the end of which the molten
lead is run off and the slag is removed.
Restoring the Lustre of Silver.- The best way to
restore the original lustrous whiteness of silver goods,
lost or impaired by exposure to sulphurous atmospheres
or by having been often and perhaps carelessly cleaned,
is first to anneal and then to pickle the silver, the
latter portion ot the process resembling the colouring
of gold alloys. The annealing may be done in a charcosS
fire or in the ilame of a gas or oil blowpipe j the heat
destroys all organic matter adhering to the surface
of the article, at the same time oxidising on the sur-
face the base metals with which the silver is alloyed.
The annealing requires some care and attention, or
else the workmanship ot the piece will be lost. If the
silver has been soft-soldered previously, it is unfit to be
annealed, as the heat necessary for this would melt the
solder. It is necessary to remove all stones, steel, or any
Fia. I
Fia2
FIG. 3.
section. Any strong wood may be used. The framing
should be about |in. thick, the panels fin., and the
bottom I in. The top would require to be jointed, mitred,
and tongued together. The framing could be rebated
and the panels fixed from the back into the rebates.
Moulding about I in. wide and niitred round as shown
would improve the appearance.
Lead.— Lead (symbol Pb, melting point 612° F., specific
gravity ll'l) is a bluish grey metal which is lustrous
when freshly cut. Being very malleable, ductile, and
tough, it is used largely in many of the crafts. It is
devoid of elasticity, very soft, and can be cold-welded
by. pressure. Lead is not affected by most acids, but
moisture and nitric acid rapidly oxidise it. If it is
slowly cooled from its melting point, it crystallises into
octahedrons. Sheet-lead is of two kinds, cast and rolled,
the latter being known as mUled ; and it is jointed, when
occasion requires, in one of two ways, soldering or burn-
ing. Lead is easily fused, and enters into the com-
Eosition ot many useful alloys, some ot which are solders.
lead occurs in the form of ore, and generally as sulphide
of lead, known commercially as galena. This has a
metallic lustre, and often is in crystallised cubes, always
containing silver. Less important lead ores are cemsite,
a dirty white substance, containing, besides lead, carbon
and oxygen ; pyromorphite, a green, yellow, or brown
ore containing, besides lead, phosphorus, carbon, oxygen,
and chlorine; mimetesite, which is similar to pyro-
morphite, but contains arsenic in the place ot pnos-
phorus i and anglesite, a white or grey ore composed of
lead, sulphur, and oxygen. In the reduction ot the
principal ore— galena— it is first picked, then broken
Fancy Dog-kennel.
material not silver or liable to be injured by the heat, and
it is also advisable to remove pins, tongues, or other
steel work from brooches, etc. Over- or under-heating
must be prevented ; In the former case, if the article is
overheated, the silver is liable to melt ; and if under-
heated, the adhering organic matter is not effectu-
ally destroyed, and the surface not sufficiently oxidised.
In order to obtain the required degree of heat, and not
to run a risk either of under- or over-heating, the article
is held with a pair ot pincers very close over the flame ot
the lamp so as to be covered with soot all over, and is
then exposed to the blast of a flame by means of a blow-
pipe untU the soot burns or disappears. When the
article is cool, it is immersed in a Taoiling solution of
from 1 part to 5 parts of sulphuric acid in about 20 parts
ot water. The quantity of the water depends upon the
quality of the silver ; the coarser this is, the stronger is
the solution. The solution dissolves the extracted
deposit of oxide and leaves a coating of flnesilver on the
surface. Good sterling silver will be whitened almost in
an instant, common silver will take a minute or even
longer ; if the articles are left too long in the solution,
they turn an unseemly greyish colour, and the process
has to be repeated. Common silver has to be treated
repeatedly in this manner before the desired whiteness
is obtained, and in some cases even will have to be
silvered by electro-plating. As soon as the article
in the acid turns white it is transferred quickly to luke-
warm water. The articles are then dried in sawdust,
kept in an iron vessel near the stove or in any warm
place. Any places on the article desired to look
bright are burnished with a steel burnisher. Silver
merely oxidised by exposure to the atmosphere, and
not by repeated cleaning, is restored simply by
brushing with a clean tooth brush and a little carbonate
of soda.
Cleaning Furred Pipes.— A satisfactory method of
Removing fur or lime deposit. from hot-water pipes
has not yet be
and about as
of removing t„- ^. — — — -._ — - _.,—.—-- --
some scale-softening compound ; but if this plan la
adopted, the apparatus cannot be used for some days.
Another method: is to take out the pipes, make them hot,
and then hammer the pipes outside in order to loosen
the lime deposit so that it can be shaken out. This is
not a perfect method, as hammering does not readily
loosen the scale.
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
353
Particulars of Agate.— Agate, esteemed the leslst
Taluahle of the preoiouB stones, is a variety of quartz oc-
curring usually as rounded npdules, known as geodes, or
yeins in trap rock and serpentine. Silica enters into
.Its composition largely, and usually alumina and oxide
of Iron are present. Tiie layers of chalcedony, carnelian ,
amethyst, common quartz, jasper, opal, and flint form
hands of yariegated colours, and these bands in the
polished agate, by reason of their peculiar and distinctive '
arrangements, give to the several varieties their respec-
tive names, such as ribbon - agate, fortification - agate,
zone-agate, star-agate, moss-agate, clouded-agate, etc. ;
also agates are named from the substance which forms
the predominant layers, for example, jasper-agate, flint-
agate, etc. The cutting and polishing of agates is an
industry at Oberstein, in Oldenburg, Germany, and in
Scotland also, where they are known as Scotch pebbles.
Agate is used in flnger-rings, .for seals, beads, small
handles, burnishers of many kinds, bearings in delicate
mechanism, pivots, and for the knife-edges of weighing
machinery, for which and other purposes its hardness
peculiarly fits it.
Bronze Alloys.- Bronze is a yellowish, reddish, or
chocolate-brown alloy of copper, tin, and other elemen-
tar.v metals, and is made in a similar way to brass ; and
indeed, there does not appear to be a sharp distinction
between these two alloys. Below are given the px-opor-
tions of some of the better known bronzes :—
Kind of Bronze.
il
g
9
i-.i
in-3
7-5
1
1
1
O-o
o
91
i3
55-3
90
87
97
80
84-2
83
76
8
8
7
^ 2-5
1
87-7
88-8
92-8
94
98
88
9
69-6
66-6
33-4
25
JL
HI
7
1
1
31
1
iF
3
25
15-8
18
2i
iFs
11-2
7-2
6
2
9
91
30-4
ss-i
66-6
2^7
Aluminium
Ditto
Ditto
.Ditto
Antique
. Ditto
Ash Grey
Bluish Ked
Ditto
Dark Grey
Fontaine )
Moreau's f"
Ditto
Ditto
'Ditto
Ditto
Hard
EeddishTellow...
Ditto
' Ditto
Ditto
Statuary
Ditto
Whitish
Ditto ...
Ditto (best) ...
31-4
90
92
92
97
99
2
Cleaning Silver Watch Dials.— Dirty silver dials
having enamelled figures are cleaned in a different ,
way from those having painted figures. If the^ figures
are enamelled— and this can be aspertained by touch-
ing them with the point of a graver— the dial may be
heated over an alcohol lamp, and then scoured with
pulverised pumice-stone applied wjth a brush or by
the fingers. Boiling for a few minutes in a copper
cup containing chemically pure sulphuric acid diluted
with twice its quantity of distilled water will render
the dial snow-white without in the least injuring the
enamelled figures. Kinsing in hot water and drying
in hot sawdust completes the operation. If the dial has
painted figures, the use of heat and acid are out of the
question, and very careful handling is necessary if the
figures are to be preserved. The cleaning or whitening
may he performed by rubbing on the dial a thin paste of
precipitated chalk and distilled water. The operation
will be a lengthy one, but will be satisfactory if the
necessary care is taken.
Stripping Gold, from Gold-plated Ware By the
following process the gold may be stripped from a
gold-plated article, no matter whether it was fire or
electrically gilt. Warm up an almost exhausted
gold-plating bath, and use the plated ware as the
anode. After the current, has been active for a short
tune, the gold will be found to be entirely stripped
from the article, and is recovered by diluting the
stripping fluid with double the quantity of water
and adding a solutibn of sulphate of iron. The gold
wul be precipitated in powder form, and may then be
melted. The gold may be stripped also by means of a mix-
23.
ture of -10 parts of sulphuric acid, 2 parts of hydrochloric
acid, and 1 iiart oi nitric acid, in which it will gradually
dissolve. The articles must always be entered in this
mixture m a perfectly dry icondition. To recover the
gold, dilute this, acid mixture with from 'ten to twelve
times its quantity of water, and add a solution of iron.
The gold m this instance also will be precipitated in
the form of powder, and may then be smelted in the
usual manner. If the shape of the article allows of it, the
gold may be scraped off. The copper of the scrapings
may be eaten out with nitric acid, alter which the 'gold
can be smelted.
Sealing-wax.- To prepare sealing-wax, melt together
at a moderate heat 30 oz. of Venice turpentine and
45 oz. of shellac; stir well with a wooden stick and
introduce, a little at a time, a mixture of 6 oz. of genuine
Bolpgna chalk, 6 oz. of magnesia, and 28 oz. of vermilion,
all m fine powder. When the mass is thoroughly mixed,
pour in 7 oz. of turpentine, 3 oz. of a solution of mastic in ,
turpentine, and 3oz. of Peruvian balsam; heat the
mixture again, stir well, and the sealing-wax is ready foi-
pouring into suitable moulds. The above sealing-wax is
red; for blue wax, substitute ultramarine for the ver-
milion; for yellow, use finely prepared and perfectly
anhydrous chrome yellow;, and for black sealing-wax,
use finely, powdered ivory black. Sealing-wax sticlcs
having wicks through their centres are made with the
same composition. The wick consists of from six to ten
cotton threads satul-ated with wax or stearin ;. -the wick
is stretched tightly in a specially made mould, which is
provided with' a funnel through which the molten
sealing-wax is poured. But little ingenuity is required
to construct a suitable mould.
Polish for Calf Kid Boots.— The best polish for calf
kid boots is white of egg ; this should be kept till it is
stale and forms a liquid, not a jelly. Ordinary blacking
should not be used for calf kid boots. Another polish
can be made by boiling pieces of calf kid, and adding
a little gelatine, a very small portion of glycerine, and
yellow soap ; simmer up again, then strain and put in
bottles. ,
Working Nickel-plating Solution.-A nickel solu-
tion for plating is at its proper working strength
when it contains 1 lb. of nickel sulphate tu the gallon
of water. To maintain it at this strength attentiott
must be' paid, to the anodes and their condition.
As a rule, ^he surface of anodes exposed to the action
of the solution should exceed by one-half the sur-
face of the goods being plated. The anodes should
also freely dissolve in the solution, and therefore
should not be too hard. If nickel has been drawn froin
the solution too fast, it will be liable to bedome too
acid, and this condition may be ascertained by testing
it with blue lltinus ra,per, which will quickly redden it
acid is in excess. But a slight excess is'permissible
when plating iron and steel. An excess of acidity may
be corrected by adding a small quantity of liquid
ammonia; but an addition of nickel sulphate will be
required also it the normal strength of the solution has
been reduced. The hydroiiieter will show this reduc-
tion by comparing it with a sample of known correct
strength. The readings on the hydrometer scale
show the density of the solution, but not its tem-
perature. Nickel-plating solutions are always worked
cold.
Graining Walnut. — The ground colour for' walnut
graining is composed of 10 parts by weight of white-
lead, 2 parts of yellow ochre, I part of burnt umber,
and 1 part of patent driers, thinned with equal parts
of raw linseed oil and turpehtine. Let the work
stand for torty-eight hours after the ground has
been applied; then, with a lump of fuller's-earth and a
damp sponge, damp down the ground. Brush over the
panel with weak beer, burnt sienna, and a little vandyke
brown, mottle It with a mottler, and soften with
a badger. When dry, over-grain with a thin mixture of
Vandyke brown and weak beer, using the solution freely;
eihploy over-grainers of different sizes, and soften up-
wards. While this coat is still wet, add the dark veins
and curl with an over-grainer and drop bl^ck. When
the work is dry, glaze and shade with a mixture of
Vandyke brown and a little drop black. The panels
should be darker than the moulding. Before varnishing, ■
see iaiat the work is clean, paying special attention to
the quirks; see that all joints are sharp and clear. '
The varnish used should be of good quality, and mus.t
be applied on a dry day. If applied in wet weather it
will bloom.
Putty or Cement for GIass.~A cement or superior
putty for glass is the composition known as gliders'
putty, the constituent parts of which are whiting,
resin, glue, silver sand, and linseed oil ; it sets as hard
as metal, and can be moulded to any shape.
354
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
' Dry Flntes tliat can be Developed In Water,—
PhotoKi-ajJhic dry plates that can be developed ia water
contain- one of the develoijlng agents in a film ot gum
on the hack ot the plate. On placing the plate In a
speciUed quantity of water containing the alkali, the
gum dissolves, liberates the reducing agent, and de-
velopment commences. The process is recommended for
the use of tourists, so as to avoid the necessity for
cai'rj'ing developing materials; but it is doubtful
whethei' it possesses any advantages, as an accelerator
and a I'estrainer and a glass measure must be carried.
Tabloids are just as convenient, and probably more re-
liable, as the plates do not keep well rthe plates are pre-
pared as follows. Dissolve 100 gr. of pyro and 15 gr. of
salicylic acid in 2 dr. ot water and add 1 dr. of alcohol.
Dissolve ISOgr. of gum arable in 3 dr. of water. Mix the
two, and brush over the back ot the plates. About i dr.
should be used for each quarter-plate. Allow to dry
spontaneously. Expose as usual, and develop by immer-
sion in water containing two to three drops of strongest
liquor ammonia, "880 per ounce.
Side-tipping Waggon.— Fig. 1 is a perspective sketch
of a side-tipplng waggon for brickmakers' clay showing
the aiTangement by which the waggon is swung from
aHle heat, the metal Is poured Into moulds. If the brass
Is to be made into, sheet, it has to undergo a series of
annealings and rollings until the desired thinness is
attained. Below 16 given a short table of brass alloys : -
Name of Brass.
Copper.
Lead.
Tin.
ZiTio.
Bright malleable
70
30
Common
50
—
—
50
Common pale
50
6
4
40
Emerson's patent (light)
ete
—
33-3
English
67
1 -
—
32
Ditto
70-29
0-28
0-17
29-26
Pine pale (brittle)
53-38
;4-23
32-U
French
71-9
2
1
2.5-1
Pinchbeck
SO
20
Bed
83
17
Ditto
7a
28
Rolled
73
3
22
Sheet-metalworker's
62
1
37
Ditto
90
10
Ditto
92-7
2-7
4-6
Ditto
67
0-5
0-5
32
Ditto
65
35
Ditto
83
—
—
17
Tombac
88-8
5-55
White
10
—
10
80
Cleaning and Curling Feathers. — Fea.thers may
be cleaned by washing them in clean water, using
a soft cloth, and then absorbing the water with dry
plaster-of-Parls. Another ihethod is to wash them m
soap and water, followed by clean water, and then
by plaster. Or benzoline may be used, tiniahing with
plaster if desired. In extreme cases, use hot water
(steam is better), follow with turpentine, then with
benzoline, using plaster last. When quite clean, the
Jeathei-s may be curled by any of the following methods.
2.7
Fia 3
Side-tipplng Waggon.
Fig. 4
side to side. The sizes and measurements of these
waggons vary accordipg to the number of cubic feet of
earth they have to carry. The waggon illustrated is
about 33 in. long by 26 in. wide by 25 in. deep. The bolts on
which it swings are 18 in. in diameter, the space between
the two mid Jle bolts being 6J in. and the outer spaces
Win. These bolts rest on a 3-in. by 2-in. angle iron
riveted to two 4-in. by 2-in. channel irons. Fig. 2 shows
a swinging frame on which an ordinary waggon 33 in.
long by 26 in. wide by 12in. deep is run. Both frame and
waggon are tiijped up. The two bent-iron bars in the
middle catch over the axles, thus preventing the waggon
from falling out. Figs. 3 and i are, respectively, side and
end elevations with dimensions of the sheet-iron frame.
Brasses.— Brass is a general name tor alloys of copper
and zinc. The coloui- varies with the proportions of the
ingredients, though, strictly speaking, the term " brass "
can be applied only to those copper and zinc alloys of a
decided yellow colour. Ordinary brass is malleable and
ductile, especially suitable tor casting, and, though
harder than copper, melts at a lower temperature than
that metal. Unlaoquered brass quickly tarnishes under
atmospheric action. By one method of making brass,
the zinc and other ingredients are plunged into the
molten copper. When the whole is in a molten state, it
is stin-ed with hot brass or iron rods to produce ^a
thorough alloy i just previous to pouring, some sodium
sulphate or sodium carbonate is thrown on to the metal
to bring to the surlaoe^ any impurities, which may then
.be skimmed. By another method, copper slips are
f' ilunged into liquid zinc until an alloy difficult of fusion
B formed, when the rest of the copper is added. When
cold, the alloy is broken into pieced and melted under
charcoal, zinc or copper being added, if necessary, to
give the requisite colour and quality. When at a suit-
la) Place under ong of the barbs a blunt knife (a table-
or paper-knife) , the thumb being on the top to regulate
the pressure, and draw from the shaft outwards. Bach
of the barbs should be treated in this manner. This
methdd, though slow and tedious, is the best, (b)- Damp
the feathers and place them in hair-curling pins for a
couple of days. Then carefully comb out. (c) SUghtly
warra a goffering- or curling-iron, and curl the barbs in
batches. Shake well, (d) If merely damp and out of
jjurl, placing the feathers in front of a Are to dry will in
many cases re-curl them, (e) Black (dyed) feathers can
be curled by holdin g them for a few seconds in the smoke
ot a fire. No special tools are necessary, but the work
requires care and patience.
' Blackening Brass Pins.— Here is a method ot darken-
ing or blackening brass tacks and plus. Add to a solu-
tion ot copper sulphate (bluestone) a strong solution of
washing soda; allow this to settle, pour off the liquid,
and add a quantity of water equal to the liquid poured
off ; then allow to settle again. Then pour off as com-
pletely as possible, take the green sediment with four
times Its value in 'Water, heat to 140° F., and add
ammonia gradually until the articles immersed in it
assume the desired colour.
Wblte Paste for Canvas Shoes.— This is a recipe for
a white paste for canvas shoes. Scrtw)e some pipeclay
into a saucer, add a few pieces of oxalic acid and a very
small portion of washing blue, and then pour on warm
-water till the paste is of the required thickness. If a
paste of not quite such a dead white is desired, scrape
in a little buff-ball after the oxalic acid has dis-
solved. In usiug the paste, first it is well rubbed into
the shoes, and, when dry, rubbed out and then lightly
brushed.
355
INDEX.
(Illustrated Siibjects are denoted iy Asterisks.)
Acetate of Cellnlose, 259
Acetylene Gas, 2S2
Action on Burners, 262
, Bnnsen Burner for,
•22
— ^ Burners, Cleaning, 302
, Illuminating Power
of, 301
, Calcium Carbide for
Making, 28
Generator, *282
for Magic Lantern,
67
Acid Action on Gold" Bronze
Powders, 253
in Atmosphere, 309
-T — , Blackening Aluminium
with, 13
, Carbonic, Generator for,
•329
— , Chromic, 47
, ,' Electrolytic Method
of Preparing, 47
, Cleaning Bronze in, 30
for Embossing Glass, 107
Etching Alabaster, 240
Brass, 86
Copper, 140
Steel, 11, 82
, Hydrochloric, 342 v
, Muriatic, 342
, Nordhansen, 343
, ObscuringGlass with, 153
Pickle for Xxun-metal Cast-
ings, 97
, Picric, Preparing, 96
, , Uses of, 96
Solution, Standard, 86
, Succinic, in Amber, 339
, , — Oil of Amber, 334
- — , Sulphuric, 848
, , English Method of
Preparing, 343
, , ^eparing, at Nord-
hansen, 343.
— , , Specific Gravity of, 343
, , Valentine's Method of
Preparing, 343
, Tannic, 17
, Tartaric, 22
, White, for Glass Embossing,
107 ,
Acidity of Nickel Solution, Cor-
recting, 229
Actinometer (see Sensitometer)
Adamantine Spar, 187^
Adulteration of Milk, Detecting,
191
Aiirated Water Machine, *829
African Ivory, 262
After-damp Gas, 254
Agate, 363
, Cutting, 307, 337
, Polishing, 307, 337 •'
, Uses of, 353
^ — . Varieties of, 853
Air (sea also Atmosphere)
, Cooling, 109 ■
^ — Cracks in Plaster Walls, 69
Gun Construction, *256
, Mechanism of, *256
Pressure, 239 '
—^ 'Pump for Blow-lamp, •73
, Pure Dry, Composition of,
239
Space i;i Barracks, 239
Factories, 239
Hospitals, 239
Air Space in Lodging Houses,-
■ 239
■ Schools, 289
Workshops, 239
Vessels in Pumps, 97
, Watery Vapour in, 239
, Weighing, 348
, Weight of, 848
Alabaster, 240
, Cenjenting, 154
, Cements for, 240
, Cleaning, 240
, Colouring, 240
, Btclung, 240
, Imitation, 240
, , Cements for, 240
, , Cleaning, '240
■, , Colouring, 240
, , Etching, 240
, , Hardening, 240
, , Staining, 240
, , Working, 240
, Polishing, 154, 240, 271
, Saw for, 68
, Staining, 240
, Tools for Working, 240
, Working, 240, 271
AJarm, Electric, for Clock, 83,
»141. . ,
, , : Shop-door, 181
Alaska Diamonds, 76
Albatross, Stuffed, Cleaning Head
of, 186
Albert, Burnt - Gold, Restoring
, Colour of, 264
Albumenised Printing-out Paper,
46
Alcohol, 347
, Absolute, 347
, Amyl, 847
, Ethyl, 347
in Beer, 347
Brandy, 317
Gin, 347
Rum, 347
Whiskey, 347
Wine, 347
, Making, from Sugar, 34G
, Methyl, 347
, Proofi 347
, Propyl, 347
Rectified, 347
Alcoholic Solution of Gelatine,
228
Ale, Brewing, 169
Aleppo Galls, 211
Alkalt Solution, Standard, 86
Alkalies (see Potash, So^a, etc.)
Alkanet Root, Colouring Oil with,
41
Alloys of Antimony, 351
, Brass, 354 '
, Bronze, 363
, Gold,- Colouring, 36, 46, 64
Altar, Private, 'lOO
Alumina Soap, 80
■ ,Wa1ierprooflng' Fabrics
with, 80
Aluminium, 341
, Acid and Arsenic Bronze
for Blackening, 13
, Blackening, 13
Bronze, 353
— ^ Compounds, 341
, Copper-plating, 300
, Cowles Method of Pro-
ducing, 341
, Frosting, 314
Furnace, 218
-r , Fuel for, 218
Aluminium, Gold-platiiig, 800
— '-, Hall Method of Produciue,
341
, Herault Method of Produc-
ing, 341
, Lanseigne and Leblanc's
Baths for Plating, 300
■ '■ Leaves, 341
■ , Malleability of, 341
, Matting or Frosting, 314
, Melting Point of, 341
, NickeUpiating, 300
Ores, 341
, Reducing, 341
, Pojishing, 314
, Silvertplating, 300
, Soldering, 164, 174
, Solders for, 164, 174
, Specific Gravity of, 341
, Tensile Strength of, 341
, Thermo-electric Properties
of, 90
Amber, 339
, Bleaching, 323
, Distinguishing, from Arti-
ficial Amber, 339
, , — - Fossil Copal, 339
_ — , Drilling,. 339
, blleetrical Properties of, 339
, Fat, 339
, Melting Point of, 339
Oil, 334
, Artificial Musk made
from, 334
— ■ Distillates, Bleaching,
334
-^ , Distilling, 334
, Succinic Acid in, '334
Pipe Mouthpiece Cement-
ing, 166, 268
, Polishing, 339
, Resins in, 339
, Sawing, 339
Soft Soap, 329
, Solvent for, 323, 339
, Specific Gravity of, 339
, Succinic Acid in, 339
.Tapping, 339
, Testing, 339
— — Varnish, 328
, Working, 339'
, -i — , in Lathe, 339
Amber- coloured 'Liqaid for
Chemists' Show Bottles, 13.
American Breast Cdllarfor Horse,
162 • ■
Clock Pallets, Testing, 242
■ Striking Wrong, 276
Koumiss, 343
Organ (see Organ)
Potash, 170
Bed Pine, Strength of, 160
, Weight of, 150
Roll-top Desk, Roll-shutter
for, •291
Amfethyst, Artificial, 76
, Cutting and Polishing, 337
Amianthus Asbestos, 303
Ammonia, 270
Killing-bottle for Insects,
81
Soap, 202
Sulphate, 187
Ammonium Tartrate, 262
Ampfere-turn, 150
Amyl Alcohol, 347
Anaglypta, Affixing, to Ceilings
and Walls, 148
Aneroid Barometer, Taking
Heights with, 336
Angle Zinc, 97
Angler's Folding Stool, •21
Anglesite an Ore of Lead, 352
Aniline Colours, Dyeing Pampas
Grass with, 12
,. Using, in Ink, 74, 97,
108, 212, 223, 225, 238
Animals' Heads, Modelling, in
Papier MS,ehe, 65
Skulls, Bleaching, 286
, Skeletonising, 28, 286
Annealed Brass, Cleaning, 116
Antelope Horns, Removing Cores
Iron], 281
Antimony, 351
, Alloys of, 861
, Impurities of, 351
, Melting Point of, 861
Ore, 361
, Reducing, 351
, Specific Gravity of, 361
, Thermo-electric Properties
of, 90
Antique Bronze, 353
Antlers, Stags', Cleaning, 77
, , Mounting, '*7'r
, , Mounts for, *77
,Ants, Ridding House of, '170
Apjile-scoop, Bone, *47
Aquafortis, Cleaning Bronze in,
30
Aquamarine, Cutting and Polish-
ing, 337
Aquarium (see also Fish Tank)
Cements, 218,
Construction, Angle Zinc
for, 'J7
Shells, 1 Cleaning Growths
from, 65
Top, Pattern for, '118
Arabian Lebau, Yaourt, or Kou-
miss, 348
Arbour Design, '*147
Arc, Determining Centre of, ^172
■ , Length of, *227
Arc Lamp Carbons, 264
, Hand Feed, for Por-
traiture, *344
Lamps, Illuminating Powers
of, 301
Arch, Brick, Centering for, '•'155
, , Strength of. 278 '
, Cirele-on-Circle,- Centre for,
•171
, Elliptic, *201, *211
, Gothic, •196
, Gauged,. Charging for, 236
, , Measuring for, •235
, Return Bead !Ronnd, *i58
, Semi-elliptic, ^209
. Working Mouldings on, *146
ArcliangelWliitewood, 315
Architects' Perspective Draw-
ings, 'isa
Architectural Drawings, Colour-
ing, 122 .
Photography, Camera Swing
Back in, 338
'Argon, 239
Arkansas Oilstone, 246
Armchair, Spring Seat in, ♦330
Arsenic Bronze, 13
, Removing, from Zinc, 294
Soap, 217
sulphide, 291
Art Print Blinds, Cutting, 47
Artificial (see also Imitation)
— — Amber, Distinguishing, from
Real, 330
Gems, 76
?56
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
Aitiflcial Musk from Amber Oil,
884
Oilstone, 2'.)4
' Stone Cement, 221
Tepth, Mechanical Plates for,
249
, Vulcanite Plates for,
168
Artiticially Seasoning Small
Lumber, *1G7
Artists' Black, 2^V
Canvas, Sticking^ to MiU-
Board, 104
Asbestos, 803
, Amianthus, 303
, Blue, 303
, Fossil-flax, 303
, Fossil-paper, 303
, Mining, 303
, Mountain-leather, 303
, Mountain-wooJ, 303
Paste, Applying, 2S6
, Eock-cork, 303
, Bock-leather, 303
■ , Book-wooa, 303
Ash Grey Bronze, 353
■ Wood, Strength of, 150
, Weight of, 160
Ashburton Marble, 292
Ashes, Separal:ing Gold from, 64
, • Metals fiom, 64
Asphalt, Damp-proof Coui"se, 143,
168, 259
■^— , Mastic, for Laying Wood-
block Floors, 245
, Soot Black made from, 25n
Assembly-room Floor, Rolled
Joints for, *217
Astragal Joint, Plumber's, 247
Astragals, Soldering, on Lead
Soil Pipes, 172
Atmosphere (see also Air)
, Acid-laden, 309
, Agreeable, Humidity of,
289
, , Temperature of, 239
, Argon in, 239
, Carbon Dioxide or Carbonic
. Acid in, 239
— — , Constituent Parts of, 230
, Impurities in, 239
Augers, Teraperiug, 310
Augite in Basalt, 256
Aunt Sally Gallery, 145
Aurora Pearl, 279
Austrian Gunpowder, 346
Auto-copyist Process, 216
Autograph Door Curtain, *110
Moulds for Rubber Stamps,
89
Automatic Sewage Filter, *203
Axed Granite, 205, 245, 282
Axes for Face-working Granite,
"205, •238, 245, •282
, Patent, for Granite, ♦205,
•238, 245, 282
, , Sharpening, 245
, Tempering; 310
Axle Arms, Hardening, 163
Boxes, Hardening, 163
, Machine for Withdraw-
ing, from Wheels, •126
Tree of Cart, Length of, 277
, Vehicle, Case-hardening, 60
, 1 Forging, 66
Baby's Cradle, Stand for, •41
• — - Swing, ^206
Backgrounds used in Photo-
-graphy, 112, 203, 211
Bacoif Cuttings, Converting, to
Soap, 113
Bacterial Filters for Sewage, 321
Treatment of Sewage, 321
Bu'lger Skin, Cleaning, 244
Bag Changing Box for Camera,
•283
, Sailor's Canvas, 176
Bags, Coal, Waterproollng, 199
Bakers' OVens, Steaming, 217
Steam-heated Ovens, ^37
Balance, Clock, Counting Vibra-
tions of, 298
Balance, Drum Clock, Re-pointing
Pivots of, 285
, Watch, Poising, 802
Balanced or Dancing Steps, •ITT
Balance-staff of Watch, Putting,
New Pivot in, 26S
Bald Wig, Theatrical, 19, 307
Ball Clay for White Enamel, 29
Ballast, Clay, Burning, 59
Balls, Billiard (see Billiard)
, Cast-iron, Weight of, 107
, Cutting Wooden, Inside
another Ball, '320
, Glass, Smoothing, 117
, Golf, 21
, Hollow Wooden, •325
or Spheres, Determining
Contents of, 173 ■
Balsam, Canada, 57
, , as Glass Cement, 61
Baltic Oak, Strength of, 160
, Weight of, 160
Redwood, 315
Balusters, Finishing, in Green and
Bronze, 62
Baiuboo Bedstead, ^46
Cabinet, ^182
Camera Stand, *886
Caney, Staining, 34
-- — Joints, Pilling in, 263
Newspaper Rack, •123, ^134
Rocking Chair, '237
Table-top, Fastening Legs to,
•128
Bait, Fishing, Pastes for, 198
, Preserving Roach as, 270
Bands, Straw, 809
, , Jenny for Twisting,
809
, , Twisting Hook for,
•309
Band-saw, Brazmg, 100, *272
, Broken, Use for, 166
, Sharpening, 185
"Wheels, Attaching Leather
to, 262"
Banjo, Fitting Worm Screws to,
•115 ^
, Fretting, 116, 216
Vellum, Preparing, from
Calf Skin, 844
Banner Tassels of Silk, *274
Bar Burnisher for Photographs,
298
, Lujiricant for use with,
298
Barber's Chair, Fitting Windsor
Chair as, ^98
Shaving Pastes, 45, 260
Worn Lather Brush, Use for,
67
BardUla Marble, 292
, Polishing, 125
Bark of Ivory Tusk, 262
Barley, Making Malt from, 187
Barn, Dutch, •182
Barometer, Aneroid, Taking
Heights with, 836
, Fitzroy, 274
, Mercurial, Reading, 226
— -, ■, Re-filling, 11
- — , , Regulating, 226
Barracks, Air Space in, 239
, Floor Space in, 239
Barrel Arbor, Pitting, to Watch,
332
Heads of Scroll-irons, 56
of Lever Watch, Correcting,
346
Barrels, Gun, Boring, 886
, , Soldering Catch on,
843
, Paraffin, Cleaning, 58
, , converted to Water
Butts, 68
, Rifle, Bluing, 192
, , Flux used in Solder-
ing, 48
— ■ , , Soldering, 48
Barrow Wheel, Setting out Frame
of. ^32
Barrows, Small, •176, •216
Bars of Soap, Making, 121
Basalt, 256
— — , Minerals in, 256
, Olivine in, 256
Basement of House, Damp Walls
in, 218
Basin, Broken Wa3hhand,Cement-
iug, 232
, Water-closet, Cleaning, 50
Baskets, Oval, Repairing, •809
for Single-sticks, '308
, Square, Repairing, ^809
, Staining, 315
, Stains for, 315
,Wi''kerwork, Crystals on, 124
Basket-sticks, ^808
Bate's Saccharometer, 161
Bath for Ferrotype Photography,
•807
, Photographic (see Photo-
graphic)
, Re-enamelling, 86
, Swimming, Colouring Bot-
tom of, 204
Top, Re-polishing, 134
, Vapour, Stove for, 327
Bathroom Mirror, *186
Bath-stone, 309
, Painting, 69
, Preserving Colour of, 59
, Saw for, 68
, Treating, with Pluate and
Szerelmey Liquids, 59
Batter of Wall, 262
Battery Carbons, 264
Bauxite, Reducing, for Alu-
minium, 341
Bays, Lead, for Ogee Roof, •280
Beading Spindle for Woodwork-
idg Lathe, •288
Readings, Running Beturn,Raund
Arch, •168
, Scratch Planefor, *168
Beads, Glass, Making, 41
Beadwork, Cabinet or Workbox
for, ^49
Beam, Calculating Strength of, 144
Compasses, '321
, Flitched, Strength of, •162
Beaum6 Hydrometer Degrees
compared with Specific Grav-
ities, 150
Beatimontage- Inlay for Mando-
lines, 268 ■
Bed-rest for Invalid, •ISQ
Bedroom Table, •86
Bedstead, Bamboo, '46
Brasswork, Lacquering, 59
, Removing Lacquer
from, 69
— ^ , Renovating, 69, 132
, Child's, ^70
, Doll's, ^70
-^ Fixing Wood Tester Head
to, •lOS
, Paints for, 69
— 7, Removing Paint from, 69
, Repainting, 69
, Stove-enamelling, 59
, Wooden, *70, ^273
Beech, Strength of, 160
, Weight of, 160
Beer, Alcohol in, 847
; Brewing Ale, 169
, Cooling, 838
, Dandelion, 888
, Ginger, 338
, Herb, 838
, Nettle, 338
, SarsapariUa, 91, 838
Beet Treacle, Alcohol, made
from, 847
Beetles, Setting, 226, 248
Belgian Black Marble, 292
Fossil Marble, 292
Grand Antique Marble, 292
T Marble, 292
Bellande's Indelible Writing Ink,
288
Bellows, Conical, of Camera, '276
Belt Rack for Tent Pole, '260
Belts, Leather, Cement for Join-
ing, 97, 263
, , Power transmitted
by, ^99
Bench for Circular Saw, •286
, Stump, ^54
Bending Boat Ribs, 81
Brass Tubes, 14, 276, 316
— , Machine for, •286,
•316
Wire, 316
Copper Pipes, 185
Landau Panels, 27
Bending Ribs of Small Boat, 81
■ Wood for Rackets, 167
by Steam, •lOT
Bending-block for Railway Coup-
ling Shackles;, 'e?
Bent-wood Furniture, Blacken-
ing, 316
, Renovating, 816
Benzene, Cleaning Articles with,
119, 124, 164, 181, 186, 216,
286, 348
, Preparation of, 386
, Uses of, 336
Wax, 296
Benzoline (see Benzene, above)
Berries, Preserving, 68
Beryl, Cutting, 337
, Polishing, 337
Bevel Set-square, ♦160
Bevelled Stock Hoops, •252
Bevelling Frames, *2T0
Glass, Wheels for, ^314
•Plaie Glass, 119
Bevels for Hip Rafters, *57
Hips to Semi-octagonal
Lantern Light, ^198
Joints of Oval Cask,
•66
Rafters, Taking off, *\m
Bianco e Vero Antico Marble, 292
Bicarbonate of Soda, 318
Bicycle (see Cycle)
Bicycles, Shed for Storing,' ^170
Bier Stand for Mortuary, •73
Billiard Balls, Stains for, 818
- Chalks, Blue, 169
, Green, 169
Table Corner, •153
Billposters' Pastes, 234
Binding Lantern Slides, 11
Bindings, .Fish Hook, Varnish
for, 183
, •. Wax for, 183
Binoxalate of Potash Stains,
Removing, from Clothes, 338
Biotite Mica, 41
Birch Chairs, Re-polishing, 199
Bird Cages, '169, *223
Cases, Imitation Earth foE^
178
Room, Warming, •202
— i — Skills, Preservative for, 44
-, Relaxing, 168, 180
, Stuffed, Cleaning, 1S6
Birdlime, 206
Birds' Eggs, Glass Blowpipes for
Blowing, 311
Bird's Bye Marble,, 292
Birmingham Wire Gauge, 361
Biscuit Ware, Underglaze Colours
for, 168
Bismuth, NBemoving, from Zinc,
294
, Thermo-electric Properties
of, 90
Black and Gold Marble, 292
• ■ Oi'naments, 314
Bottle Waxes, 15
-^-Bronze for Iron, 308
— r, Brunswick, Removing, 141
Canvas Shoes, Re-dyeing,
255
China Ink, 247
Cloth, Removing Grease
Stains from, 315
. Tar from, 348
Copying Inks, 220
Crayons, 16, 67
Drawing Inks, 247
Enamel for Ferrotype
Plates, 268
, Stoving, 268
Fillings for Headstones, 164
Mandolines, 268
— :- - — ■ Steel Castings, 296
• for Camera Interior, 106
French Polish, 314
, Gas, 313
, Glossy, for Plumbers, 826
Harness Oil, 247
Polish, 238
Inks (SCO Ink)
Inlay for JIandolines, 268
, Ivory, 104
Lamp (/,&& Lampblack)
Marble, Polishing, 281
Marking Inks, 215
Mica, 221
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
357
Black, Oil, 250
Paint for Glass, 130
Trunks, 38
. Paints, Cheap, 126
- Folisli for Mirror Frames,'
183
Shop Fittings, 183
, Soot, 250
— - Stain for Billiard Balls, 318
Wood, 164)
Stencil Inks, 218
Ticket Ink, lar
Typewriter Inks, 74
Varnish, 314
^— for. Grates, 313
Straw Hats, 50
, Vegetable, 195
—^ Vein Mnrble, 292
Writing Inks, 212
Slackboard, Characteristics of
Good, 230
: — Dressings, '68, 230
, Filling Cracks in, 81
, Re-dressing, 230
BlacKdamp Gas, 254
Blackening Aluminium, 13
, Acid and Arsenic
Bronzs for, 13
Bent^wood Furniture, 316
Brass, 55, 125
Buttons, 119
' • Pins and Tacks, 354
Brown Boots, 43
Carriage Ironwork, 301
, J^apans for, 301
Face, Composition for, 265
• Iron, 308, SSO
Jaunting Car Ironwork, 302
Letters nn Headstone, 213
Nickel, 28.8
' SQver by burning Gas, 42
Standard Lamp, 330
Thermometer Scales, 37
Blacking, Paste, 333
, Self-polishing, 105
Black-jack Zinc Ore, 335
, Reducing, 335
. Blades, Steel, Etching on, 11
Blanco, , Cleaning- White Boots
with, 233
ipieaching. Amber, 323
> ' ■■'-^ Oil Bistillates, 334
, Animals' Skulls, 288
Bone Grease, 152
■ — ■ Bones, 286
' Damp-stained Marble, 67
Floor Boards, 31
Fluid, Filtering, 300
- — Ink Stains (see Ink Stains)
Ivory, 251, 262, 280
Linseed Oil, 32S
— r- Marble, 67, '335
, ■ Negative, 306
Ostrich Feathers, 257
Piano Keys, 310
■ — Palp Cane, 213
Skulls of Animals, 286
Straw, 23
Weather-stained Marble, 335
Blende and its Reduction, ^5
Blinds, Art Print, Gutting, 47
, Cloth for, 47
— -, Lettering, 310
, Linen, Cutting, 4T
of Pliotographic Studio, 323
, Venetian, Colouring, 241
, -J— , Painting, 162, 241
■ , , Removing Old Paint
from, 172
, , Varnish Green for,
241
, , Yellow Stain for, -66
, Wire, Frames for, *64
, , Gilding, 214
^ 1 ; — ■-, Gold Lettering on, 176
, T — , Painting, 214, SOS
, — — , Repairing, 308
Blindstitoliing Hair Mattress,
■■•207
Blisters on Paint, 20, 30, 83
Block, Scribing, •144
' , , Clip for, *156
used in Photographing
Cyclist, •337
Blocking Oat on Glass Positive,
319
Block-lettering, Tools for En-
graving, 79
Blocks, Floor, Cutting, with Cir-
cular Saw, *3S0
for Hollowing Tin-plate, 71
Bloodstone, Cutting and Polish-
ing, 837
Blowholes in Iron Castings,
Cement for, 68
Blowing Pah for Forge, •319
Organs, Water Motor for,
•342
Blow-lamp, Paraffin, •171
, , Air Pump for, *78
Blowpipe, Glass, for Eggs, 311
, Paraffin, Reservpir for, •323
Blue Asbestos, 303
1 Beige Marljle, 292
Billiard Chalk, 169
■; Colour itt Nickel, 210
Crayons, 15
Dye, 245
Grease Paint, 343
! , Indigo, 194
— - Inks, 213
— '- Liquid for Chemists' Show
Bottles, 13, 293
■ Luminous Paint, 263
Mottled Soap, 245
Photographs, 140, 201
, Prussian, 195, 300
, Soluble Prussian, 41
Stain for Alabaster, 240
Billiard Balls, 318
Varnish for Straw Hats, 50
Writing Inks, 213
Blue-black Writing Inks, 211
Bluing Rifle BarreW, 192
Boaru, Window,- for Flower Pots,
•326
Boards, Black (see Blackboard)
, Drawing, Stretching Paper
' on, 236
, , White Ground for, 91
, Floor, Bleaching, 31
, , Dry Rot in, 26
, , Removing Ink Stains
from, 165
, -^, Paint from,, 31
, , Tightening up, *119
, Pitch-pine, Cutting, *15
Boat, Collapsible, 228
, Coppering, 89
Cover, Converting Sail to,
169
, Gilding Lines on, 109
Models, Copper-plating, 63
, White Coatihg for, 97
, Repairing Hole in, 89
Ribs, Bending, 81
, Fitting, 81
■ Sail, Converting, to Water-
proof Cover, 169
,, Removing Mulberry
Stains from, 216
, Tacking Copper on, 89
, Wood for, 81
Bodv-horse for Coach-painter's
Use, 191
Boeh?,n System of Fingering for
Wind Instruments, *152
Boiled Linseed Oil, Distinguish-
ing, from Raw, 243
' for Damp-proofing
Walls, 86
Boilei-, " Boot," Safety Valve of,
240
, , Steam Cpoking with,
*174
, Egg-ended, Determining
Contents of, •173
, Fusible Plugs for, 42
, Heat-resisting Covering for,
120
for Heating Cucumber
House, 85
, kitchen. Leaky Tap and
Joint of, 202
, , Preventing Bust in,
142
, Model Locomotive, Work-
ing Pressure of, 181
Plates, Rivets for, 167
— -, Saddle-shaped, Pattern for,
■ •56
Shell, Applying Asbestos
Paste to, 28«
System for Steam Cooking,
•174
, Vertical, Grate Area of, 16
Boilers, Copper Range, 96
, Lancashire, Chimney Shafts
for, 149
, Two, fitted to one Hot-
water Cylinder, 124
' used in Glue Making, 48
Boiling Point of Water, 336
Water ip 6-gallon Tank, •200
Bollards, Mooring, Fixing, 83
Bolt, Square, Proportions of, 102
Bolt-heads, 'VVhitworth, 100
Bone and Ivory, Diff'erence Be-
tween, 262
Apple-scoop, ^47
as Substitute for Ivory, 262
, Bleaching, 286
Grease, Bleaching, 152
, Removing Ink Stains from,
62
Bookbinders' Paste, 234, 235
Book-rack, •229 ^
Book-rest, Portable, *172
, Table, •114
Books, Disinfecting, 139
, Gold-veining Edges of, 112
Boot {seftalso Shoes)
Blacking) Paste, 333
— - Blacking, Self-polishing, 105
Bottoms, Browning, 23
., Buff Balling, 62
, Brown, Blackening, 43
, Calf Kid, Polish for, 353
, Canvas, White Paste for,
354
, -, Cleaning, 190
, , Darkening, 117
, , Polishing, 190
, , Paste for, 78
, , Removing Vasteline
Stains from, 215
Clicker's Knife, Sharpening,
247
Cracking and Creasing Across
Toes, ,60
Edges, Brown, Stain for, 85
Finishing Irons, Cutting, 63
, French Cork, *17
Making: Attaching Bristle
to Waxed Thread; »104
-^ Rack, '313
~ — , Removing Varnish from,' 22
Shop, Double Seats for, ^144
- Size for Kip Work, 228
, White, Blanco for Cleaning,
233
-, -^— Buckskin, Cleaning,
224
, Canvas, Cleaning, 233
"Boot" Boiler for Steam Cook-
ing, •174
r , Safety Valve of, 240
Bootmaker's Paste, 235
Boraeic or Borax Soap, 300
Boring (see also Drilling)
Bricks, 131
Ebonite, 306
•- G^S, 106. 294
Gun Barrels, 336
— ,- Metals, Speed for, 109
Vulcanite, 306
Borings Cement, 11
Bort Diamonds, 293
Bottle Capping Mixtures, 15
, Corks, Protecting, from
Chemical' Action, 278
: — , Waxing, 278
, Glass, Cutting, 233
, Oil, Cleaning, 3l4,
Bottles, Chemists' Show, Colour-
ed Liquids for, 13, 293
Bow, Violin, Re-hairing, '214
Bowls, Playing, Cleaning, 234
, , Staining, 234
Box, Flower, for Window, •Sll
Gutters on Roofs, 313
for Jewels (see Jewel Case)
OU Colours, •190
Stump Moulding, •54
Hot, for Negatives and
Lantern Slides, *26
, Letter, in Tin-plate, *291
, Money, '42
Musical, connected to
Striking Clock, 336
, Oval- top Wooden, *266
Boxes, Axle, Hardening, 163
.Gauge, for'Compo., *167
Boxe^, Pill, Grease-proofing, S34
, Stencil Plates for Maiildng.
•82
Box-hardening Wrought-iron, 213
Boxing Out Cart Panels, 248
Boxing-routers, *243
Box's. Formula for Water-dia-
cliarge of Pipe, 69
Box-sextant for Surveying, •92
Brackets, Cantilever, •260
Gas, Bronzing, 61
, Dead Dipping, Gl
, Dipping, 61
, Finishing, 61
Leatberwork, Cleaning, 07
Moulding Edges of, *78
Ornamental, '278
Braid, Gold, Cleaning, 190
Brake Block for Railway WagoPL
•303
Branding Ink, 35
Brandy, Quantity of Alcohol in,
347
Brass, 354
, Blackening, 65, 119, 125
Brackets, Bronzing, 61
~, Dead Dipping, 6]
, DippinK, 61
, Finishing, 61
-, Brazing, 60
, , Spelter for, 60
, Breaking Stresses of, 163
, Briglit Malleable, 354
, Bronzing, 61, 125
, Burnishing, 103
— — Buttons, Blackening, 119
Candlesticks, Lacquering,
87
■ ■ Casting, Moulds for, 60, 271,
807
• Cells for Optical Work, ^48
Chains, Gilding, 351
— -, Cleaning, 108 .
, , after Annealing, 116
Clock Dials, Polishing, 345
, Re-silvering, 345
, Collars, Cementing, on
' Lamps, 253
'■ — , Removing, from Glas.s-
ware, 119
, Common, 364
^-, Pale, 364
Curtain-poles, Bending, 14
Dog-collar, •22
, Emerson's Patent, 354
, English, 354
, Etching, 145
, , Solutions for, 86
, Pine Pale, 354
, French, 364
Gas-brackets (see Brass
Brackets, above)
Gas-cocks, Casting, *51
, Finishing, 51
, Gilding Liquid for Dipping,
209
^, Gold Lacquer for, 268
Kettle, Removing VstA
from, 178
, Lacquer for, 277
, Lacquered, Cleaning, 251 '
, , Renovating, 251
, Lacquering, 139, 208, 277
, , Stove for, 277
Money Box, *42
, Moulds for Casting, 60, 271
Musical Instruments, Loosen-
ing Slides ot, 228
, Removing, Dentu
fromj 168, 251
'- , Solder for Brazing,
200
-, — , Oxidising, 65
■ , Pinchback, 364
— — Pius, Blackening, 354
, Polishing, 251
, Composition for, S3
, Pouring, 277
, Red, 354
, Re-lacquering, 103, 251
Bepouss^ Work, 214
^ — Rims, Cementing, on Lamps,
253
, Removing, from Glass-
ware, 119
Rings, Making, 816
, Rolled, 354
, Rotted, 283
358
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
Bmss Screw-beads, Polishing,
SIO
, Slieet, 354
, blieet-luetal Worker's, 354
, Silvering, 85
Spelter, CO
' — , Powdering, 175
, Stove used in Laequering,277
- — Table-lamp, *212
■ — — Tacks, IBlacl^ening, 354
■ Tap of Range, Fixing, 151
, Tinning, 140
. , Tombac, 354
Tube Drill for Glass, 294
Tubes, Bending, 14, 2Tli, 316
■, Machine for Bending,
"286, "Sie
■, PolishiBg, by Hand
Floating, 5S
, , Mops for, 58
, , on Emery Wheel,
53
•, White, 354
Wire as Brazing Spelter, 311
■ , Bending, 316
, Botted, 283
Brassfounding, Stump Moulding
in, 36, "54
Brassing Zinc, 247
Brass-plating Solutions, 18, 165
Brasswork of Bedstead, Re-
lacquering, 59
— , Removing Lacquer
from, 59
, Renovating, 69,
132
Bray's Burners, Gas Consump-
tion of, 297
Brazilian Topaz, Cutting and
Polishing, 337
Bi'aiing, 311
Bandsaws, 100, •272
■ Brass, 00
, Spelter for. 00
, ■ — - Wire for, 311
Feet on Copper Watch-dials,
' 272
Iron, 60
— 7 , Spelter for, 60
• Key Stems, •311
Musical Instruments, Solder
for, 200
Silver Pipe-mounts, 29
, Solder used in, 29, 275
Steel, 236
, Solder for, 236
with Silver Solder, 29, 276
Bread Ovens, Decker, '*37
Breast Collar, American, for
Horse, 162
Breccia Sanguina Marble, 292
BrJche Portor Marble, 292
St. Antonin Marble, 292
Breeding Cage for Small Birds,
•223
Brewing (see Beer)
Brick Arch, Centering for, *155
, Strength of, •278
KUn, •175
Brickmaker's Side-tipping Wag-
gon, 354
Brick-paved Floor, Covering,
with Concrete, 91
Bricks, Blue, Clay for Making,
86
- — , , Damp-proof Course of,
269
, Boring Holes in, 131
, Dinas, 30
for Furnace Cupola, 30
, Canister, 30
, Lowood, 30
, Red Facing, 261
BrickwoiOc, Damp Preventives
for, 84, 86
■ , Fixing Marble to, 67
for Tall Chimney, 149
, Hoop-iron Bond for, 127
, Model, Clock-stand in, *149
, Mortar for Pointing, 30, 116,
127, 241
— — , Oxide Paint for, 170
, Portland Cement for Point-
ing, 344
• — , Preparing, for Painting,
170
, Re-colouring, 127
, Tuck-pointing, 'US, 127
Bristle, Attaching, to Waxed
Thread, •104
Britannia Metal, Soldering, 276
BrltishAssociationScrew-tlireads,
81
Brocatelle Jaune Marble, 292
— - Violette Marble, 292
Bromide Enlargements, Working
up, 174
- — Print, Burnishing, 217
■ , Mounting, 217
Solution, Applying, to
Paper, •166
Bronze, 353
;, Aluminium, 353
, Antique, 353
, Arsenic, 13
, Ash Grey, 353
, Bluish Bed, 353
Chandelier, Cleaning, 30
, Cleaning, in Aquafortis, 30
, Dark 6rey,,353
, Fontaine Moreau's, 353
, Gilding Liquid for Dipping,
209
, Gilt, Cleaning, 341
, Hard, 363
Ornaments, Renovating, 347
Powders, 1 16, 253
,' Action of Acids on,
253
, Applying, 110, 121
, Pulverised Mica as,
115
, Reddish Yellow, 353
, Statuary, 363
, Whitisli, 353
Bronze-green Paint, 62
Bronzes, Colouring, 112
, Imitation, Colouring, 112
, , Renovating, 129
Bronzing Balusters, 62
• ■ Brass, 61 , 125
Cordelova Frieze, 42
, Electro-, Solution for, 2T4
' Gas Brackets, 61
Imitation Plaster Frieze, 42
Iron, SOS
Lead, 277
Metal Vessels, 24
Solution for Ornaments, 347
Stair Balusters, 62
Zinc, 247
Brooches, Cementing and Solder-
ing Catches on, 163, 177
, Gold Wire, 69
, Repairing, 177
Brougham (see also Landau,
Carriage, Cart, etc.)
Panels, Polishing, 109
Under-carriage Compassed
Bed, Pattern for, ^79
, Testing, •70
Brown Boots, Blackening, 43
, Cleaning, 190
, Darkening, 117
, Polishing, 190
, Paste for, 78
, Removing Vaseline
Stains from, 216
Crayons, 16
Grease Paint, 343
Kid Gloves, Cleaning, 198
Portland Cement, 313
Stain for Alabastel*, 240
-^ Billiard Balls, 318
■ Straw, Bleaching, 23
, Vandyke, 196
Varnish for Straw Hats, 50
Browne & Sharpe's Wire Gauge,
351
Browning Boot Bottoms, 23
Bruises, Embrocation for, 247
~ in Bra^s Instruments, Re-
moving, 168, 251
Brunswick Black, Removing, 141
Brush for Enamel Paint, 67
French-polish, 238
Marks In Enamelling, 49
Polish for American Organ,
109
Back, •206, 'SSI
Brushing-out Method of Emboss-
ing Glass, 243
Buchner's Carmine Ink, 22S
Bucket as Photographic Print
Washer, 154
, Putting Copper Hoop on, 45
Buckled Copper, Flattening, 106
Buckskin Boots, White, Clean-
ing, 224 '
Butf Leather Gaiters, Cleaning,
103
Bntr-balling Boot Buttons, 62
Bull's for Polishing Metal, 24
Bugs, Ridding House of, 226
Builder's Level, ^27
Trestle, •814
Building Stone (see Stone)
Buildings, Damp-proof Courses
in (see Damp-proof Course)
•, Measuring, 209
, Painting Oompo. Work on,
143
, Sham Timber, *142
, Timber-framed, 128
, Warming, 85. 89, 91, 146,
•173, *202, 208, •228, '236
BiUloek Horns, Polishing, 302
Bunsen Burner for Acetylene
Gas, 22
: compared with Flat-flame
Burners, 92
Burners, Acetylene, Cleaning, 302
, , Illuminating Power
of, 302
, Bray's, Gas Consumption
of, 297
, Bunsen (see Bunsen, above)
, Incandescent, 269
, , Illuminating Powers
of, 301
, , for Oil, •151 ,
jMultiple Wick Oil, Illuminat-
ing Powers of, 301
, Oil Lamp, Cleaning, 319
, Welsbach, Gas Consump-
tion of, 297
, , Using, 22
Burning Clay Ballast, 69
Lead Flashings into Stdue-
work, '229
Seams with Hydrogen,
553
Limestone, 120
Burnisher for Silver Pipe-mounts,
•29
, Photograph, 261, 298
Burnisliin'g (see also Polishing
and Glazing)'
Brass, 103
Bromide Print, 217
Photograph, 251, 298
, Lubricator for, 251, 298
Burnt Cork for Blackening Face,
266
— - Gold, Restoring Colour of,
264
Sienna, 194
Umber, 194
'Bus Under-carriage, •231
Bust (see also Bronzes and
Figures)
, Plaster, Cleaning, 144
Butt, Water, Converting Paraffin
Barrel to, 68
— -, , Disinfecting, 201
Butter, Preserving, 202
Butterflies, Cases for, •SOO
, Killing, 81, 806
, lailing-bottles toi; 72, SI
, Paper Envelopes for, •306
, Preserving, 72, 213
, Relaxing, 72
, Setting, 72
, Setting-boards for, 72, 213
, Tweezers for Holding, 72
Buttoning Pony Cart Cushions,
303
Upholstered Chair Backs,
244
Buttons, Brass, Blackening, 119
Cabinet, Bamboo, •132
tor Beadwork, •49
, Scent, combined with Jewel
Box, '199
Work, Chinese Lacquer, 37
, Inlaying Stringing in,
•164
, Panelled Dobrsin, '286
Cabinet-maker's Steel Scrapori'
Sharpening, ?134
Cables, Seven-stranded BleotrlS,
Jointing, 79
, Stranded Wire, Calculating
Weiglit of, 66
Cadoret's Textiloid, 98
Cages, Birr], *169, '223
Calamine Zinc Ore; 335
Calcined Lampblack for Paper
Making, 250
Calcining Lampblack, 250
Gypsum or Plaster-of-Paris,
17
Calcium Carbide (see also Acety-
lene)
, 28
, Electric Furnace for, 28
Calf Kid Boots, Polish for, 353
Skin, Chrome Tanning, 34
, Preparing Banjo Vel-
lum from, 344
Calico, Distemper Paint for, 262
, Flatting Colour for, 252
, Printing Photographs on, 87
Callipers, Washers for, 331
Calomel, 189
■ Paper for Indelible Writing,
238
Cameo Cutting, 192
Camera, Bag Changing Box for,
•283
Bellows, Conical, •276
, Carrying, on Cycle, SO
, Changing Plates in, •175,
•283
, Copying Negatives in, 11,*95
, Double Repeating Back for,
•23
for Enlarging, '275
, Ferrotype, 252
, Fitted Focus Hand, Enlarg-
ing with, *121
, Folding Hand, •220
^--- for Stereoscopic Photo-
graphy, *22
, Hand, •322
, — ., Bamboo Stand for,
•336
; , Finder fr)r, 85, 'US
, , Sheaths for, •SIS
Interior, Dead Black for, 106
, Kodak, 54
, , Enlarging with, *68
Lens, Hood. or Sky Shade
for, •846
Stops, 104, •ITS, 186
, Magazine Back for, *283
, Pinhole, ^211
, Postage Stamp, 305
, Qnarter-plate Folding, 220
, Stand, Shutterfor, «169
Shutter, Correct, Speed of,
130
, Determining Speed of,
.26, 128
, Everset, 93
for Qnarter-plate Stand
Camera, •IGO '
taking Doubles,
•212
, Silent, 'IS
, Time and Instan-
taneous, *187
— — , Unicum Type, '79
•• Stand, Bamboo, •SSe
, Studio, •267
Swing Back, Use of, 'SSS
View Finder, 85, •148
Camphorated Chalk, 3S1
Sulphur Soap,, 300
Canada Balsam, 57
■ as Glass Cement, 61
Canadian Snow Shoes, 257
Candles, Wax, Making, 95
, Waxes for Making, 95
Candlesticks, Brass, Lacquering,
87
, Copper, Lacquering, 87
Cane, Bamboo, Staining, 34
Furmtiu:e, Bamboo (see-
Bamboo)
, Malacca, Staining, 95
Pulp, Bleaching, 213
, Tonquin, Staining, 84
Cannon Pinion, Removing, from..
Keyless Watch, 60
Canoe, Canvas, Painting, 141
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
359
Canoe Mast, *141
T-:^ to Carry one Person, 118
' Cantilever Brackets, 1 ixing, *260
i' Canvas, Artists', fastentdonMill-
lioard,'104
, 1 Bag, Sailor's, 176
. '. — Canoe', Painting, 141
-, Cementing, to Rubber, 283
, Chemical, 96
, Dyeing, Blue, 245
. -— ^, Fixing Pictures on, 245
^— , Painted, Keeping Pliable,
, ■„ 228
— ^ ahoes, Black, Ee-dyeing, 255
. ^, —^ White, Cleaning, 283
'i-^. , White Paste for, 364
-^^5-;y?4i,terproohng, 96
Canvassing' Laiidan Panels, 27
'Cap, • Circular Moulded Stone,
Capping Mixtures for Bottles, 15
Car' (see also Cart, Carriage, etc.)
, Jaunting, Blackening Iron-
work of, 302
, , Staining, 302
• . , , Varnishing, 302
Carbide of Calcium (seeiCalpum)
Carbolic Soap, 300
Carbon Dioxide (see Carbonic
Acid, below)
Paper, 73
, Photographic Enlarge-
ment on, 315
Process, Transfer Paper for,
380
, Tissue, 136, 270
Carbonate of Lime (see Chalk)
Ziiio, 335
Carbonic Acid in Atmosphere, 239
— — ^ Coal Mine, 254
• Generator, •329
Oxide in Coal Mine, 254
Carbons for Electric Lamps and
Batteries, 264
■ Carbuncle, Cutting andPolishing,
837
Cardboard, FixingArtists' Canvas
to, 104
— — Mounts, Gold, 103
, Painting, for Slate Pencil
Writing, 58
Pulp, 233
Cardinal Colour Pye for Feathers,
34
Carmine Ink, Buchner's, 223
■ < ;Carn6han or Cornelian, Cutting
" and Polishing, 72, 837 '
C.irpeuter's Bevel Set -square,
•160
, ;-, — 'I'ool Cupboard, •317
-— Try-square, Testing, '60
Carriage (see also Landau,
Brougharri, etc)
. , Cushion, Making, 308
' -Frames, Pasting Cloth to,
205
^-^, Invalid, Hood for, *290
— - Ironwork, Blackening, 301
• , Japans for, 301
, Vai-nisliing, 17, 302
.Pair-horse Close-futchell, for
'Bus, •231
, Pleated Back Squab for,
308
, Varnishing, in Wood, 17
Wheels, Dressing up Spokes
of, *103
-^ , Putting Felloes on, 'SI
Carriages, 'Bail way, Mouldings
.used in, *191
Cart (see also Car, Carriage, etc.)
- — Axle Arms, Hardening, 168
■ Boxes, Hardening, 163
Tree, Length of, 277
, Dog, Painting, 269
, , Varnishing, 269
Grease, 107 '
, Hand. •333
,: , for FumitUri, 51
, Mail, Re-painting,. 326
, , Re-varnishing, 325
: , , Varnish for, 325
— , Painting, 131, 176, 269
, ' — - Panels, Boxing Out, 243
— ^ , Router Planes for
Working, '243
, Pony, •16 'Oe
'. , Cushion for, 303
Oirt, Pony, Painting, 176
, , Vara s'.iin;?, 17]6
, Varnishing, 176, 269
— - Wheel ijpokes. Making
Tongues on, 81
Wheels, Heavy, Pitch of. 277
• ' , Lining Ont, 91
, Measuring Wheel for,
•347 '
, Putting Felloes on,*31
. Tyring, 347
Carved Oak, Removing Varnish
from, 38
— ^ Photo-frame, *60
Carving Wood,,Knife for, •325
Carvings, Wood, Smoothing, 296
, , Staining. 296
, , Wax-polishing, 296
Carving-tools,-.SIiarpening, 801
Case, American Organ, Reviving,
299
, Cork-lined, for Butterflies,
•306
for Perns, *101
Jewels (see Jewel Case)
, Leather for Croquet Mallet,
•20
, Marble Clock, •284
, , Cementing, 322
, , Polishing, 323
, — , Repairing, 19, 322
, Model Brickwork, for Clock,
•149
, Ormolu Clock,' Cleaning,
311
of Stuffed Birds, Imitation
Earth for, 173
, Turned Wood, for Drum
Clock, •62
Case-hardening, Compounds for,
66, 213 .
Cycle Parts, Oven for, •lOT
Large Wrought-iron Work,
213 •
Vehicle Axles, 66
Casein, 232
as Cement for Glass, 232
Cask, Oval, Determining Bevels
for Joints of, •eo
Cast Plaster Panels, Staining, to
Imitate Mahogany, 68
Sheet Lead, 352
— ~ Zinc or Spelter, .335
Casting Aluminium, Furnace for,
- 218
Brass, 277
~ Gas-cocks, *51
, Moulds for, 50, 271,
, 307,
,.' ■ Lead "Water-pipes, 202 , '
^ Ornaments in Belief, Compo.
for, 166
Trusses, Gelatine for, 189
Castings, Cement, made in Plaster
Moulds, 228
, Golden-brown Paint for, 154
, Gun-metal, Acid Pickle for,
97
, Iron, Cement for Blowholes
in, 38
for Lead Toys, 185
, Malleable Iron, 826 '
, ■ — — , Annealing, 326
, , Colouring, 130
, , Patterns for, '326
— — , Plaster, Giving Ivory
Appearance to, 157
■ , , Wax Moulds for, 196
r, Steel for, 163
, , Flatting or Filling for,
296
Cast-iron Balls, Weight of, 107
, Breaking Stress of, 163
Gutter, Fixing, ^202
Roller, Pattern for, 243
Castner Sodium Process, '217
Castor Kid Leather, 286
Oast=steel, Breaking Stress of, 163
Catch for Door of Street Lamp,
•02
, Soldering, on Gun-barrel, 343
Catches, Cementing and Solder-
ing, to Brooches, 163, 177
Cat's-eye Stone, Catting and
Polishing, 337
Caulked Joints in Hot-water
Pipes, 321
' Steam Pipes, U
Ceilin?, Clearcoling, 20
, Ciiriiice, Repairing, 71
, Hanging Anaglypta on, 148
, Lincrusta Walton on,
148
, Paper for, 842
, Papei-ed, Sizing, 291
, , Varnishing, 291
, , Whitening. 72
■, , Whiting for 72
, Papering, 72, 34'
, Size for, 72
, Whitening, 72
Whitewash, 362 >
Celestial Globe, Cleaning, 26i
, Renovating, 251
, Varnishing, 2.'il
Cells for Optical Work, •48
, Various, for Microscope, 73
Celluloid, Cementing, to Glass,
236
" , , Metal, 286
, Cements for, 236 ,
Combs, 143
, Distinguishing, from Ivory,
296
, French, 262
, Non-inflammable, 98
Piano Keys, Polishing, 296
, Removing
Scratches from, 295
' -t Renovating, 295
Varnish, 249
, Working, 98
Cellulose, 62
, Acetate of, 259
CelsiusJRhermoi^eter (see Centi-
grade)
Cement for Alabastei>, 154, 240
Amber, 156, 263
■ Aquarium, 218
, Artiflcial-Stoiie, 221
, Borings, 11
Castings, Making, from
Plaster Moulds, 228
for Celluloid, 236
China, 232, 259
~, Concrete (see Concrete)
— :- Cornices, Finishing, 148
■ for Ebonite, 236
Floor, Coloured, 66
, Grooved, 320
, White, 131 ,,
■ Frame, •221
for Glass, 61, 232, 269, 353
'■ — Golosh Repairing, 2D6
Marble, 622
, Heat-resisting, for Glass,
232
for Hot- water Pipes, 30
, Hot-water Resisting, 146
, Hydraulic, 240
for Imitation Alabaster, 240
Indiarubber, 52, 241
• Iron Castings, 58
Joiiits for Drain-pipes, 191
' — > Keene's, Running Oval
Frame in, •221
for Lead-light Glazing, 74
• Lubricators, 106
^ — Machine Belt Joints, 97,
263
• Marble, 65, 146, 322
Mica, 250
■ Mineral Specimens, 259
— ^ Oil Lubricators, 106
, Paraffin Oil-resisting, 113,
253
, Parian, for. Patching Plas-
tering, 325
for Pointing Brickwork, 30,
115, 127, 241
, Portland (see Portland
Cement)
Rendering on Rubble Wall,
148
for Repairing Plastering,
325
for Rock, 269
Rubber, 52, 241
— '-, Screed for, ^244
for Socket Joint of Steam
Pipe, 11
Stone, 89, 221
Tortoiseshell, 250
Stui-co, Wa.5h for, 88, 827
, Universal, 259
Vase for Garden, ^228
Cement for Vulcanite or Ebonite,
236
Wash, Portland, 153
for Stucco, 83, 327
, Waterproof, 241
, , (or Glass, 232
for White Marble, 322
Xylonite, 236
Cementing Amber Mouthpiece of
Pipe, 166, 253
Canvas to Rubber, 283
■ Catches on Brooches, 163
Celluloid to Glass, 236j
Metal, -236
China to Metal, 232
Clock Cases, 322
Collars on Lamps, 253
Cooking Range Joints, 73
■ Ebonite to Glass, 236
Metal, 286
Enamel Letters to Windows,
2.'J2
Felt to Iron Rollers, 81
Glass, 253
Letters to Windows, 232
■ to Celluloid, 236
iSbonite, 236
Metal, 232
Slate, 232
Wood, 232
— Xylonite, 236
Hot-water Pipes. 30
Indiarubber to Canvas, 233
Iron to Leather, 129
Knife Tangs into Handles,
263
Lamp Reservoir, 253
~ Rims, 253
Lead-lights to Steel Frames,
74
Leaky Leaded Lights, 345
Leather to Iron, 253
Marble Clock Cases, 322
Oilstone in Case, 246
■ Range Joints, 73
Rim on Oil Lamp, 253
. Rubber to Ciinvas, 283
Waslihand Basin, 232
Xylonite to Glass, 236
Metal, 236
Centering for Brick Ai'ch, •ISS
Centigrade Thermometer, 304, 305
Degrees, Converting, to
Fahrenheit, 304, 305
, 1- Reaumur,
, 304, 305
Centre of Circular Arc, Determin-
ing, •172
Centrifugal Pump, ^28
Oerusite an Ore of Lead, 352
Cesspool, Constructing, 335
, Emptying, 335
Ceylon Ivory, 262
Chain, Brass, Gilding, 361
, Burnt Gold, Restoring
Colour of, 264
, Copper, Gilding, 351
-I — , Cycle, Lubricant for, 197
, Fusee, Mending, 260
, Gilt, Deepening Colour of,
150
, Silver, Gilding, 351
— — , -^ Oxidising, 160
, , Stripping Gilding
from, 273
Chaiustitch Sewing Machine, 76
Cliair (see also Furniture)
Backs, Upholstered. Button-
ing and Tufting, 244
, Bamboo Rocking, *237 ,
, Barber's, Fitting Windsor
Chair as, '98 .
, Birch, Re-polishing, 199
, ChUd's, •llO
, Close-studding Edges of,
•210
, Cord-bottomed, Re-seating,
•174
Covers, Maroon Repp, Re-
novating, 349
, Divan, ^214
, Easy, 'OS
, Invalid's Self-propelling,
•345
, Kitchen,Varnishing,131, 259
, Marlboro' Easy, ^122
, Merlin, Converting "Wind-
sor to, •345
3G0
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
Chair, Putting Spring Seat in,
»330
, Rocking, 'HI
— — , Rnsli-bottomed, "Re-seating,
•174
Seat, Upliolstering, 204
, Velvet, lienovating, 191
■ , Sheraton Easy, •99 ,
, Windsor, Converted to
Barlier's Chair, '98
, Windsor Converted to Mer-
lin. •345
Chnhedony, Catting and Polish-
ing, 337
Chalk (see also Crayons)
331
', Ulue Billiard, 1.59
, Caniplinrated, 381
, Green Billiaid, 159
, Precipitated, 331
■ , Prepared, 331
, , or Whiting, 329
' , Sinking Tube Well
through, 87
Cliandelier, Bronze, Cleaning, 30
Chii'nging, Bag, Sheaths for Hand
Camera with, *S43
Box- for Camera, *283
Chapped Hands, Cream for, 244
Charcoal Drawings, Preparing
(Board for, 91 ^
, Impregnating, with Nitre,
251
. Making, from Oak Branches,
*109
, Quickening Combustion of,
261
Charnley Forest Oilstone, 246
Chemical Action, Protecting
Bottle Corks from, 278
Canvas, 26
Tire Biigine, 116
Tanks for Magic Lanterns,
•61
Chemicals, Refrigerating with,
200
Chemists' Show Bottle Liquids,
13, 293
^ , Preventing,
from Freezing, 293
Chest for Electrical Engineer's
Tools, ^35
Light Coach - body
Maker's Tools, •65
, Tool, Fastening Tenon Saw
to Lid of, 'IS"
Cheves Watch Glass, 344
Chezy's Formula for Water Dis-
charge of Pipes, 69
Chicken Rearer, Heating, •148
Child's Bedstead, *rO
Chair, '116
Chimes, Tube, 148
Chimney Breast, Underpinning,
'MO I
; lOO-ft., •194
, Removing Soot from, 166
J Shaft, Felling, 116
, Smoky, 83, 113
Tall, Brickwork of, 149
85
Foundations for, 149
, Hoisting Materials for,
China' Basin, Broken, Cementing,
232
, Cementingto Metal, 232 (see
also Glass)
, Cements for, 232
Clay made from Felspar, 242
Jnl(, 247
Patchwork, 294
, Cement for, 294
-, Odds and Ends for,
294
-, Pul^ty for, 294
— , Potters' Clay lor, 186
Chinese Lacquer Work, 37
— or Zinc White, 195
'Chippendale, Mahogany to imi-
tate, 79
, Pine to imitate, 127
Cliisel Handles, Polishing, 227
Chisels, Cold, 'Tempering, 310
- — , Firmer, Tempering, 310
, Granite Cutting, made
from Files, 323
, Working, 282
Chlorate of Potassium, 327
Chloride, Gold, 297
, Lead, 242
of Lime Bleaching Fluid,
Filtering, 300
, Mercuric, 189
, Mercurous, 189
, Platinum, 2R9
, Selenium, 20
, Stannous, 25
Clirome Tanning, 34
Yellow, 297
Chromic Acid. 47
Chrysolite, Cutting and Polish-
ing, 837 •
Chrysoprase, Cutting and Polish-
ing, '337
Circle, Arc of. Finding Centre of,
' •172
, , Length of,
•227
Circle-on-circle Arch, Centre for,
•171
Circles, Glass, Cutting, 133
Circulur Curve. , Finding, when
Contre is Inaccessible, ^177 ,
Moulded Stone Cap, •238
Mouldings, *78
, Router for Working,
•78
. on Shelf Brackets, 'IS
Saw Bench, •285
■ ■ , Cutting Floor Blocks
with, 'SSO
, Safety Guard for, *!>2
, Sharpening, 277
■ Tank, Contents of, 98
Cistern, Flushing, Repaiiing,
•277
Clarifying (see also Filtering)
— I — Dextrine, 144
Gfilatine Syiiip, 89
Glue Syrup, 89
Clarionette, Boehm System of
Fingering for, "152
Cliiy, Ball, for White Enamel, 29
Ballast, Burning, 59
• for Blue Brick Making, 87
, Clnna, formed from Felspar,
242 ,
Figures, Preserving, 36
, Modellers', Toqghening, 181
-* — , Potters', for China and
Porcelain, 185
, , Toughenmg, 181
for Red "ferra-cotta, 87
Side-Tipping Waggon, •354
Tobacco-pipes, Glazing, 28,
S6
Cleaning Acetylene Burners, 302
Alabaster, 240
American Organ Reeds, 299
Animals' Skulls, 23, 286
Antlers, 77
Aquarium Shells, 65
Badger Skin, 244
Barrel from ParafHn Oil, 68
Basins of Water-closet, 60
,' Benzene Process of, 119,
124, 164, 181, 186, 216, 286,
348
Bird, 186
Boat Sail, 216
Bone, 62
Bottles, 314
Bowls, 234
Brackets of Leatherwork, 67
Brass, 103, 261
Bronze, 30
Bronze Ornaments, 347
Brown Boots, 190, 216
Kid Gloves, 198
Buckskin Boots, 224
Buff Leather Gaiters, 103
Burner of Oil Lamp, 319
Canvas Shoes, 233
Celestial Globe, 25J
Chandelier, 30
Chinmeys, 166
Clock Case, 811
Cloth, 17, 90, 119, 124, 164,
105, 208, 315, 348
Clothes (see Cleaning Cloth)
Coins, 361
Copper, 251
Vessels, 67
Coral, 24
Crocodile Leather Furniture
Coverings, 829
Cleaning English Lever Watch, 99
Engravings, 38, 206
Feathers, 854
Felt Hats, 286
; Fleeces, Soft Soap for, 828
Floor Tiles, 162
— — Furniture Coverings, 829,
349
Silks, 306
'Purred Kettle, 25S, 276
Pipes, 362
■ Furs, 19 '
Gilded Watch-plates, 237
Gilt Bronze Ware, 341
. — Clock Case, 311
Gloves, 22, 198, 311
Goat's Horns, 65 '
, Gold, 360
Biaid, 190
Gravestones, 259
Hats, 338
■ Horns, 65, 77
Imitation Alabaster, 240
7- Ivory, 203
Interior Stonework, 231
Iron coated with Bust, 269
• Wire before Tinning,
214 227
Kettle, 258, 276
Keys of Piano, etc., 310
Kid Gloves, 22, 198
■ Shoes, 22
Lacquered Brass, 251
Copper, 251
■ Microscope, 85
Lamp Burner, 319
' Leather, 256
of Furniture, 269
Leatherwork Brackets, 67
Linen, 17, 203
Mahogany, 165
Map, 32
Marble, 67, 143, 160, 233,
335
Microscope, 86
Mosaic Floors, 182
Oil Lamp Burner, 319
Paintings, 150, 169, 163
Oily Bottles, 314
Ormolu Clock Case, 311
Paper, 22, 203
Paraffin Barrel, 68
: Parchment, 22
Pewter Teapot, 27S
Pictures, 88, 144, 150, 169,
163, 206
Pipes containing Fur, 362
Plaster Bust, 144
Plated Goods, 165 ■
Playing Bowls, 234
Polished Wood, 46
Prints, 38, 206
Reeds of American Organ,
299
Rusty Iron, 269
- — Microscope, 85
Wood, 76 1
Sail of Boat, 216
Shells, 66
Silk Tapestry Covers, 306
Silver, 166, 351, 362
Coins, 851
Watch Dials, 363
■ Silver-plated Ware, 351
Skins, 19, 181, 216, 244
Skulls of Animals, 23, 286
Sponges, 344
Stag's Antlers, 77
Stick Mounts, 266
Stone Steps, 172
. Stonework, 231, 269
Straw Hats, 338
Table Cover, 119, 165
Tapestry, 306
Teapot, 278
• Tiger Skin, 216
Tile Mosaic Floor, 182
Tiles, 162
Trousers, 164
Valencia Waistcoat, 9Q, 124
Varnished Map, 32
Painting, 150
Velvet-pile Table Cover, 119
Veneer, 203
Wall-paper, 22
Washleather Gloves, 311
Watch, 99
Watch-plates, 287
Cleaning Water-closet Basins, 60
Wliite Buckskin Boots, 224
Canvas Shoes, 233
Cloths, 165 •
Kid Gloves, 22
Shoes, 22
■ Leghorn Hats, 338
——Marble, 160
Windows, 261^
— - Wire before Tinning, 214, 227
Wooden Playing Bowls, 234
Clinical Thermometer, 126
Clip for Engineer's , Scribing
Block, •166
Clock, Adding Electric Alarm to,
83, •141
, American, Striking Wrong,
275
, , Testing Pallets of. 242
Balance Pivots, Re-pointing,
285
Vibrations, Counting,
298
Case, Gilt Ormolu, Clean-
ing, 311
, Marble, •284
: , Marble, Cementing,
322
, , Polishing, 322
, , Repairing, 19, 322
, Compensation Pendulum-of,
77
Dials, Brass, Polishing, 345
, • , Re-silvering, 345
, Painting, 129 i
, Drum, Re-pointing Balance
Pivots of, 285 '
, , Turned Wood Case for,
•52
, Dutch, Pendulum of, 90
, , Rod of, 90
Escapements and Motive
Power, 122
, Grandfather, Defective
Striking Gear of, 201
Hairspring, Testing, 298
, Lantern, Eight-day Move-
ment for, *154
- M.iinspring, Fitting, 145
, Musical Box, connected to,
336
, Oiling, 117
Pallets, Hardening, 214
, Jewelling, 307
— , 'Testing, 242
Pendulum, Length of, 77, 91,
178
, Weight of, 77, 91
, Zinc and Steel Com-
pensation, 77
- — Regulator, Compensation
Pendulum for, 77
, , Jewelling Pallets of,
307
, Self-winding 126,
, Skeleton, Pitting Main-
spring to, 146
, Striking, Musical Box con-
nected to, 336
Striking too Quickly, 35
Wrong, •201, 275
, Turret, 222
, Vienna Regulator Striking,
•123
Clockstand in Model Brickwork,
•149
Clockwork Metronome, ^95
Motor for Gramophone , m
Plionograph, 58
Close's Indelible Ink, 238
Cloth, Blind, 47
, Cleaning, 17, 90, 119, Vii,
164, 166, 203, S06, 315
, Cotton, Distinguishing
Worstedfrom, 105
, Dyeing, Bladt, 91, 245
, — , Blue, 245
, , Turkey Bed, 82
, Fireprooflng, 35, 53, 274
, Pasting, to Carriage Frames,
?06
, Printing Photographs on,
87,
, Removing Grease Stains
fi'om, 164, 316
, Ink Stains from, 165.
203
, - — Tar from, 848 '
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
361
Cloth, Watei-prooftng, 69, 80, 112,
• 199
, , Alumina Soap for, SO
-, , Hime and Node's
Process or, SO
, ' — , Holfert's PrGcess of,
SO
, ■, with Alumina Soap,
80
, , ^— Rubber, 80
Clotlies, Cleaning (see Cloth,
Cleaning)
, Pjeventing Moths from
Attaoliing, 211
Baelc, Hanging, *831
. — , for Drying, 'SSf
, Removing' Binoxalate of
Potash Sfivins from, 338
, ^ Siilts of Lemon Stains
from, 8HS
Clothes-wringing Machine, *27
Clouiled Agife, 353
Coach-body Maker's Tool-chest,
»66
Cnach-painter's Body-horse, 191
• Cuachsmith's Barrel Heads of
Scroll-irons, 56
Coal Bags, Waterproofing, 199
Gas (see also Gas)
Combustion, Products
of, 239 ■ .
, Hydrogen in, 269
Mine Gases, 254
.■ Tar (see Tar)
— Dyes, ?32
, Colouring Spirit
• Vlrnishes with, 232
• Coal-weigtiing Machine, Scoop
■ , for, '342
Col>, Trotting Sulky for, *31S
Cuckfounding, Plate Casting in,
36
. Cocks, Brass, Casting, *61
Coeoanut Oil Paste 8oap, 300
Cod-liver Od Emulsion, 27, 190 '
Ooflin, Filling in, before Polish-
, lug, iO
, Polishing, 40
Coins, Silver, Cleaning, 351
Coke for making Electric Lamp
and' Battery- Carbons, 264
Coke-breeze Concrete Floor, 145
Cold Chisels, Tempering, 310
Setts, Tempering, 130
Cold - water Taps, Renewing
Washers in, 283
Collapsible Boat, 228
Collar, American Breast, for
^ Horse, 162
— -, Brass, for Dog, '22
Collar-roofs, Scantlings for, 232
Collars, Cementing, " to Lamp
Reservoirs, 253
, Removing, from Glass'
Ware, 119
Colloaion, 102
Cotton, Solvents for, 249
Collotype Printing Process, -216,
249
Colour, Flatting, for Calico, 25^
of Burnt Gold, Restoring,
264 , ;
~ Eleotro-gilfling, Deepen-
ing, 150
Wood, JDaj-kening, 237
' Coloured Cement Floor, 56
■ Glass, Opaque, 01
Pictures, Photographing, 87,
123
Colouring (see also Dyeing, Paint-
ing, and Staining) '
— r- Alabaster, 240
Arohit'eetiual Drawings, 122
'' — Bamboo OaneS, 34 •
— iiiliiara Balls, 318
Brickvyork, 127
— Bronzes, 112
fanes, 34, 95
Gelatine Photographic Films,
■ 90
• — Gold Alloys, 36, 46, 84
Imitation Alabaster, 240
Bronzes, 112
' — Ivory BiUiaril Balls, 818
Kid Leather, 78; 164
Malacca Oaue, 95
Malleable Castings, 130
Mechanical Drawings, 122
Colouring Oil with Alkanet Root,
41,
-; — Portland Cement, 313
^ — Spirit'Varnishes, 232
: , Pigments for, 50
Swimming Bath Bottom,
204 •
Varnish, 259
Venetian Blinds, 162, 241
Colours (see also Dyes, Paint,
Pigipents, and Stain)
, Aniline, Dyeing Pampas
Grass with 12
, Box for, »190
— , Plat, Flashing or becoming
Patchy, 183
for Fresco Painting, 289
, Primriry and Principal, 18
, Uuderglaze, for Biscuit
Ware, 158
tor Vulcanite,. 168
;, Water, 20
, , Fixing, 262
Column, Developing Spiral
Flute on, *323
, Diminished Twisting, 99
— — , Small, Patterns for, 200
Columns for carrying Roof, '226
Comblanchien Marble, 292
Combs, Composition for Making,
143
, Tortoiseshell, 350
, , Forming Knobs on,
250
Compass- Cards, Fixing Needles
to, 49
— -, Mariner's, 33 '
, , Reading, 33
Pointing North, 307
Compassed Bed of Brougham
Under -carriage, Pattern lor,
*79
Compasses, Beam, *S21
, TOurnette, 344
, Trjimmel, '•321
Compensation Pendulum for
Regulator Clock, 77
Compo. Work, Painting, 143
■• — -, Gauge Boxes' for, *167
Composition Boilers for Brand-
ing SScks, 219
— , Printers', 217
Compression, 130
Concert Rooms, Proportioning,
for Sound, 9S
Concrete Construction under
Water, 260
, Covering Brick-paved Floor
with, 91
■ Floor. 86
, Coke-breeze, 145
for Foundations, 98
■ Foundations for Gas Engines,
21
, Granolithic, for Flooring,
235
, Lime, 119
, Painting, 32
, Quantities for, 88, 158
, Strength of, 224
Walls. Forming, under
Water, 260
Window Sills and Heads,
•111
Condensation of Water beneath
Corrugated Iron Roof, 47
Condensed Milk, 25 ^
Condenser for Magic Lantern,
46
Gone Frustum, Pattern for, '*45
, Galvanised Iron, 264
, Pattern for, *S7
^, Sheet Metal, 284
, Wrought Iron, 37
Cones, Cycle, Hardening, 198
, , Tertipering, 198
Conical Bellows of Camera, *276
■ Rim, Pattern for, "'45
Con'nemara Marble, 292
Contents of Circular Tank, 98
Cylinders, ll8, 173, 276
Egg-ended Boiler, 173
Heaped Material, •210
. Rectangular Tank, 19
■ ■ Sphere, 178
■ Tapering Vessels, 140
Cooking, Steam, Boiler System
for, •174
Cooking-range Joints, Cementing,
73 (see also Kitchen Range)
Cooling Air, 109
Beer, 338
Slied having Corrugated Iron
Boot, 216
Copal, Dissolving, 127
, Fossil, Distinguishing
Amber from, 339
Copper, 350
, Buckled, Flattening, 106
Candlesticks, Lacquering,
'87 . ', ^
Chains, Gilding, 351
, Cleaning, 251
Dials of Watches (see Watch)
, Dies for Stamping, 237
, E telling on, li 0,337
, Etching Cork on, ISlectric-
ally, 287
, Executing Designs on, 237
■ Foot-warmer, *62
Fountain for Greenhouse,
•340
, Hardening, 182
Hoop on Wooden Bucket, 45
, Impurities in, 350
Kettle, Soldering Spout on,
89
, Lacquered, Renovating, 251
— — ,, Lacquering, 87
Lamp, Blaekeniijg, 330
-, Lacquering, 330
— , Polishing, 330
, ' Removing Lacquer
from, 330
.Melting Point of, 350
Moulds, Tinning, 156
r Ores, 204
, Reducing, 350
Pan.for Frying Fish, 198
■ Pipes, Bending, 185
, Tinning, 62, 140
' :, Wiping Joints on, '•62
. Plating, 273 1
j^ — Aluminium, *300
Lead, 322
Model Boat, 53
Plaster Statue, 254
Solutions, 58, 273, 300,
360 , ■
, PoUshing Tarnished, l4l,
251
Polishing-lap, 337
, Producing Raised Images
on, 237
, Punchihg Designs in, 237
Range Boiler, Advantages
of, 96
, Be-lacquering, 251
— -, Repouss^ Work on, 214,
237
, Sheet, 350
, .Repairing Boat with,
80
, , Tinning, 103
, Silver Solder for, 63
, Silvering, 85
, S'oftening, 182
, Solder for, 63, 89
. Specific Gravity of, 350
— — , Spinning, in Lathe, 73,
, Stripping Silver from, 320,
337
, Thermo-electric Properties
of, 90
Tubing, Determining Thick-
ness of, 254
Utensils (see Copper Vessels,
' below) , '
, „ Various Kinds of, 204
, '■ Vessels, Cleaning, 57, 155
'■ , Tinning afid Re-tinning,
57 .
, - — -, Rubber used in, 57
Wire, Calculating Weight of,
66
, Electi-ic Current Carry-
ing Capacities of, 81
Copper, Flash-flue Washing, »283
, Wheel-flue Washing, 283
Copying Drawings by Black Line
Process, 236
Ink Process, 236
' Porterin's Process,
236
Glass Positive, 158
Inks, Black, 220
Copying Inks, Red, 220
■ tor 'typewriter Use, 74
, Violet, 230
Manuscript by Photoglaphy, ,
143
■ ■ Mounted Photographs, 141
■ Negatives to malco Lantern
Slides, 11, •OS
Printed Pictures by Photo-
graphic Transference, 302
Written Matter, Gra^jhs for,
180
Coquille.Marhle, 292
Coral, Cleaning, 24
Coral-wood, 247
Curd Bottom tor Chair, •174
Cordelova Frieze, Bronzing, 42
C.irk Boot. French, »17 .
, Burnt, for Blackening Face,
265
Frames, Varnish for, 115
Paint for Ironwork. 58
.Corks, Protecting, from Cnemical
Action, 278
, Waxing, 278
Corliss Valves for Steam Engines,
103
Corn Spirit, 347
Cornelian or Carnelian, Cutting
and P.)lisliing. 72, 337
Comet (see also Musical Instru-
ments)
-, Loosening Slide of, 228
Cornice, Cement. Finishing, 14S
Moulding, Mitring, '12, '122,
•136
, Plaster, Repairing, 71
Corrosive Sul)liinate, 189
Corrugated Iron and Felt Roof,
*225
— ^' , Cutting, 229
, Punching Holes in, 229
-^-^ •, Riveting. 229
'■ Roof, Condensation on
-Under Side of, 47
Roofed Shed, Cooling,
, "2l6
Corundum, 187
an Aluminium Ore, 342 ^
, Artificial, 76
Cite lor Pigeons, *219, •296
Cottage. Selection of, 80
Cotton Fibres, "lOS
— - Goods, Soluble Oil for
Finishing, 251
, Winding, on Reels, 301
Cottonseed Oil Soft Snap, 328
Couch Cushion, Stitching Square
Edge to, 113
, Cushion - seat, Putting
Spring-seat on, 102
Counter, Small, *81;^
Coupling Shackles, Forging, *67
, , Bending Block
for, ^67
Cover, Boat, .Converting Sail to,
1.19
, Velvet-pile, Cleaning. 119
Covered Midden Stead, *a69
Covers, Furniture, Renovating,
SOB, 329, 349
, Hatch, Waterproofing,' 199
, Saucepan, ^112
, Umbrella, •82
, Waggon, Waterproofing, 199
Cover-slips for Microscope SliddS
133
Cowhouses, Paving for, 235
Cowles Method of Producing
Aluminium, 341
Cow's Hoof Pincushion, 309
, Polishing, 309
■ Milk (see also Milk) .
, Making Koumiss from,
348
1 , Sugar in, 348
Crab and Lobster Pot, *184
Cracks in Blackboard, 84
-^— Boots, 50
Plaster Walls, 59
Cradle, Baby's, Stand for, ^41
Craigleith Stone, 309
Cramping Picture Frames, ^302
Crank-shaft of Engine, Turning,
•102
Crate for carrying Pig, *97
Crayons (see also Chalk)
, Black, 16, 67
362
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
Crayons, Blue, 15
, Brown, 16
, Red, 16
Crazy Ohiiuiwork, 294
, Cement for, 294
, Odds and Ends for, 294
, Putty tor, 204
Cream for Chapped Hands, 244
- — , Shaving, 45, 250
Creosoted Timber, Painting, 154
Crest on Silver Jug, Obliterating,
121
Crimson Lake, Applying, 305
, Testing, 305
Liquid for Cliemists' Show
Bottles, 13
Stain for Alabaster, 240
Crimson Varnish for Straw Hats,
50
Crocidolite or Blue Asbestos, 303
Crocodile Leather, Faded, Re-
storing, 329
Crocus, 49, 83. 149
Metal Polishing Paste, 49
for Eazor Strops, 49
, Steel-red, 49
, Washing, 49
Croquet Mallet, Leather Case for,
•20
Cross in Telescope of Level, 69
Crucible, Plumbago, '48
- — - Steel Furnace, •39
Crutching Soft Soap, 329
Cryolite an Aluminium Ore, 341
Crystal, Cutting and Polishing,
337
Crystals on Wickerwork, 124
Ci-ystoleum Painting, 223
, Materials for, 223
Photographs, 123
Picture, Removing, from
Glass, 161
Cubing Round Timber, 53
, Cucumber House, Heating,85
Cuir-bouilli Leather- work, 215
Cup Leathers for Pumps, 199
Cupboard for Carpenter's Tools,
•317
, Glass-fronted Hanging, '222
, Medicine, •139
Cupola, Furnace, Bricks for, 30
Curbs for Tile Hearths, 244
Curing Bird-skins, Preservatives
used in, 44
Goat-skins, 89
Rabbit-skins, 105, 285
Sheep-skins, 24
Curling Feathers, 354
Ourling-stones, 14
, Polishing, 14
CuiTying Sheep-skins, 24
Curtain, Autograph Door, *110
, Dyeing, Turkey Red, 82
■ Poles, Brass, Bending, 14
Rails, Swing, fitted to Iron
Bedstead, •104.
Rod, '125, '145
Curve (see also Circle)
, Finding, when Centre is In-
accessible, '177
, Involute, '226
Curved Wing Wall, Projection of,
•253
Cnsliion, Carriage, 308
, Couch, Stitching Square
Edge to, 113
for Gig, 314
■ , Pin, made from Cow's Hoof,
302
, Pony Cart. 303
, , Buttoning, 303
, , Covering, 303
, , Stuffing, 303
, Re-covering, with Moquette,
145
. , , Wilton Pile, 145
Cushion - seat Couch, Putting
Spring Seat, 102
Cutter Block for Bevelling
Frames, ^270
Cutters, Moulding, Machine for
Grinding, •Sie
for Setting Jewel Hole in
Geneva Watch, 261
Cutting Corrugated Iron, 229
Diamonds, 293
Ebony with Cylindrical Saw,
306
Cutting Floor Blocks with Cir-
cular Saw, •330
Fur Skins. 203
Glass Bottle, 233
Shade, 187
Ivory with Cylindrical Saw,
306
Letters on Polished Granite
Headstones, 823
Oak Shingles, 802
Oilstone, 246
Sliells, 258 .
Shoe Finishers' Irons, •53
Slate, 330
Slot in Top of Turned Pillar,
•65
— - Stones, 307, 337
Stoneware Jar, 51
Tiles. 19, 244, 302
Vulcanite with Cylindrical
Saw, 306
Wooden Ball Inside An-
other Ball, '325
- — • Zinc in Sheet, 247
Cyanide of Gold. 263
Potassium, 137
Cycle. Canying Camera on, 80
Chains, Lubricant for, 197
Cones, Hardening, 198
, Tempering, 198
, Enamelling, 303
, , Brush Marks in, 49
Fishing Rod, 303
, Fixing Transfers to, 225
Oil, Filtering, 64
Parts, Oven for Case-harden- '
ing. ^107
, Removing Nickel-plating
from, 301
Shed, •170 .
Tyre, Single-tube, Repair-
ing, 198
Cyclists, Photographing, •3.'i7
Cylinder, Determining Contents
of, 118, 173, 276
, Heating, from Two Fires,
114
, Hot-water, withTwo Boilers,
124
Pivots, Fixing, in Watch,
1.52
Plugs of Watch, Punch for
Remnving, ^152
System Hot- waterApparatus,
•158. •258
Cylindrical Saws, Cutting Ivory,
Ebonite, etc., with, 306
Daggers, Tempering, 310
Damp Preventive for Brickwork,
84, 86
• ■ Stucco, 84
Stains, Removing, from
Marble, 67, 335
■, , -Pictures, 144,
206
Wall Remedies, 218, 318
Damper for Postage Stamps, ^276
Damp-proof Courses, 259
-, Asphalt, 143, 168, 259
— , Blue Brick, 259
, Lead, 269
, Slate, 259
, Stoneware, 259
Stiffening Solutions, 100
Damp-proofing (see also Water-
proofing)
Walls. 262
Damp-spotted Mirror, Renovat-
ing, 41
Dancing Steps of Staircase, *177
Dandelion Beer, 338
Darey's Formula for Water Dis-
charge of Pipe, 69
Dark Room, •218
— : Lamps, •189, *233, 834
, Ventilating, '181
Darkening (see also Blackening)
Mahogafly, 132, 149
Old Wood, 237
Deal, Yellow, 316
, White, 315
Decker Ovens, Bakers', 'ST
Decorated Style, Tracery Window
in, ^287
Demagnetising Watches, 128
Dental Plates. Meclianical, 249
, Vulcanite, 168
Dents, Removing, from Brass
Kettle, 17S
, r, Musical
Instruments, 168, 251
Deoxydising Tin, 320
Depth Tool, Watchmaker's, 22
Derby Black Marble, 292
— - Fossil Marble, 292
Desk, Roll-top, Roll-shutter for,
•291
Developers, Photographic, 171
, ■, Keeping Properties of,
171
, -, One Solution, 129
, , Pyro, 263, 334
, . Apparatus for
Making, ^263
Developing Kodak Films, 57
Development of Photographic
Plates, 334
Dextrine, Clarifying, 144
D'Htehette Mai-bte, 292
Dial of Perpetual Calendar Watch,
•44
Dials, Brass, Polishing, 345
, , , Re-silvering, 345
, Clock, Painting, 129
, Copper, 272
, , Brazing Feet on, 272.
, , Enamelling, 272
-, , Soldering in Seconds
Dials ..f, 272
-, , White Enamel for,
272
, Silver, Cleaning, 353
Diamond Drill. 185
Diamond-pointed Compasses, 341
Diamonds, 293
— -, Alaska, 76
, Bort. ,293
, Cutting, 293
, Dust, 293
, Parisian, 76
, Polishing, 293
, Source of, 293
, Splitting or Dividing, 293
, Turn-table for Polishing,
• 293
, Wicland's Artificial, 76
Dichlnride of Lead, 242
Dies for Stamping Copper, 237
, Steel, Cutting, 87
innas Bricks, 3'0
Dining-room Ingle Nook, with
Sanded Roof, •332
Dirmer Lifts, Hydraulic, 71
Diorama Moonlight Scenes, 116
• Scenes, 137 '
Dipper forFerrotypePhotograpby,
•307
Dipping Metals (see Blackening,
Brassing, Bronzing, etc.)
Dishes, Zinc, for Photographic
Use, 187
Disinfecting Books, 139
Water-butt, 201
Distemper Paint for Calico, 252
Distilling Lavender Water, 169,
176
Oil of Amber. 3S4
Lavender, 169, 176
Resin, 101
Tar, 182
■ Water, •108
Whiskey, ^204
Zinc-Ores, 335
Divan Chair, ^214
— -- Settee, •335
Dog Cart, Painting, 269
, Varnishing, 209
- — - Collar, Brass, ^22
Kennel, *65, •255, •352
Dog Tooth Marble, 292
Doll's Bedstead, Wooden, •70
Dolly, Metalworkers' Mandrel,
•118
Dome, Octagon) Covering, with
Sheet Lead, •280
, Roof Cutting into Side of,
•25
Door Curtain, Autograph,* 110
, Device for Reooraing Open-
ings of, •243
Door Frame, Blliptlcal Headed,
•13
Paint Blistering, 30
, Re-painting, SO ;
of Street Lamp, Catch for
Fastening, *92
, Sunblincl for, 83
Varnish Blooming, 317
, Watertight Slidin„', ^77 ,
Door-plate, Filling Engraved
Letters on, 102
Doors, Internal, Height and Width
of, 162
, Panelled, in Cabinet Work,
•285
, , Joinery, ^285
, Raihvafy Carriage, Sliding
Sashes in, ^349
Doorway Porch, *33
Dove Marble, 292
■ , Imitating, 33-1
Dovetailing, *24 .
Dowelled Work, Securing to-
gether, 98
Dragon's Blood, 210 -
Di-aiu-pipes, Cement Joints for,
191
Drains, Falls for, 227
of House, Connecting, to
Deep Sewer, *23 ,'
, Pneumatic Test, for, 175
, Smoke Test for, 175
• , Various Tests for, 265
Draughtsman's Rilling Pen,
Setting, ^47
Draw-hooks, Locomotive Engine,
•297
, Railway Wagon, '297
Drawing, Black Inks for, 242, 247
' Board, Stretching Paper on,
236
, Whiti Ground for, 91
, Indian Ink for, 242
Ofilce Work, Trammel Heads
for, 'ilS
Pen, Setting, *47
Drawings, Architectural, Colour-
ing, 122
, Perspective, *138
, Blacl^ Line Method of Gopy-
' ing, 23'i
of Buildings, 209
, Graphs for Multiplying,
180
, Line, Making Lantern Slides
of, 11
, Mechanical, Colouring, 122
, Pencil, Fixative for, 130
, , Photographing, 255
, Transferring, to Linen, 119
Dravcot Marble, 292
Drilling Amber, 339
Glass, 106, 294
-1 — , Lubricants for, 294
Hard Steel Watch Pinions,
237, 300
■ Watch Staff, ^42
Drilling-machine, *178
Dlills, Diamond, 185
, " Flirting," 300
for Glass, 294
, Hardening, 294, 300
, Tempering, 294
Drinking Water, Impurities in,
-S27
, Sources of, 327
Drum Clock Balance, Re-point-
ing Pivots of, 285
; Turned Wood Case for,
•62
Dry Plates (see Photographic)
Rot in Wood, 26
Dry-cleaning Skins, 19, 181
Valencia Waistcoat, 90, 124
Drying Clothes, Wall Rack for,
•337
Mops, 102
Dryiug-room, Steam-heate^, 91,
208
Dulling Varnished Surfaces, 260
Dumpy Level and Staft Taking
Heights witM, 888
Dunlop Tyre Valves, Making
Trammel Heads from, •218
Duporth Marble, 292 \
Duresco, 85
Di<sting-on Process of Photo-
graphy, 70
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
DutlSii Bam, •182
Metal Leaf, 253
DweUing-house, Hints on Choo.s-
ing, 80
Dye, Coal-tar, Colouring Spirit
Varnishes with, 232
Dyeing (see also Colouring and
Staining)
Billiard Balls, 318
Black Canvas Shoes, 255
Canvas Blue, 245
Cloth BlacK, 91, 245
': Blue, 246
Cnitains-Turkey Red, S2
Feathers, 34, 163, 256
Glove Leather, 78, 104
Grasses, 130
— - Green Cloth Black, 245
Ivory, 262
Billiard Balls, 318
, Nitrate of Soda used in, 16 >
Pampas Grass, 12
Ostrich Feathers, 163, 255
-^ — Sheepskins, 169
Stockings Black, 228
Tablecloth Turkey Bed, 82
Dynamo, Starting, 98
Earth, Imitation, for Cases oi
StuEfed Birds, 173
Earthenware Goods, 125
, Glazing, 18
, White Glaze tor, 18
— ^ Jar, .Cutting, 51
Earthnut Oil Soft Soap, 328
Easy Chair, Marlboro', *122
. , Sheraton, 99
Bbonised Frame, Repairing, 230
Ebonite or Vulcanite, (see aiau
Indiarubber)
, IfiS .
, Boring, 306
, . Cements for, 236
, Cutting, with Cylindrical
Saw, 306
, Polishing, 306
-^-, Tools lor Working, 306
, Turning; 300
Ebony, Combined Stain and
Polish for, 38
, Finishing, 27
Fretwork, Polishing, 44
Mirror Frame, Polishing, 35
, Polishing, 27, 38, 44, 100
; , Samng Up, 27
^- — -J Selecting, 27
^ — Stain and Varnish Combined,
195
, Turning, in Lathe, 27
Walking-sticks, Polishing,
100 -
, Working, 27
Effervescing Saline, 209
Eggs, Blown, Preserving, 91
, Glass Blowpipes for Blow-
ing, 311
- — , L^rge, Device for Support-
ing, •254
"Eggs of Nuremberg" Watches,
344
Electric Alarm, Adding, to Clock,
83, *U1
, Shop-door, 'ISl
Arc Lamp Carbon5j.264
'—, Hand Feed, for
Portraiture, *344
: Battery Carbons, 264
Cables, Seven-strand, Joint-
ing', 79
Calamine Zinc pre, 335
Current Carrying Capacities
of Copper Wires, 81
, Kilowatt of, 142
Furnace for Producing
Calcium Carbide, 28
Incandescent Lamps, Il-
luminating Powers of, 301
- — Insulator, Mica as, 41
Key Action of Pipe Organ,
167
Lamp Carbons, 264
Piles, Thermal, 'OO
Push, Double-contact, *9P
Electrical Engineer's Tool Chest,
•35
Methods of Producing jAlu-
minium, 341
Process of Etching Copper,
237
Properties of Amber, 339
Electrically Depositing Iron, 318
Electro-brassing Solution, IS, 166
Electro-bronzing Solution, 274
Electro-coppering, 273
Aluminium, SCO
Lead, 322
Model Boat, 53
Plaster Statue, 254
Solution, 63, 273, 300, 350
■■ .Working, 350
Electro-gilding Aluminium,'300
■, Cyanide of Gold for, 263
, Potassium Cyanide for, 137
Solution, 154, 274, 300, 307,
312
Electro-gilt Ware, Deepening
Colour of, 160
• , Stripping Gold from,
353
Electrolytic Method of Preparing
Chromic Acid, 47
Electro-motive Force of Metals,
' 90
Electro - nickelling Aluminium,
300
, Black Streaks in, 52
Solution, 229. 300
, Correcting Acidity of,
229
■, "Working, 229, 353
■ Wax Moulds', 51
Electro-plate, Fumigating, 55
, Oxidising, 56
Rusting, Remedy for, 267
, Whitening, 275
Electro-silvered Articles, Strip-
ping Silver from, 339
Electro-silvering, 243
Aluminium, 300
, Bright, 243
— 7- Copper, 274
Solutions, 152, 243, 300
, Deterioration of, 233
Striking Solutions for, 248
Tin Teapots,, 264
Electrotypes, Steel-facing or Iron-
facing, 313
, Wariiy Nodules on, 50
Elephant Ivory (see Ivory)
Elevators, Hydraulic, 71
Ellipse, Drawing, 66
Elliptic Arch, •201, *209, *211
Gothic Arch, ^195
— — Headed Door Frame, *13
Elm, Staining, 123
— r-. Strength of, 150
— -, Varnishing, 123
, Weight of, 150
Elvans, Cutting and Polishing,
337
Embossed Glass, Sun Printing on,
308
Embossing Glass, 243
, .White Acid for, 107
Photographs, 166
Embrocation for Bruises, etc.,
247
Embroidery, Frame for Working,
•133
Emetald-green Pigment, 194
Emeralds, 76
, Artificial, 76
, Cutting, 337
, Polishing,. 337
Emerson's Patent Brass, 354
Emery or Corundum, 187
Using, on tfard Oilstone, 246
Wheel, Polishing P
Tubes on, 58 '
Emperor's Bed Marble, 292
Emulsion of Cod-liver Oil
190
Enamel (see also Japan)
— — for Bedstead, 69
, Black'Stoving, 268
Letters, Cementing,
WindovF, 232
, Method of Using, 32
, Paint, 221
— '■ , Brush for Applying
57
27,
to
Enamel Paint, Removing, from
Furniture, 79
■ for Pill Coating, 142
, Preventing Knots showing
, through, 152
— ^-, Removing, from Mahogany,
lOS
■ Spirit Varnish, 221
, White, 29
, , Ball Clay for, 29
, , for Copper Watch-
dials, 272
, — r Stoving, 268
Baauielled Slate, Polishing, 297
, Removing Scratches
from, 297
Bnamellor, Photographer's, 298
Enamelling (see also Japanning)
, 158
Bath, 86
Bedstead, 59
, Brush Marks in, 49
■ Carriage Ironwork, 301
Cycle, 303
Furniture White, 147
Photographs, 166
Slate, 46, 297
Watch-dials, 272
BncSiistici Paste for Polishing
Photographs, 275
Engine, Chemical Fire, 116
, Corliss Valve for, 103
Coupling Shackles, Forging,
'67
Crank-shaft, Turning, *102
, Determining Power of, from
Indicator Diagrams, ^92
Draw-hooks, *297
,^ Gas, Foundations for, 21
,' Locomotive, Action of
Steam in, 26
, , Coupling Shackles of,
•67
, , Removing Old Paint
from, 228
, , Re-painting. 228
, Model Steam, Power of, 148
for Pile Driving, 'US, *316
Rods, Forging, ♦84
Slide Valve, Lead of, 100
, Steam Action in, 26
, Consumption in, 101
Engineer, Electrical, Tool-chest
for, •35
English Bi-ass, 354
~^^- Gunpowder, 346
Koumiss, 348
■ Legal Standard Wire Gauge,
351 I
Lever Watch, Correcting
Barrel of, 346
Oak, Strength of, 150
, Weight of, 150
Engraved Crest on Silver Jug,
Obliterating, 121
Initials on Watch-case,
Erasing, 140
, Re-engraving,
140
■ Ivoiy, Filling, 31, 226
Letters on Door-'plate, Red
Filling for, 102
ouBlectro-plate, Whiten-
ing, 275
Plates. Wax Fillings for, 288
Engraving Gems. 192
: Initials on Watch-case, 140
Ivory, 31
-Lettering, 79
, Tools for, 79
Stick Mounts, 255
Engravings. Cleaning, 38, 206
, Removing Damp Stains
from, 144
Engraving-tools, Sharpening, 79
Enlargement, Photographic, on
Carbon Paper, 315
Enlargements, Bromide, 174
, , Making Triad Pictures
of, *76
, ., — , in Oil, 162
Enlarging, Photographic, 117
, , Camera for, ^276
, , by Daylight, *127
, , Lantern for, 'SI, *277
, , Lens for, 104
, , , with Fixed Focus
Hand Camera, ♦12J
363
Enlarging, Photographic, with
Pocket Kodak, 'es
, •, without Camera, 89
Entomological Pins, 226
Entomology (see Beetles, Butter.
flies, and Moths)
Entrance Gates, Tenons for, *124
Envelopes for Freshly Caught
Butterflies, •306
•, Gum for, 234
Erasers for Ink Marks. 90
Escapement, Clock, 122
Etching Alabaster, 240
Brass, 86, 145
Copper, 140, 237
Electrically, 237
Glass, 308
in Gold, 339
• Ground for Alabaster, 240
Grounds for Metals, 11, 82,
140, 145
■ Imitation Alabaster, 240
Knife Blades, 11
Steel, 11, 82
, Acids for, 11, 82
• , Resists or Grounds for,
11, 82
• , Tool used in, 11 ^
Ethereal Solutioij of Gold, 270
Ethyl Alcohol, 347
Bverset Pliotographic Shutter,
93
Expansion Joint, Plumbers', 247
Explosive Power of Gunpowder,
346
Extension Ladder, *241
Extract, Liquid Malt, 117
•, Logwood, 290
Eye-glasses, Watchmakers', 224
Eytelwein's Formula for Wat«r
Discharge of Pipe, 09
Fabrics, Cleaning, 17, 90, , 119,
124, 164, 165, 203, 306, 315, 348
, Cotton, Distinguishing
Worsted from, 105
, Dyeing, Black, 91, 245 , ' -'
, , Blue, 245
- — , , Turkey Red, 82 ;
, Fireproofing, 36, 53, 274
, Printing Photographs on,
87
, Removing Ink Stains from,
165, 203
, Waterproofing, 69, 80, 112,
199
- — , , Alumina Soap. for, 80
, ,-Hime and Node's Pro-
cess of, SO '
, , Holfert's Process of,
80
, , with Alumina Soap,
80
, , Rubber, SO
Pace, Composition for Blacken-
ing, 265
Facets, Cutting, on Stones, 337
Facework on Granite, •205, 245
Facing^Bricks, Red, 261
Factories, Air Space in, 239
Fahrenheit Thermometer, 304,
305
Degrees, Converting, to
Centigrade an d R6aumur, 304,
305
Falls for Drains, 227
Fan for Forge, •319
, Ivory, Repairing, 81
Farm Waggon, Painting, 308
, Varnishing, 308
Fasciae, Glass, Flat Grounds for;
■ 247
Fat Amber, 339
, Making Soap from (see Soap)
Oil of. Turpentine, 66
for Soft Soap Making, 328
Feathers, Cleaning, 354
, Curling, 354
, Dyeing, 34
, Ostrich, Bleaching, 2.57
, '; Dyeing, 163, 255
Feathers, Iron or Steel, for
I Splitting Granite, '238
364
Cyclopedia of Mechanics.
Feet (see Fool)
Felling Higli Clnmiiey Shaft, 115
FsUcea, Wlicel. l=atteni for, 290
, ,, Putting on, *31, 290
Felspar, 242
■ , China Clay formed from,
■ , Cntting, SSr
, ill Granite, 242
, ICanlin formed from, 242
, Pink, 242
■ , Polishing, 337
, Weather-resisting Proper-
ties of, 242
Felt, Cementing, to Irop Rollers,
SI
aii'l Corrugated Iron, Koof
01, '225
Hats, Cleaning, 286
, Reviving, 286
, Roofing with, 260
Fender Stool, *264
Feimentation of Koumiss, 348
Furii Case, *201
Ferrotype Cameras, ,252
Photography, 252
, — , Baths used in, *SOT
. Dipper used in, *307
Plates, 252
, Black Enamel for, 223
Fibres, Asbestos, 303
, Cotton, 'lOO
, Liuen, 'lOe
• , Silk, *106
, Wool, "106
Field Glasses showing Double
Image, 252
. Figures, Clay, Preserving, 36
, Hollow Sugar, 26
, Plaster, Giving Ivory Ap-
pearance to, 36
■ , for Modelling, 36
, , Preserving, 36
, Solid Sugar, 26
, Sugar, IVioulds for, 147
Files, Granite Cutting Chisels
made from, 323
, Polishing Brass Tubes with,
68
Filling for Blackboard Cracks,
84
Coarse-grained Woods,
324
Coffin, 40
' Engraved Ivory,- 31,
226
Plates, 102, 288
Headstone Lettering with
Lead, 323
lor Headstones, 164
Joints in Bamboo
Work, 263
Mandolines, 268
Oak, 324
Pine, 91
S'lft Snaps, 329
for SI eel Castings, 296
Teak, 324
Violins before Varnish-
ing, 18, 23
Fillings, Painters', 88
Films, Gelatine Photographic,
Colouring, 90
, Kodak, Developing, 57
Filter, Automatic Sewage, ♦203.
, iSacterial, for Sewage, 321
, Oil, 100, 275
, Water, 343
Filtering Bleaching Fluid, 800
Oil, 64
• by Heat, "125
Finder for Camera, 85, '148
Finishing wood. Metal, etc. {see
Staining, Polishing, and
Varnishing)
Finishing - irons, Shoemaker's,
Cutting, *63 \
Fir, Scotch, "SIS '
, Spruce, *B15
, : Strength of, 160
■ , , Weight of, ISO
Fire Cracks in Plaster Walls, 69
Engine, Chemical, 116
, Gas, Cause of Roaring in,
163
Grates, Black Varnish for,
313
Firedamp in Coal-mine, 254
File-eaters, Preparation used by,
86
Fireguard, Construction of, *71
Firelighters, *26S
Fireplace, Heatinfe Two Rooms
from, 285
Fireproollng Fabrics, 86, 63, 274
Theatre Scenery, 58
Wood, 35
Fires, Two, Heating Cylinder
from, 114
Firmer Chisels, Tempering, 310
Fish, Copper Pan for Frying,
198
, Fungoid Growth on, 276
Hook Bindings, Varnish for,
183
, Wax for, 183
, Keeping, in Tank, 276
, Mounting, 217
, Stuffing, 217
, , Preservative used in,
217
Tank, Circulation of Water
in, 276
, Management of, 276
Fishing Bait, Pastes for, 198
, Preserving Roach as,
270
, Landing Net for, ^157
Lines, Day, Making up, *234
for Eels, Making up,
•234
, Night, Making up, *234
~ , Silk, Waterproof Dress-
ings for, 64 217
Heel, Making, •237
Rod, Cycle, 303
, IS-feet Salmon, 303
, Sea-trout, 803
, 16-foot Salmon Fly,
303
, SjiUt Cane, 160
, Trout, 303
Stool, Three-legged Folding,
•21
, Wood for, 808
Fitches used in Painting, 57
Fitter for Spoke Tongues, 290
Fitzroy Barometer, 274
, He-filling, 11
Fixing Indian Ink, 242
Pencil Drawings, 130
Water-colours, 262
Flag Making, 351
Sigiial Code, 'Sei
Flagstaff Topmast, Fixing, to
Mainmast, 260
Flake White, 194
Flame Lampblack. 250
Soot-black, 250
Flash Glass, 207
Point of Oils, Ascertaining,
114
Flash-flue Washing Copper, •283
Flashings, Lead, ■'Biirnt-in" to
Stone, ^229
, Stepped, for Roofs, *331
Flattening Buckled Copper, 106
(see also Straightening) ,
or Filling for Steel Castings,
296
Fleece Washing, Soft Soap for,
328
Flesh Tints, Pigments to produce,
19, 343
Flesh-tinted Grease Paint, 343
FIcttage Watch Glasses, 344
Flint, Cutting and Polishing, 837
, Powdering, 161
Flint-agate, 363
Flirting or Hardening Drill, 300
Flitched Beam, Strength of, •102
Flong, Stereotyper's, 111
Floor (see also Paving)
of Assembly Room, Rolled
Joists for, •217
Blocks, Cutting, with Cir-
cular Saw, •330
— — Boards, Bleaching, 31
, Ilry Rot; in, 26
, Removing Paint from,
31
, Tightening up, With-
out Dogs, •lis
, Brick-paved, Concrete to
Covci', 01
, Cement, Grooves in, 320
'Floor, Coke-breeze Concrete, 145
— '-, Coloured Cement, 56
, Concrete, 86. 91,, 145, 235
of Cowhouse, 23.'j
, E,stimating Load on, 191
, Girder to .Support, 'igo
, Granolithic Concrete, 235
, Imitation Granite, 328
, Mosaic, Cleaning, 182
, Polishing, 148
Space in Barracks, 239
. Hospitals, 239
Schools, 239
of Stable, 235
, Stable, Groove^in, 320
Stains, Mixing and Aptily-
ins?:, 200
Tiles, Cleaning, 152
, Mosaic, Cleaning, 182
, White Cement, 131
; Wood-block, •245'
, , Mastic Asphalt for
Laying, 245
Flooring, Pavodilos, Joint in, 98
Florence Marble, 292
-. — Metal Leaf, 253
Flower Box for Window, 'Sll
Pot Stand, Design for, •246
I*ots, Window Board for,
•326
Flowers, Cut, Preserving, 305
Fluate, 'Treating Bath-stone with,
59 '
Flue, Heating Greenhouse from,
89
of Washing Copper, •283
Fluorspar, Cutting and Polisliimi,
337
Flushing Cisterns, Repairing,
•277
Flute, Spiral, Round Column,
•323
Flute, System of Fingering for,
»1,-j2
Flux (see also Soldering)
— — used in Joining Electric
Wires, 79
Melting Gold, 233
Soldering Gun
Barrels, 48
Tinning Copper
Vessels 57
Fl.y-fl.shing.'Rods for, 303
Fly-papers, Adhesive, 250
, PoidOnous, 281
Fog on Photographic Dry Plates,
74
Folding Fishing Stool, Three-
legged, ^21
■ Hand Camera, ^220
Stand for Baby's Cradle, ^41
Table, *143
Fontaine Moreau's Bronzes, 353
Food Bin for Poultry, Self-feed-
ing. *130
, Poultry, Rack for, •334
Foot (see also HooQ
, Lamb's, Making Wliip
Stock from, 318
, , Solution for Preserv-
ing, 318
Footpaths (see also Floor and
Paving)
— , Tar, Laying, 77, 81
, ~i — . Repairing, 77
Foot-stool, Round, ^281
Foot-wanner, Copper, ^62
FoiKC, Blowing Fun for, 'SIO
Forging Coupling Stiackles, ^67
— r. Bending Block
for, •67 '
Engine Rods, ^84
. Vehicle Axles, 66
Fortification Agate, 363
Fossil Copal, Distiijguishing Am-
ber from, 839
, Limestone, Polishing, 202
Fossil-flax Asbestos, 803
Fussil-paper Asbestos, 303
Fuuiidations. Concrete, 98
■ for Gas Engines, 21
. ■ Macadam Boads, 291
— Tall Chimney, 149, 184
Fountain fm' Greenhouse, •340
Fowls' House with Span Roof,
•;j39
Fraine, Apparatus for Bevelling,
•270
Frame, Carved, for Photograph,
•60
, Circular, covered with
Plush, •lOS
, Cork, Varnish for, 115
— -, Cramping, •302
— ^ for Divan Chair, '214
, Door, Elliptical Headed,
•13
, Bbonised, Repairing, 230
, Ebony, Combined Stain and
Polish for, 38 -
, , Polishing, 38
for Embroidery Working
•133
, Mahogany, Darkening, 132
, oak. Green Stain tor, 67
, Oval, Run in Cement, *221
, Oxford. ^247
, Picture, Applying Gold
Bronze to, 110
— r. Window, Putting Sash Lines
in, 47
for Wire Window-blind, '64
Framework for Punch and Judy
Show, 329
Table ^223
French Black Marble, 292
Brass, 864
-. — Celluloid, 262
Cork Boot, ^17
Gunpowder, 346
Metal Leaf, 253
— - Method of Silvering Metals,
86 -
Polish. 261
, Black, 314
, Brush, 233
Revivers, 26b
, Shellac for Making. 13
Transparent, 314
, White, 13, 314
for Yellow Pnie 142
Polished Wood, Gilding, 314
Polishers' Marquetry T^rans-
fers, 39
Polishing, 79
, Black, 314
■ — Decorated Wood, 299
Ebony Fretwork, 44
, Gums used in, 43 ^
Painted Furniture, 79
Planes. 311
, Preparing End-grain
Wood for. 111
Printed Wood, 299
. Red Oil used in 41
in Self Colours. 22]
Turned Teak, 261
Silvering Metal, 86
Ultramarine, 196
- Whipping Top, ?286
Fresco Buono, 289
Painting, 289
, Basis for, 289
. , Colours for, 289
, Plaster Coatings for,
2S9
■ Secco, 289
Fretting Ban.|o, 116, 216
Guitar, 89
Fretwork, Ebony. Polishing, 44
, Three-ply Wood for, 81
, Warped, Straightening, 81
Frieze, Cordclova, Bronzing, 42
, ■ , Giving Appearance of
Ivory to, 42
Fringe, Fixing, on Mautelboard,
181
Frost, Protecting Water Mains
from, 95
Frosted Silvering 'of Mirror,
Renovating, 41
Frosting Aluminium, 314
Silver, 345
Fruit' Stains, Removing, from
Boat Sail, 216
— , . — Linen, 17
Frustum of Right Cone, Pattern
for, 46
Frying Fish, Copper Pan for,
198
Fuel for Aluminium Furnaces,
218
Fulminate of Mercury, 181
Fumigating Brass. 5&
■ Mahogany, 149
Nickel, .288
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
365
Fumigating Oak Frames, 196
Silver, 66
Silver-plato, 5.^>
Fill" Necldet, Moth-eaterj, Eeno-
vating, 40
Skins <see also Skins)
, Cleaning. 19
, Cutting, 206
, Determining Quality
of, 1«
Fur, Removing, from Kittle, 25S,
276
, , Pipes, 362
Furnace for Aluminium Casting,
21S
, Crucible Steel. 'B9
Cupola, Bricks for, 30
, Electric, for Producing
Calcium Carbide, 28
for Melting Lead Ashes,
146
Wagon Springs, ♦59
Furnitm-e, Bent-wood, Blacken-
ing, 316
, — —, Renovating, 316
, Cheap, Varnisli for, 131 ,
' Coverings, Green Crocodile
Leather, Renovating, 329
, Maroou Repp, Reno-
vating, 349
, Silk, Cleaning, 806
, Decorating, with Marquetry
Transfers, 89,
■ , Dull Black Finish for, 102
, Enamelling, 147
, French Polishing (see
French Polishing)
. , Glaze for, 271
, Haud Cart for Carrying,
51
Leathers, Renovating, 207,
■269, 329
, Mahogany, Enriching Colour
of, 79 (see also Mahogany)
, Mites in, 120, 301
, Old Oak, Renovating, 184
, Painted, Polishing, 79
, Pohshed, White Spots on,
81
, Polishing (see French
Polishing)
, Removing Enamel Paint
tcom, 79
, Old Glue from, 227
, Paint from, 163
, Stain from, S5
, Varnish from, 79, 85,
163
, ■ Veneer from, 227
, Re-polishing, 219
Revivers, 299
, School, Yellow Finish for,
111
Upholstered in Velvet, Reno-
vating, 20?
, Varnish for, 131
, Veneered, Renovating, 227,
, Worm-eaten, 120, 301
Furred Kettle, Cleaning, 268, 276
Pipes, Cleaning, 352
Fusee Chain, Watch, Mending,
260
■ Lever Watch, Correcting
Barrel of, 346
Fusel Oil, Alcohols containing,
347
Fusible Plugs, 42
Fusing Point (see Melting Point)
Gaffard's Indelible Ink, 238 -
Gaiters, Buff Leatliei, Cleaning,
loa
Galena an Ore of Lead, 352
Gallery, Aunt Sally, 145
, Shooting, Grotesque Target
for, »97
Galls nsed in Ink Making, 211
Galvanised Iron, 336
Cones, Hollowing, 284
Tank Rusting, 309
Galvanising Iron and Steel, 174
Wire Articles, 221
Galvanometer, Watch-case, *66
Ganister Bricks, 30
Garden Arbour, *147
Hoes. Tempering, 310
Labels, White Paint for, 270
Puipp, »3S1
Tripod Stand for Telescope,
Vase in Cement, •228
Wicket Gate, •820
Garments, Cleaning (see Cleaning)
Garnet, Cutting and Polishing,
307, 33T
Gas, Acetylene (see Acetylene)
~ — , Afterdamp, 254
Black, 313
. B.;ickdamp, 254
Blackening Si Iver Goods, 42
Brackets, Bronzing, 61
■ , Dead Dipping, 61
, Dipping, 61
, Finishing, 61
Burners, Bray's Flat-flame,
Consumption by, 297
: Flat-flame and Bunsen
Compared, 92
, Incandescent; Illumin-
ating Powers of, 30l
■ , Self - lighting Incan-
descent, 269
■ , Welsbach, 23
, , Consumption by,
207
Carbonic Acid in Atmo-
sphere, 254
— , Coal-mine,
264
— - , Generator for,
329
Oxiijle, 254
Coal, Hydrogen in,' 269
Combustion, Products of,
a39
Consumption of Bray's and
Welsbach Burners, 297
Engine, Foundation for, 21
Fire Roaring, Cause of, 153
, Firedamp, 254
Fittings, Testing, 111 . '
— -, .Hydrogen, Bm-ning Lead
Seams with, 253
, •, in Coal Ga?, 269
Light, Making Photographic
Prints by,, 103
Mantle, Welsbach, 51
, Marsh, 254
Meter Defects, 45
, Muriatic Acid, 342
, Oxygen, 43
, , Wright's Method of
Preparing, 43
— ^ Pipes, Testing, 111
, Puiifying, 43
Retort Refuse, Artificial
Emeralds made from, 76
Station Meter, Beading, 83
, Stinkdamp, 254
Stove for Heating Laundry
Irons, '242
'■ Rack for Drying Clothes,
•837
, Sulphuretted Hydrogen, 264
, , Blackening Silver
Goods, 42
, Whitedamp, 254
Gas-cocks,, Brass, Casting and
Finishing, *61
Gases, Coal-mine, 254
, Injurious, from Gas Works,
187 , ,
, , Manure Works, 189
Gasholder Water, Preventing,
from Freezing, 111
Gate, Wicket, ^^20
Gates, Entrance, Tenons of, •124
Gaudin's Artifleial Rubies, 76
Gauge Boxes for Compo., *167
■ for Inlaying Purfling on
Violin, •308
Stringing, •164
• r Studs in Upholstery,
•210
, Pencil Marking, •133
Gauged Arch, Charging for, 236
-■ , Measuring for, *235
Stuff, Plasterers', 254
Gauges, Wire (see Wire Gauges)
Gauze Blinds '(see Wire Blinds)
Gedge's Draw-hook, ^297
Gelatine, 48
, Alcohol Solution of, 228
, American Method of Mak-
ing, 48
, Boilers or Pans nsed in
Making. 4S
for Casting Trusses, 189
, Liming Raw Materials for
Making, 48
• Moulds, 130
Photographic Films, Colour-
ing, 90
, Raw Materials for, 48
Syrup, Clarifying, 89
Gems, Artificial, 76
, Colouring Matter of, 76
: Distinguishing Artificial
from Real, 76 ,
, Engraving, 192
Gene\'a Watch, Fixing Loose End-
stone in, 274
■ , Putting, in Beat, 89
, Repairing Jewel Hole
in, 59
, Setting Jewel Hole in,
251
, Taking Apart, 119
Genoa Green Jilarble, 292
Gertaan Silver, Gilding Liquid
for Dipping, 209
' , Thernio-electric Prop-
erties of, 90
, Yeast, 166
Gesso 250, 261
, Executing Designs m, 261
, Ingredients of, 250
Ghost Illusion for Amateur
Theatricals, 54
Giallo Aritico Mai-ble, 292
—. — Avorio Marble, 292'
Canarino Marble, 292
Gig, Cushion for, 314 (see also
Cushion)
Gilded Chain, Stripping Gold
fi-om, 273
Silver, Removing Gold from^
231
Watch-plates, Cleaning, 237
Gilders' Compo,, 250
Putty, 853
Stopping, 250
Whiting, 250
Gilding (see als6 Gold)
Black French -polished Wood,
314
Brass, 209
Chains, 351
Bronze,, 209 ,
Copper, 274
■ Chains, S.'il
, Electro (see Gold Plating)
Figured Oak, 267
, Size for, 267
German Silver, 209'
Glass, 125, 146, 339
■ by Chemical Process,
297
Leather, 80
■ Lettering on Granite Head-
stone, 323
Lines on Boat, 109
= Liquid for Dipping Metals,
209
Metal without Battery, 351
Oak, 207
• , Size for, 287
Piano Fronts, 118
Signboards, 152
Silver,, 209
Chains, 351
Soldered Joints of Plaxed
Goods, 114
Solutions, 154, 274, 807
Steel Pins, 77
Watch Plates, 289
— - Wire Blinds, 214
without Battery, Liquid.Gold
for, 184
Gilt Bronze Ware, Cleaning, 841
Cliains, Deepening Colour of,
150
Gin, Amount of Alcohol in, 847
Ginger Beer, 338
Girard Turbine, 99
Girder to Support Floor, *190
■ Girders, Comparative Designs of,
161
for Carrying Roof, *226
Glac^ Kid Gloves, 286
' — , Polishing, 286
^- Leather, 286
Glass Balls, Smoothing, 117
Beads, 41
, Bevelling, Wheels for, '314
, Black Paint for Lettering,
130
Blowpipes for Eggs, 811
Bottle, Cutting, 238
Cells for Microscope, 73
, Cementing, in Aquarium,
, , to Celluloid, 236
, , Metal, 232
, , Slate, 232
^, , Wood, 232
. , — r- Xylonite, 236
, Cements for, 61, 282, 236,
353
Circles, Cutting, 133
Ci ivers for Microscope Slides,
133
Drilling, 106, 294
, Drills for, 294
: — , Hardening Drills for,
294
, Lubricants for, 294
-, Tempering Drills for,
294
, Embossed, Sun Printing
on, 308
, Bmbo.ssing,t248
, , White Acid for, 107
Etching, 308
, , in Gold, 339
Fascias, Backgrounds for,.
247
~ — , Fiicing Transfers on, 301
, Flash, 207 '
, — — , Bending, 207
, Gilding, 126, 146, 839
, — , by Chemical Process,.
297
, Heat-resisting Cements for,
232
, Ink for, 273
, Indelible Ink for, 238
, Inks for, 238, 273
Lamp-reservoirs, Cementing,-
263
' , Brass Rims to, 253
, Removing Rims from,
119
Lens, Distinguishing, fronk
Pebble, 275
r. Lettering, by Sand-blast, 16
Letters, Cementing, to Win-
dow, 232
Louvre Ventilator for Shop
Window, *84
, Matting, 158
, Obscuring, "with Acid, 158
, Opal, Paint for Lettering,
261
, Opaque Coloured, 91
, Paints for Marking, 130^
261, 273
, Plate, Bevelling, 119
, , Flat Grounds for, 247
, , Painting Lines on, 126
Polishing, Wheels for, •314
Positive, Blocking out on,
319
, Copying, 158
Putty or Cement, 363'
, Puttying, in Window Frame,.
•109
, Removing Crystoleum Pic-
ture from, 161
, Oil -painted Letters
from. 111
, Porcelain Letters from,.
220
- — Roof, Preventing Condensed
Moisture Dropping from , *299
— — , Sand-blast Process of Let-
tei'ing, 16
Shade, Cracked, Cutting, 187
Signs, Rosewood Graining
on,'277
, Silvered, Renovating,' 41
——, Silvering, 72, 108
, , Table used in, ^72
— r. Sketching on, 148
, Stencil Ink for, 273
Tanks for Magic Lanterns^
•61
366
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
Glass, Transpai-ent Cement for,
61, -232
Ware, Cementing Brass Col-
lars to, 253
, BernoVing Brass Col-
lars from, 119
Glasses, Eve, for Watchmakers,
2n
; Field, showing Double
Image, 252
, Ojiera, Photographing witli,
*3SU
, Watch, 344
, , Che\ es, 344
■ , , FlettaRB, 344
, , Poiiitillage, 844
Glass-faced Swinging Sign, *295
Ghiss-ii nnted Hanging Cupboard,
*222 ,
Glaze for Finishing Furniture, 271
, Pottery, 18 '
— i Terracotta Tiles, 18
, White, 20
, , for Earthenware, 18
Glazed Photographic Prints,
M.'untantfor, 190, 228
Tiles, Cutting, 19, 244
Glazing Clay Pipes, 28, 86
Earthenware, 18
Kni\'es, *343
, Lead-light, 74
, , Ceinent for, 74
, , Stopping for, 74
Photographic Prints, 190, 280
• Ten-a-cotta Tiles, 18
• Window Frame, 'lOS, 342
Glauber's Salt, 260
Glolie, Celestial, Cleaning, 261
, J, Renovating, 251
, , Varnishing, 251
Glossy Black, Plumber's, 326
Glove, Handkerchief, and Jewel
Case, •140
Leather, 78
• , Castor, 286
, Dyeing, 78, 164
, Glace, 286
, Skins for Making, 78,
286
, Tanning, 78
, Undressed, 286
Gloves, Black Kid, Polishing, 286
. , Brown Kid, Cleaning, 198
■ , Cleaning, ,311
, Kid, 286
, , Cleaning, 22
, , Dyeing, 169
, , Polishing, 286
, , Sizes of, 286
, , Staining, 164, 169
, Washleather, Gleaning, 811
Gloy for Labels, 234
Glue, 4S
, American Method of Making,
48
, Boilers or Pans for Making,
48
, Liming Raw Materials for
Making, 48
■ — '-, Lip. 236
, Liquid. 258
, , Preservatives for, 290
, Marine, 116, 129, 236, 241
, Mouth or Lip, 236
, Raw Materials for Making,
48
: , Removing Old, from Furni-
ture, 237
S.vrup, Clarifying, 89
, Waterproof, 241
Glycerine in Typewriter Inks,
74
G]iftiss an Aluminium Compound,
341
Goat Honis, Polishing, 65
Skins, Chrome Tanning, 84
, Curing, 89
, Softening, 169
Gold Alloys, Colouring, 36, 46,
54
Braid, Cleaning, 190
, Brittle, 233
. Bronze Powders, 116, 253
(For details see Bronze
Powders)
, Ajjplying, 110, 121
Cardboard Mounts, 108
■ , Cleaning, 350
Gold, Cementing Celluloid to,
286
Chain, Burnt, Restoring
Ooh.urof, 264
Cliloride, 297
Cyanide, 263
, Dissolved, Precipitating, 353
, 18-carat, 233
, Etching Glass in, 339 ,
, Ethereal Solution of, 270
, Flux used in Melting, 283
Lacquer lor Brass, 258
Tin, 268
Leaf applied to Glass, 146
■ Leather, 30
, Imitation, 253
Lettering on Wire Blinds,
175
— ^.Liquid, for Gilding without
jBattery, 184
— ~ Moiints,'Cleaning, after En-
graving, 255
, Engraving, 255
Paint, lOB, 263, 254
, Pickle for, 46
Plating (see also Electro-
gilding)
Aluminium, 300
, Cyanide of Gold for,
268
, Solutions for, 154, 274,
800, 807, 312
Steel Pins, 77
without Battery, 351
, Printing in, 277
, Refining, 180
, Removing, fi-om Gilded
Silver, 231
, Lead from, 77
- — Rings, Hard-soldering, 152
, Separating, from Ashes, 04
Stain for Alabaster, 240
, Stripping, from Plated
Articles, 358
— — , Testing Gravel for, 77
, Value of, 115
Veins in Book Edge Marbling,
112
Wire Jewellery, 69
Golden Brown Paint for Castings,
154
Yellow Varnish for Straw
Hats, 60
Gold-lining Picture Mounts, 81,
110
Golf Balls, 21
Goloshes, Patching, 296
, , Cement for, 296
Goods Hoist, *319
Lift, •320
Gothic Arch, Elliptic, ^195
Gouges, Sharpening, 301
Gradient, Hydi-aulic, of Sewer
or Pipe, "aes
— - of Watercourse, Setting Out,
♦324
Gradients, 262
Grain Fillers, 18, 23, 40, 91, 824
Graining, Light Oak, 148
, Mahogany, in 'Water-colour,
150
Millboard to Imitate Walnut,
197
, Rosewood, on Glass Signs,
277
, Walnut, 853
, — — , in Water-coIoUr, 142
Gramniont Marble, 2t»2
Gramophone, Clockwork Motor
for, •68
Grand Antique Marble, 292
Grandfather Clock, Striking Gear
of, •201
Granite, 242
, Axed. 206, 245
, Composition of, 242
, Cori-osion of, 242
Crystals, 242
Cutting Chisels made from
Files, 323
, Dressed, 246
, Facework on. •206, 246
, Felspar in, 242
for Macadam Road, 291
Floor, lujitatiiin, 828
, Ilanuner-blocked, 20,j
, Hammer-dressed. 206
, Hammer-faced, 205
Granite Ple.idstone Lettering,
Cutting, 323
-^ — , Filling, with
Lead, 323
, GOding, 823
, Hornblende in, 242
, Iron in, 2i2
Macadam, 172
, Marcasite in, 242
, Mica in, 242
, Origin of, 242
, Patent-axed, 206, 245. 282
Pavement, Scoring, 218
, Picked Faced, 245
, Pink Felspar in, 242
, Polishing, 206, 245, 819
, Punch-faced, 246
, Quartz in, 242
, Koekwork-faced, 245
, Rustic-faced, 245
, Scabbled, 206
, Single-axed, 245
Splitting T<]0ls, •238, •282
, Stunning, 245-
, Syenitic, 242
Tar-paving, 81
, Tools for Dressing, •206,
•238, •246, •282
, Tooth-axed, 245, 282 ' ^
, Weather -resisting Properties
of, 242
Granolithic Concrete Floor, 235
Graphs for Copying Written
Matter, 180
Grass, Dyeing, 180
in Models 817
— -, Pampas, Dyeing, 12
Grate Area of Vertical Boilers,
15
Grates, Black Vaniish for, 313
Gravel, Testing, for Gold, 77
Gravestone, Black Filling for, 164
, Blackening Letters on, 213
, Cleaning, 269
, Granite, Chisels for Letter-
ing, 323
, -, Cutting Letters on,
323
Lettering, Filling, with
Lead, 323
, Gilding, 828
, Removing Tar Paint from,
196
Grease, Bone, Bleaching, 162
, Cart, 107
Paiuts, 343
Stains, Removing, from En-
gravings, 206
, , Cloth, 164,
315
, — — , Furniture,
316
, , Wall-paper,
22
for Under- carriage of Victoria,
119
Grease-proofing Wooden Pill
Boxes 384
Green Billiard Chalk. 169
Oh)th, Dyeing. Black, 245
Crocodile Leather, Restor-
' ing Colour of, 829
, Emerald, 194
Glaze for Tobacco Pipes,
28
Lakes. 194
Liquid for Chemists' Show
Bottles, 13, 293
Luminous Paint, 263
Portland Cement, 313
Soft Soap, 320
Stain for Alabaster. 240
— Billiard BalLj, 318
Oak Picture Mould-
ings, 67
Wood, 103
• Varnish for Straw Huts, 50
Varnish-paint for Venetian
Blinds, 241
Greenhoart, Strength of, 160
; Weight of, 150
Greenhouse Fountain in Sheet
Metal, ^340
, Heating, by Flue, 89
, , , Hot Water. 173
Topiail, Shaping, 'lib'
Greenstuff Poultry-food, Rack
for, •384
Grey Luminous Pamt, 263
Grinrling (see also Cutting and '
Polishing)
Moulding Cutters, Machine
■ for, •216
Shells, 268
, Speculum, 163
Griotte d'ltalie Marble, 292
Gris de Barse Marble, 292
Grocer's Hoist, ^319 -
Gi'oaves in Cement Floor, 320
Grooving Sashes, Machine for,
•269 '
Ground Colour for Walnut Grain-
ing, 858
Group Photograph, Removing
' Figure from, 21.'-
Grubes's Thiosavorial Soap, 300
Guard for Circular Saw, *62
Fireplace, *71
Guitar Finger-board, Inlaying
Raised Frets in, 89
Gum Bichromate Process of
Photography • 19
Copal, Dissolving, 1'27
for Envelopes, 234
, Liquid, 169
, , Preserving, 169
for Postage Stamps, 234
, Preservative for, 290
Gumming Labels on Iron, 234
Gums used in French Polishing,
43
Gun, Air, ^256
- — Barrel.-i, Bluing, 192
, Boring, 836
, Soldering, 48
, Soldering Catch on,
343
— - , , , , Flux for, 48
Springs, Tempering, 55, 191
Stock, Walnut, Vamish for,
77
Gun-metal, Breaking Stress of,
163
Castings, Acid Pickle for,
97
Gunpowder, 346
, Explosive Power of, 346 ^
, Various Kinds of, 346
Gutters, Box, on Roofs, 818
, Cast-iron, Fixing, '202
, Lead, Repairing, 251
, Roof, Sizes of, 168
Gypsum, 17
, Action of, 17
, Calcining, 17
, Kilns for. 17
, Mining, 17
H
Hair Mattress, 132
, Blind-stitching, '207
Wash, 239
Hairing Skins, 78 ,
Violin Bows, '214
Hairsprings, Lever Clock, Test-
ing, 298
, Watch, 137
— -, , , Fitting, 68, 135
, , Straightening, 283
, — , Timing, 66
Halation in Photographic Nega-
tives, 313
Half-tester Bedstead, Paint for,
59
, Re-lacquering Brass-
work of, 69
, Removing Lacquer
from Brasswork of, 59
, Paint from, 69
, Re-painting, 69
Half-tone Process, 161
Hall Racks, •381, •846
Hall's Method of Producing Alu-
minium, 341
Hammer, Mash or Maul, •205,
, •238 ■
, Scabbling, '61
, Spa\il or Spall, •23S, ^282
Hammer - headed Chisel for
Granite, •288
Hammers for Hollowing Tin-
plate, 71
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
367
Hiuiil Camera (see Camera)
Cart, »833
for Carrying Furniture,
61
Drill for Granite, '238, •2S2
Guards, tor Singlesticks,,
•30S,
Shears for Sheet Iron, *210
Hand-feed Electric Arc Lamp,
•314
' Handkerchief, Glove, and Jewel
Case, Combined, *140
Handles, Bone, Removing Ink
. Stains from, 82
, Cementing Knife Tangs into,
253
' ■ , Chisel, Polishing, 227
, Walking-stick, Fixing, 43
Hanging Baby's Swing, *206
— r, Cupboard, Glass-fronted,
•222
Hall Backs, •331, •346
Hard Soldering (see Brazing and
Soldering)
Hardening .^abaster, 240
. ,Box (see Box-hardening)
— ^ Cart Axle Aims, 163
' Boxes, 163
, Case (see Case-hardening)
Clock Pallets, 214
Copper, 182
Cycle Cones, 198
Drills, 284, 300
- — Taps for Watchwork, 14, 87
Zinc, 335
Hardness of Lens, Testing, 275
-Water, 102
Harness Composition, Water-
proof, 161, 307
-^ to. Black, 247
— ^ Polish, Black, 233
Harp, Double-action, Pedals for,
81 -" , '
, , Principle of, 81
Hatch CoverSj-Waterproodng, 199
Hats, Felt, Cleaning, 286
, — — , Eeviving, 286
, Grey Felt, Eeviving, 286
, Hack for, •331, *346
, Straw, Cleaning, 338
, ■, Stiffening for, 145
, , Varnishes for, 50
Efausmann's Indelible Ink, 233
Hautefeuille and PeiTy's Arti-
hcial Emeralds, 76
Heads, Modelling, in Fapier-
Maeh4, 63
Headstones, Black Filling for, 164
, Blackening Letters on, 213
, Granite, Chisels for Letter-
ing, 323
, — — ,'Cntting Letters on, 323
Lettering, Filling, with
Lead, 328 ■
. ^'-^ , Gilding, 323
■ Removing Tar Paint from,
196
Heap of Material, Contents of,
•210
Hearth, Curb for, *244
, Removable Tile, '244
, Tile, 302
Tiles, 244
, Cutting, 244, 302
Heat, Filtration of Oil by, *125
Heating Bird-room, '202
Buildings by Hot Water, 146
Chicken Rearer, •148
Cucumber House, 36
Drying-room by Steam; 91,
208 ■
Greenhouse by Flue, 89
Hot Water, ^173
Laundry Irons, Stove for,
•242
SsJioolroom, 8^
, Steam, System of, '228
— ^Surface of Radiators, Cal-
culating, 122
— ^Two Rooms from One Fire-
. place, 'ass
Heat-resisting Cements for China,
232
"- — Compo. for Steam Boilers,
120
^ Pipes, 65
Paint for Glass, -273
Heelball, Filling Bamboo Joints
with, 268
Height above Sea Level, Deter-
mining, 336
Hektograph or Graph, 180
Heliotrope, Cutting and Polish-
ing, 337
Hemp Oil Soft Soap, 329
Herault Method of Producing
Aluminium, 341
Herb Beer, 388
Hexagonal Nut5, Whitworth, 100
Hides (see also Skins)
^ — , Raw, Making Engs from,
184 ,
Higgins's Typewriter Ink, 74
Hime and Norte's Waterproofing
Process, 80
Hinging Soi-een Frames, ^94
Hip Ratter Bevels, 'S7
Hipped End of King-post Hoof
Truss, •828
Hipjiopotamus Ivory, 262
Historique Marble, 292
H6es, Tempering, 310
Hoist, Grocer's, 'SIO
Hoisting Materials for Tall
Cliimney, 85
Holes in Briclis, Boring, 131
-Corrugated Iron, Punch-
ing, 229
Glass, Drilling, 106
Holfert's Waterproofing Process,
80
Hollow Balls, Wooden, *326
Hollowing Cones in Sheet Metal,
284
Kettle Bodies, 71
Tops, 71
Saucepan Belly, 146
Tin-plate, 71
■ — , Block for, 71
, Hammers for, 71
Honduras Mahogany, Strength
of, 150
^. , Weight of, 160
Hood for Camera Lens^ *345
■ Invalid Carriage, *290
Hnofs (see also Foot)
,- Cow's, Making Pin-
cushions from, 300
, , Polishing, 309
Hooks, Draw-bar, ^297
Hoop round Bucket, *45
Hoop-iron Band for Brickwork,
127
Hornblende in Basalt, 256
Granite, 242
Horns, Antelope, Eemoving
cores from, 281
, Goat, Cleaning, 65
, — — , Polishing, 65
, Ox, Polishing, 302
, Stag, Cleaning, 77
, , Mounting, '77
, , Mounts for, *77
Horse, American Breast Collar
for, 162
, Kicking, Stocks for Shoe-
ing, *43
Horse for Mortising Wheel Naves,
135
Horse-po^er and Man-power,
267
Hospitals, Air Space in, 239
, Floor Space in, 239
Hot-air Oven, •132
Hot -box for Negatives and
Lantern Slides, *26
Hot-water Apparatus, '127, ^146
-, Cylinder System, 'ISS,
•258
, Safety Valve on, 190
. Cement to withstand, 146
'Cylinder with Two Boilers,
124
Expansion Pipe, 117
, Heating Buildings by, 146
, Greenhouse by, 173
^^:_Two Booms by, from
One Fireplace, *235'
Pfpes, Applying Asbestos
' Paste to, 286
, Caulked Joints in, 821
, Cementing, 30
, Cleaning, 352
. Clicking Noise in, 115
, .Joints for, 247, '347
Hot-water Pipes, Removing Lime
Deposit from, 352
System with Secondary
Circulation, *258
Tank, Noise in, 28
House, Cucumber, Heating, 86
, Danjp Walls in, 218
Drain, Connecting, to Deep
Sewer, *23
— — , Dwelling, Choosing, 80
, Fowls', with Span Hoof, •339
— — fcir Pigeons, •219, •296
Porch, ^33
, Re-painting, 20
, Ridding, of Ants, 176
■ ■ , Bugs, 226
Howe Sewing Machine, 251
Hydraulic Cement, 240
Gradient of Sewer or Water
Pipe, •263
Lifts, 71
Lime Mortar, Distinguish-
ing, 286
Mean Depth, *68
■ Ram, 163
Hydrochloric Acid, 342
, Commercial, ,34!s
, Specific Gravity of,
342
Hydro-extractor for Oxidising
Oils, 263
Hydrogen Gas, Burning' Lead
Seams with, 253
in Coal Gas, 269
Peroxide, 806
Hydrometer Degrees, Beaum6,
compared wit;h Specific
Gravities, 160
— ,— , ' Twaddel, compared
with Specific Gravities, 68,
266
, Tvyaddel, 68, 266
Hypersthene in Basalt, 256
Hypo, Testing Negatives for, 306
D
Iberian Agate Marble, 292
Ichthyol Soap, 300
Igneous Rocks, 242
Illusion, Ghost, for Amateur
Theatricals, 64
Image, Reflected, 162
Imitating Dove Marble, 334
Mahogany on Plaster, 68
'■ — Wood, 105
Walnut Wood, 363
Imitation Alabaster (see Ala-
baster)
Earth for Cases of Stuffed
Birds, 173
Gems (see Gems, Artificial)
Granite Flooring, 328
Grass in Modfel%, 317
Plaster Frieze,' Bronzing, 42
, Giving Ivory
Appearance to, 42
Rock, 218
Sandstone, 218 .
Tortoiseshell, 168
Vaseline, 211
Imperial Yellow, 293
Incandescent Burner for Oil,
•161 '
Burners, Gas Consumption
of, 297
, Illuminating Powers
of, 301
— ^ , Self-lighting, 269
— . , Welsbach, Using, 23
Electric Lamps, Illuminat-
ing Powers of, 301
Mantle, Welsbach, 61
Incense, 336'
Indelible Inks (see Ink)
Writing, Bellando s, 233
Indian Ink, 238
—. , Fixing, 242
Ivory, 262
Red, 194
Indiarubber Cement, 62, 241
- — , Cementing, to Canvas, 283
Shoes, Ee-soling, 276
Solution, 62, 141, 241
, Solvents for, 62, 141, 241 ■
Indiarubber Stamp, Autograph
Mould for, 89
Ink, 100, 225
Inkrpad, 91
Tubing, 136
, Vulcanised, Utilising, 121
Washers for Taps, 283
, Waterproofing Fabiios witli,
80
Indicator Diagrams, Determining
Engine Power ftom, '92
Indigo, 194
Colour, Dyeing Feathers to,
34
for Grain Soft Soaps, 329
Ingle Nook with Sanded Roof,
•332
Ink, Artists' Black, 247
, Bellande's Patented, 238
, Black, 212
, Drawing, 247
, , for Rubber Stamps,
225
, , Typewriter, 74
, Waterproof Ticket, 137
, Blue, 213
, Blue-black, 211
, Branding, 35
, Buchner's Carmine, 223
— —, China, 238, 247 (see also Inte.
Indian, below)
, Close's Indelible, 238
, Copying, 220
, , for Typewriter, 74
, Dressing Blackboards with,
231
Erasers, 90
, Gaflard's Indelible, 238
for Glass, 238, 273
, Hausmann's Indelible, 238
, Heat-resisting, for Glass,
278
, H'ggins's, for 'rypewriter,74
, Indelible, 238
, , for Glass, 238
, Marking, 238
, , for Metal, 238
, Indian, 238
, , Fixing, 242
, , for Glass, 238
, , Metal, 233
, Invisible, 104
, Marking, 108, 216, 238
Pad for Rubber Stamps, 91
of Typewriter, Ke-
charging, 97
Paper, 266
Powders, 266
— -, Printers' (see Printers' Ink)
Process of Copying Drawings,
236
, Red, 223
, ^r- Copying, 220
, Stencil, 37
, Eubber Stamp, 100, 226
, Secret, 104
, Shuttleworth's, for Type- ,
writer, 74
, Soluble Prussian Blue for
Making, 41 ,
Stains, Removing, from
Boards, 166
, , Bone, 62
, , Cloth, 165.
Ivoiy, 203
Imitation
— Linen, 203
— Mahogany,
— Marble, 233
— Paper, 203
— Parchment,
-Plated Goods,
— Silver, 165
-, Table-
■ — Veneer, 203
-WhileCloths,
203
165
covers, 165
— ' ) )
166
-, , Wood, 166,
203
-, Stencil, 37, 218
-, , for Glass, 273
-, Svmpatlietic, 228
-, Ticket, 137
368
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
Ii,ik, Typowi'iter (see Typewriter
Ink)
- — , violet Copying, 220
, , for Bnliber Stamps,
100, 225
, , Typewriter, 74
, Waterproof Black Ticket
137
, — ■ Writing, 212
, lYliite, 229
Inl<ing Typewriter Pad, 91
■ Ribbons, 307
Inlaying Pearl on Metal, 279
- — Purfling on Violin, Gaufe
for, *30S
Raised Frets on Guitar
Fingerboard, 89
Stringing in Cabinet Work,
•164
Inlays, Beanmontage, 268
■ , Black, for Mandolines, 268
, Marqnetrie, Sliarting, 172
• , , Staining, 1S2
Insect Cases, Cork-lined, 'SOO
Enveloijes, *306
Insects in Fnrniture, 120, 301
, Killing, 72, 81, 806
, Killing-bottle for, 81
. Preventing, from Attacking
Clothes, 211
, Ridding House of, 176, 226
, Setting, 226, 243
, Setting-boards for, 213
Instruments, Brass Musical,
Loosening Slides of, 228
— , — , Removing Dents
from, 168, 261
, , Solder for Braz-
ing, 200
— — , Surgical, Oilstone for, 24G
, , Tempeiing, 310
, Wind, Boehm Sy.'jf;em of
Fingering for, •162
Insulator, Electrical, Mica as, 41
Intensifying Photograpliic Nega-
tives, 155, 806
Internal Doors, Height and Width
of, 162
Invalid Carriage Hood, •290
Invalid's Bed-rest, •139
Self-propelling Chair, •345
Invisible Inks, 104
Involute Curve, *226
Irish Black Marble, 292
Fossil Marble, 292
Iron Bedstead (see Bedstdad)
■ . Black Bronze for, 308
, Blackening, 330
, Brazing, 60
', , Spelter for, 60
; Cast, Breaking Stress of, 163
Castings, Cement for Blow-
holes ill, 58
■- , Malleable, 326
, , Annealing, 326
, , Patterns for, 326
— - Cement, 58
, Cementing Felt to, 81
, Leather to, 129
Cones, Hollowing, 284
and Copper Lamp (see Lamp)
, Comigated (see Corrugated
Iron)
Cnrbs for Tile Hearths, 244
, Galvanised, 336
, Galvanising, 174
in Granite. "242
- -^, Oxide of, 149
, Pasting Labels on, 235
Peroxide as Pigment, 194
Polishing Mediiim,
29
, Removing old Paint from,
59, 233
, Bust from, 269
Roller, Pattern for, 243
Rollers, Cementing Felt to,
81
Roof, 'ISO
, Kn.sty, Cleaning, 269
, Sheet, Hand Shears for Cut-
ting, '210
Stains, Removing, from Mar-
ble, 143
Tank, Galvanised, going
Rusty, 309
• , Thermo-electric Properties
of, !)0
Iron Wire, Calottlatilig Weight of,
56
, Tinning, 214, 227
, Wrought(see Wrought Iron)
Iron-facing Electrotypes, 313
Ironfounding, Stump Moulding
in, 36, ^64
Ironmould Stains, Removing,
from Linen, 203
Ironmoulding Machine, 36
Iron-plating, 818
Irons, Laundry, Stove for Heat-
ing, 242
, Shoemakers' Finishing, *53
Ironwork, Carriage, Blackening,
301
- — , -^ — , Japaqs lor Blacken-
ing, 301
, , Varnishing, 17, 301
, Jaunting Car, Blackening,
302
, Ship's, Cork Paint for, 68
Isabelle Marble, 292
Istrian Marble, 292
Ivory, 262
, African, 262
Bark, 262
Billiard Balls (see Billiard
Balls)
, Black, 194
, Bleaching, 251, 262, 280
and Bone, Ditl'erence be-
tween, 262
, Bone as Substitute for, 262
, Ceylon, 262
, Gutting, with Cylindrical
Saw, 306
, Distinguishing, from Cellu-
loid, 295
, Dyeing, 262, 318
, Engraved, Filling, 31, 226
, Engraving, 31
Fan, Repairing Broken, 31
, Flexibility of, 262
, Hippopotamus, 262
, Imitation, Removing Ink
Stains from, 203
, Indian, 262
Kiiys, Bleaching, 310
, Cleaning, 310
• , Pr'feservingj 310'
, Mammoth, 262
- — , Narwhal, 262
Piano Keys, Polishing, 295
, Removing
Sci attehes from, 295
, Renovating, 295
, Polishing, 251, 296, 318
, Removing Grain Marks
from, 249
, Scratches from, 296
, Siberian, 262
, Staining or Dyeing, 202,
318
, Substitutes for, 262
, TreatingArticlesto resemble,
36, 42, 157
Walking -stick. Straighten-
ing, 249
, Walru?, 262
, Whale, 262
Jack Rafters, Fixing, "209 .
Jade, Cutting and Polishing, 337
Japan (see also Enamel)
, Air-drying, 301
, Baking, 801
for Ciin-iage Ironwork, 301 '
Japanning (see Enamelling)
Jar, Stoneware, Cutting, 51
Jaaper, Cutting and Polishing,
337
Jasper-agate, 353
Jaune Lamartine Marble, 292
• Oriental Brown Marble, 292
■ • Grey Marble, 292
St. Beaume Marble, 292
Victoria Marble, 292
Jaunting Car Ironwork, Blacken-
ing, 302
, Staining, 302
, Varnishing, 802
Jenny, Ropemakor's, 309
Jewel Box and Scent Cabinet
Combined, •189
Case Combined with Glove
and Handkeichief Case, '140
with Secret Drawers,
•86
Hole in Geneva Watch, Set-
ting and Repairing, 59, 251
Jewelled Ring, Soldering, 326
Jewellers' Rouge, 29i 49
Jewellery, Gold, Colouring, 36,
46, 64
, Wire, 69 .
Jewelling RegulatorCIock Pallets,
307
Joinery, Making Panelled Doors
in, *2S5
, Saw-vice used in, *60
Joining (see also Cement, Cement-
ing, and Joint)
Seven-strand Electric Cables,
n
Tortoiseshell, 250
Joint, Caulked, in Hot-water
Pipes, 321
, , Steam Pipe, 11
— —J Cement, for Drain Pipe, 191
, Copper Pipe, Wiping, *62
for Hot- water Pipe, 30, 247,
•347
of Kitchen Boiler Tap Leak-
ing, 202
for Lead Soil Pipe, 247
, Oblique Mortise-and-Tenon,
•196
, Pavodilos, in Flooring, *98
, Pipe, Borings, Cement for, 11
, Plumber's Astragal, 172, 247
, Expansion, 247
'-, Slip, 247
, Underliand, '88
, Socket, of Steam Pipe, 11
in Waste Pipe, 247
Watch Case, Soldering,
66
Joints in Bamboo Work, Filling,
' 263
of Cooking Range, Cement-
ing, 73
Oval Cask, Bevels for,
•6G
• Plated Goods, Re-gild-
ing, 114
Joinville Marble, 292
Joists for Assembly-room Floor,
•217
Jonval Turbine, 98
Jug, Silver, Obliterating En-
graved Crest on, 121
, , Spinning, in Lathe, *14
Jumper for Dressing Granite, ♦238
K
Kallitype Photographic Process,
96
Kaolin, 32
formed from Felspar, 242 ,
, Impurities of, 32
, Mica, in, 32
, Mining, 32
, Washing, 32
Kauri Pine, Strength of, 150
, Weight of, 150
Keene's Cement, Running Oval
Frame in, •221
Kef or Koumiss, Russian, 348
Kennel, Dog, •So, ^255, •362
Kerbing, Curved, '217
Kettle Bodies, Hollowing, 71
, Brass, Removing Dent from,
178
— — , Copper, Soldering Spout on,
89
, Removing Fur from, 268, 276
Tops, Hollowing, 71
Key Actions of Pipe Organs, 167
-. — Stems, Brazing, 'Sll
Keys, Piano, Cleaning, Bleach-
ing, and Preserving, 296, 810
, ■, Diutinguislilng Ivory
from Celluloid, 296'
, — '-, .Polishing, 295
- — , ,■ Removins Scratches
from, 2^6
Kid Boots, Polish for, 35S
Gloves (see Gloves)
Leather, 78
, Castor, 286
, Dyeing, V8, 164
, Glaci, 286
, Polishing, 78
; Tanning, 78
, Undressed, 286
Shoes, Staining, Brown, 16!>
• , White, Cleaning, 22
Kilkenny Marble, 292
Killing Butterflies, etc., 72, 81,
306 , '
Killing-bottle for Insects, 72, 81
Kiln for Burning Bricks, •175
Gypsum, 17
- — ■ Limestone, 120
Kilowatt : Meaning of Term, 142
King-post Roof, Scantlings for,
232
Truss, Hipped End of,
•328
Kip Work, Size for, 228
Kitchen Boiler, Preventing Rust
in, 142
Tap and Joints Leaking.
'202
Ohalirs, Rs-varnishing, 2.59
, Varnish lor, 131, 259
Chimney, Smoky, 83
Range, Fastening Brass Tan
to, 151
Table, *171
Knife Blades, Etching, 11
, Boot Clicker's, Sharpening,
247
, Glazing, •343
— — Handles, Bone,i Removing
Ink Stains from, 32
, Stopping, *343
Tangs, Cementing, into-
Handles, 253
, Umbrella-maker's, •164
for Woodcarving, •326
Knives, Tempering, 310
Knotting, Painters', 91
', , Treating Creosoted
Timber with, 154
Knots showing through White
Enamel, 162
Kodak, Enlarging with, •OS
Films, Developing, 57
, Hints on using, 54
Koumiss or Kumyss, 348
Ki^tter's Formula for Water Dis-
charge of Pipe, 69
Labels, Gloy or Paste for,, 234
, Pasting, to Iron, 236
, Plant, White Paint for, 270
Lacquer for Brass, 277
, Gold, for Brass, 268
, , • Tin, 258
, Removing, from Bedsteftd
Brasswork, 59
, , Copper, 330
Lacquered Brass, Cleaning, 251
=-, Renovating, 261
Copper, Cleaning, 251
— '. ,.Renovating, 261
Microscope, Renovating, 85
Panels, Chinese, 37
Lacquering Bedstead Brasswork,
59
Brass, 59, 103, 139; 208, 277
Candlesticks, 87
— - — -, Stove used in,- 277
Copper, 830 i
Candlesticks, 87
■ Microscope, 85
Lacrosse Rackets, Bending Wood
for, "167
Ladder, Extension, •241
, Step, Setting out Sides of,
•SO
La,gos Oil Soft Soap, 329
Lake, Crimson, Applying, 305
, , Testing, 306
Lamb Skins, Preparing, tor Glove'
Leather, 78
Lamb's Foot, Making Whip
Stock from, 818
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
369
Lamb's Foot, Solution for Pre-
serving,. 318
Lamji, Brass Table, *212
Burner, Qleaniug, 319
, Copper and N Iron, Blacken-
ing, 380
, , Lacq[uering,
S30
, , Polishing,
330
, , Bemoving
Lacquer from, 330
, Electric Arc, for Portraiture,
•344
, , Carbons for, 264
, Multiple Wick, Illuminating
Power of, 301 '
, Oil, Incandescent Burner
for, 151
, ParafQn Blow, 'ISl
, , Air Pump for,
•Y3
for Photographic Dark Boom,
•189, •223
Reservoirs, Cementing Brass
Elms to, 263
, Glass, -Cementing, 253
, Bemoving Bima from,
119
, Ruby, foi Photographer's
Use, *1B9, »233
or Stove for Vapour Bath,
327
, Street, Catch for Door of,
•92
• Wicks Charring, 171
Lamps, Dark Room, Good and
Bad, 334
Lampblack, 250
, Calcined, for Paper Making,
250
, Flame, 260
for Lithographers' Use, 250
-making Printing Ink,
260
, Qualities of, 260
Lancashire Boilers, Chimney
. Shafts for, 149
Lancets, Tempering, 310
Land, Sloping, Measuring, 32
Laudau (see also Carriage and
Brougham)
, Pitting Head of, *1S8
Panels, Bending, 27
, Canvassing, 27
Landing Net, Fisherman's, 157
Laiiguedoc Marble, 292
Lanseigne and- Leblanc's Alu-
minium Plating Baths, 300
Lantern for Enlarging Photo-
giuphs, •31, '277
Light, Semi-octagonal,Bevels
for Hips to, 'lOS
, Magic, *31
-T — , , Acetylene Gas
Generator for, ^67
, , Chemical Tanks for,
•61
, , Condenser for, 46
, , lUuminants for, 301
, , Lenses for, 46
Slides, 11, 107
, Binding, 11
, Copying Negatives for,
\ 11, '96
, Hot Box for, *26
, Making, by Contact,
11
.-^ ) Copying, 11,
•95 ,
■ r-, , from Line Draw-
ings, 11
, Masks for, 11
Lap, Copper, 337
, Lead, Hacking or Jarring,
337
, Pewter, 337
Lapidary's Work, 72, 253, 293,
337, 339 (For details, see
Cutting and Polishing)
Lapis Lazuli, Cutting and Polish-
ing, 33T
Larch, Strength of, 160
, Weight of, 160
Lath, Blind (see Venetian
Blinds)
, Detachable, for Table Top,
»66
21
Lathe, Beading Spindle for, •288
Chuck, Wooden, in Sections,
•14
^r-^ Cylindrical Saw for use in,
306
, Overhead Arrangement for,
•192
Slide-rest, Tool-holder for,
•191
, Spinning Copper in, 73
, Silver Jug in, ^14
, Turning Amber in, 339
, Ebonite in, 306
, Ebony in, 27
, Vulcanite in, 306
Latrines on Board Troopship,
/ •341
Laundry Irons, Stove for Heat-
. ing, *242
Lavatory Mirror, *1S6
Lavender, Oil of, 169, 176
Water, 169, 176
Laxton's Prices for Gauged Arch,
235
Lead, 352
Ashes, Furnace for Melting,
' 146
Bays for Ogee Boof, *280
, Bronzing, 277
Chlorides, 242
, Covering Octagon Dome
with, *280
Damp-proof Course, 259
Bichloride, 242
, Electro-coppering, 3^2
, Filling Headstone Lettering
with, 323
Flashings "Burnt In" to
Stone, *229
■' Foil in Chinese Lacquer
Work, 37
■ Glazes for Clay Pipes, 28,
86
: Gutters, Bepairing, 251
— — Lap, Hacking or Jarring, 337
— — , Lining Wooden Tank with,
63
, Melting Point of, 352
Mill for Stones, 337
•, Molten, Preventing Oxida-
tion of, 137
Ores, 362
, Beduoing, 362
Oxide, 16
Perohloride, 242
Polishing Lap, Hacking or
Jarring, 337
Pump, Bemoving ■ Sucker-
valve of, 196 .
, Removing, from Gold, 77
, , Zinc, 294
— ;— Boiling Machinery, 218
—^ Seams, Burning, with Hydro-
gen, 253
, Separating, ftom Zine, 99
, Sheet, 218, 352
^ , Jointing, 352
■ SoU Pipes, Joints for, 247
, Soldering Astragals
and Tacks on, 172
, Specific Gravity, of, 352
, Step Turner for Folding,
331
Stepped Flashings for Eoofs,
•331
Sulphide or Galena, 352
, Thermo-electric Properties
of, 90
, Tool for Folding, 331
-: — Toys, Castings for, 185
Water-pipes, Casting, 202
Leaded Lights, Leaky, Painting,
34S
Lead -pencil Cases Colouring,
, Polishing, 330
Leaf Aluminium, 341
Leakage of Water, Instrument
for Locating, 271
Leather, Attaching, toBand-saw
Wheel, •262
-: — , Tin Foil to^ SO
Belt-pulleys, Oiling, 247
Belts, Cements for Joining,
97; 268
, Power Transmitted by,
•99
, Softening, 247
Leather Boot (see Boot and
Shoe)
Brackets, Cleaning, 67
Case for Croquot Mallet,
•20
, Cementing, to Iron, 129,
253
, Chrome Tanning, 34
, Covering Pulley with, 97
, Crocodile Restoring, 239
on Furniture, Renovating,
207, 269, 329
Gaiters, Buff, Cleaning, 103
, Gilding, 30
, Glove. 78 -
. , Dyeing, 78, 164
, , Skins for Making, 78,
286
, , Tanning, 78
,Kip Work, Boot Size for,
228
, Paste for, 234, 236
, Patent, Renovating, 102
Purses, •261
, Removing Mildew Stains
from, 255
Shoes (see Boot and Shoe)
, SUvoring, 30
Trunks, Black Paint for, 38
^, White Paint for, 38
Work, " Cuir-bouille," 215
Leather-cloth, Soot-black used in
Making, 250
Leather-covered Furniture, Beno-
vating, 207, 269, 329
Leathers, Cup, for Pumps, 199
Leaves, Working, in Wrought
Iron, 16S
Lebau or Koumiss, 348
Leblanc Process . of Making
Glauber's Salt, 260
Leg Adjustment of Levels and
Theodolites, 270
Leghorn Hats, White, Cleaning,'
338 (see also Hats) ■ ,
Legs, Fastening, to Bamboo
Table Top, *128
Lemon Chrome, 194
Lens for All-round' Photography:
117
, Aperture of Stops in, 186
, Camera, Hood or Sky Shade
for, •345
, Distance of Stop from, 104,
• "ITS
, Distinguishing Pebble, from
Glass, 275
■ for Enlarging, 104
, Periscopic, *327
, Photographic, Angles of,
•324
, Photographic, Fungoid
Growth on, 43
, , Taking Apai-t, 43
-. — - for Portraiture, 104, 281
, Eectilinear Photographic,
- . 50, •327
, Testing Hardness of, 275
Lenses for Magic Lantern, 46
, 'Supplementaryj in Photo-
graphy. 193
Lepidolite Mica. 41
Lepidomelane Mica, 41
Lettei;-box in Tin-plate, •291
Lettering Glass, Black Paint for,'
130
, Sand-blast Process of,
16
, — Opal Glass, Paint for, 261
Shbp Blinds, 310
Sign, 295
on Wire Blinds in Relief
with Gold, 176
Letters, Block, ^Engraving, 79
, Enamel, Cementing, to
Window, 232
, Glass, Cementing, to
Window, 232
on Granite Headstones,
Chisels for Cutttng, 323
; , Cutting, 323
, Filling, with
Lead, 323
, Gilding, 323
Headstone, Black Fill-
ings for, 164
, Bemoving Paint
from, 196
Letters, Old English, Engravin",
79
, Bed, on Glass, 16
.Removing Oil-painted, from
Window, 111
, Porcelain, fromWindow,
220
, Sharpening Tools for En-
graving, 79
, Tools for Engraving, 79
Level, ^27,
, Cross in Telescope of, 69
Dumpy, Taking Heights
with, 336
, Spirit, Setting Out Water-
course Gradient with, ^324
, , Tubes for, •207 '
, Surveyor's, Beading Dis-
tances with, 330
, , Setting Up and Ad-
justing, 270, 330
, , Wells' Apparatus for,
•294
Levelling Sheet Copper, 106
Steel Plates, 339
Thin Metal Plates, •208
Lever Clock (see Clock)
Watch (see Watch)
Lift, Goods, ^320
— - or Hoist, Grocer's ^319
Lifts, Hydraulic, 71'
Light, Acetylene Gas (see Acety-
lene)
, Coal Gas (see Gas)
Lights, Arc, Illuminating Powers
of, 301
, Leaded, Benovating, 345
, Night, 140, 246
, Various, Illuminating Powers
of 301
Lilac Liiiiia Mica, 41
Lilas Marble, 292
Lime, Carbonate of (see Chalk)
, Chalk, Using, 36 ,
Concrete, 119
Deposit, BemoVing, from
Pipes, 352
, Hydraulic, 35
, , Distinguishing Mortar
made with, 236
- for Mortar. Kinds of, 35
Mortars, Mixing, 36
, Proportion of, in Mortar,
89
— — , Sulphate of (see Plaster-of-
Paris)
, Weight of, 89
Limelight, Illuminating Power of,
301
, Mixed Jet for, 43
Limestone, Burning, 120
Fossils, Polishing, 202
Liming Raw Glue Materials. 48
Lincrusta Walton, Affixing, 148
Linen Blinds, Cutting, 47
Fibres, "lOO
, Printing Photographs on,
87
— — , RemovingFruit Stains from,
17
■, Ink Stains from, 203
(see also Ink Stains)
, Ironmould Stains from,
203
, Tea Stains from, 17
, Transferring Drawings to,
119
Lines, Gold, on Picture Mounts,
31, 110
, White, on Picture Mounts,
31
, Fishing (see Fishing Lines)
Lining Out Cart Wheels, 91
Wbodon Tank wjth Lead, ,
68
Linings, Splayed, to Segmental
Openings, •SSO
Linoleum, Paste for Laying, 113,
235
, Soot-black used in Making,
250
Linseed Oil, Bleaching, 328
, Boiled, for Damp-
prooflng Walls, 86
, Distinguishing Boiled
from Raw, 243
Soft Soaps, 828
, .Yield of, from seed, 329
370
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
Lip Glue for Joining Xylonite,
23U
Liquid Glues, S53
, Preservatives foFj 290
Gold for Gilding without
Battery, 184
Gum, 169
, Preserving, 169
- Malt Extract, 117
Sulphur ^oaji, 800
Thiosavonal Soap, SCO
, Liquids, Coloured, for Chemists'
Show Bottles (see Chemists')
Idst l^lill for Polishing Stones,
337
Litliography, Lampblack used in,
250
, Transfer and Ee-transfer
Papers for, 109
'Litmus Paper, 246
Lobster Pot, *184
LofUstitch Sewing Machine, 76
Locomotive, Action of Steam in,
26
Boiler, Model, "Working
Pressure of, 181
Draw-hooks, '297
- — -, Bemoving Old Paint from,
228
, Eepainting, 228
Reversing Gear, Stephen-
son's, •218
Lodging-houses, .iir-space in, 239
Log, Ship's, *169
Ijogwood Extract, 290
London "Wire Gauge, 351
Lou\Te Ventilator for Shop
■Window •34
Ijouvred Sides of Thermometer
Screen, •71
Lowood Bricks, 30
Lubricant for American Organs,
299
I — - Burnishing Photo-
graphs, 251
Cycle Chains, 197
Drilling Glass, 294
Lubricating Clocks, 117
Victoria ynder-carriage, 119
■Watches, 117
■ Lubricators, Oil, Cements for,
106
Lucifer Matches, Safety, 45
, , Kubber on Box
for, 45
, Strike-anywhere. 45
Lucius and Briining's Chromic
Acid Process, 47
Luggage Elevator, Hydraulic, 71
Luma Marble; 292
Lumber, Artificially Seasoning,
•167
Luminous Paints, 150, 263
— ■■ , Varnish for Making,
263
Lunel Flenri Marble, 292
Marble, 292
Lye, Potash, for Soapmaking,
247 , ,
Jjyes for Soapmaking, 25, 113, 159,
202, 246, 265
, Hydrometer for,
266 ,
Soft Soap Making, 329
Kacadam, Granite, 172
Boad, 291
Machipe, Aerated "Water, •329
Belt, Cements for Joining,
97,263
Pulleys, OUing, 247
, Softening, 247
for Bending Brass Tubes,
•286, 316
^— , Coal-weighiug, Scoop for,
•342
for Grinding Moulding
Cutters, •216
— ^ '■ Grooving Sashes, ♦269
Guns, Gunpowder for, 348
for Moulding Sashes, '259
■ — 7- Pressing Shafts in
Mangle Rollers, *40
Machine for Rolling Sheet Lead,
218
, Sewing-(se6 Sewing Machine)
for Sharpening Saws, *248
, ■Wield's Spooling, 801
for "Withdrawing Axle Boxes
from "Wlieels, •126
.Mackintosh, Patching, 49
■, Rubber Solution for Eepair-
ing, 141 (see also Indiarubber)
Magazine Back for Camera, *283
Magenta Liquid for Chemists'
Show Bottles, 13
Magic Lantern, •31
— , Acetylene Gas Genera-
tor for, ^67
, Chemical Tanks for, 'Bl
—, Condenser for, 46
Illuminants Compared,
301
' , Lenses for, 46
Slides, 11, 107
, Binding, 11
, Copying Negatives
for, 11, *ro
, Hot Box for, ^26
, Making, by Con-
tact, 11
, , Copy-
ing, 11, 'OS
, , from Line
Drawings, 11
: , Masks for, 11
Magnetic Meridian, 307
Needle, 307 (see also Com-
pass)
North, 307
Mahogany Carvings, Finishing,
296
Darkening, 182, 149
Enriching Colour of, 79
Furniture, Giving Chippen-
dale Appearance to, 79
■, Graining, in Water-colour,
160
Honduras, Strength of, 150
, ■Weight of, 150
Picture Frame, Darkening,
132
Removing Enamel from, 108
Spanish, Strength of, 160
, Weight of, 160
Stain, 196
for Baskets, 316
Staining Plaster Panels in
imitation of, 68
— — , Wood in Imitation of,
105
Table Top, Removing " Ink
Stains from, 166
, Be-polishing, 214
, Warped, Straighten-
ing, 214
Varnish, 196
Mahogany -brown Varnish for
Straw Hats, 60
Mail Cart, •183
, Be-painting, 825
, Re-varnishing, 325
, Varnish for, 326
Main, ■Water, Protecting, from
Frost, 96
, , Temporary Supply
whilst Belaying, ♦280
Mainmast, Fixing Flagstaff Top-
mast to, 260
Mainspring Barrel, Fitting, to
■Watch, 147 ,
, Fitting, to Skeleton Clock,
146
Malacca Cane, Colouring, 95
Malleable Brass, 364
— - Iron Castings, 826
, Annealing, 326
■ , Colouring, 130
• , Patterns for, 826
Mallet, Croquet, Leftther Case for,
•20
Malplaquet Marble, 292
Malt, 187
Extract, Liquid, 187
Mammoth Ivory, 262
Mandolines, Beaumontago Inlay
for, 268
, Black Fillings for, 268
, Inlay for, 288
Mandrel Dolly, Metalworker's,
♦113
Mangle Boilers, Machine for
Pressing Shafts in, ^40
-^ , Polish for, 33
Man-power and Horse-power, 267
Mantelboards, Fixing Fringe on,
181
Mantelpiece, Marble, Cementing,
66
, Stone, Manbling, 172, 184
Mantelshelf, Slate, Enamelling,
2U7
, , Polishing, 297
, , Removing Scratches
from, 297
Mantle, "Welsbach Incandescent,
51
Manure Works, Injurious Gases
I from, ISO
Manuscript, Copying, by Photo-
graphy, 143
Map, Ordnance, ^58
, Varnished, Cleaning, 82
Marble, Bleaching, 336
, Cement for, 66, 146
Clock Case, •284
, Repairing, 19, 322
, Polishing, 822
, Coloured, Cement for, 322
■ , Damp-stained, Bleaching,
67
, Dove, Imitating, 834
, Fixing, to Brickwork, 67
Mantelpiece, Cementing, 65
Mbsaic Pavement, 61
; Scabbling Hammer for
Laying, '61
, Polishing, 126, 246, 281
, Bemoving Damp Stains
from, 67
, Iron Stains from, 143
, Bed Ink Stains from
233
, "Weather Stains from,
835
, Rubbers for, 246
, Saws for, 246
, Various Kinds of, 292, 293
, White, Cement for, 322
, , Cleaning, 160
, , Restoring Polish of,
823
, Working, 246
Working Tools, Tempering,
246
Marbles, Playing, 190
Marbling Book Edges, Gold Veins
in, 112
Stone Mantelpiece, 172, 184
Marcasite in Granite, 242
Mare's Milk, Koumiss made from,
348
— : , Sugar in, 848
Margarine, 123
Marine Glue, 116, 129, 236, 241
Mariner's OompaSs, 33 (see also
Compass)
Marking Gauge, Pencil, 133
Inks, 108, 216
, Indelible, 238
Marlboro' Easy Chair, •122
Maroon Repp Furniture Covers,
Renovating, 349
Marquetry Inlays, Shading, 172
, Staining, 182
Transfers, Fixing, 39
Marsh Gas in Coal-mines, 264
Mash or Maul Hammers for Dress-
ing Granite, •206, ♦238
Masks for Lantern 'Slides, 11
, Papier-mlohS, 173
Masonry (see also Stone and
Stonework)
Column, Diminished
Twisted,, 99
Mast, Canoe, Position of, ^141
, Fixing Topmast of Flagstaff
to, 260
Mastic Asphalt for Laying "Wood-
block Floors, 245
Matohboarding, Staining, to Imi-
tate Pine, 202
Matchbox Rubbers, 45
Matches, Safety, 45
, Strike-anywhere, 45
Matting or Frosting Alumiuium,
814
Glass, 153
Mattress, Hair, 132
Mattress, Hair, Blind-stitchingj
•207
Maul or Mash Hammers for Dress-
ing Granite, •206; ^238
Measuring Buildings, 209
Distances, Wells' A])paratu3
for, '294
Ganged Arch, •236
Laud, 82
Liquid in Tank, •203
Timber, 160
Mechanical Dental Plates,, 249
Drawings, Colouring, 122
Horse-power, 267
Medicated Soaps (see Soap)
Medicine Cupboard, ^139
Medium for Retouching Nega-
tives, 98
M6doux Marble, 292
Melting (see also Casting)
Lead Ashes, Furnace for, 140
Point of Aluminium, 341
Amber, 339
Antimony, 351
Copper, 360
— Lead, 352
■ Resins, 339
Saltpetre, 16
— Zinc, 336
Silver on Open Fire. 50
Mercurial ^Barometer, Beading,
226
, Be-flUing, 11
, Begulating, 226
-—^ Soap, 300
Mercuric Chloride, 189
Mercurous Chloride, 189
Mercury, Fulminates of, 181
Meridian, Magnetic, ,807
Merlin Chair, Converting "Wind-
sor to, ♦345
Metal (see also Aluminium, Bis-
muth, Brass, Bronze, Cop-
per, Gold, Iron, Lead, Nickel,
Pewter, Platinum,* Silver,
Tin, and Zinc)
Boring, Speed for, 109
, Breaking Stresses of, 103
, Bronzing, 24
, Cementing Celluloid to, 236
, Glass to, 236
Cones, Hollowing, 284
, Fixing Transfers on, 225,
301
Foil in Chinese Lacquer
Work, 37
, Gilding Liquid for Dipping,
209
— ^, , without Battery, 361
, Gold Solution for Coating,
270
, Indelible Ink for, 238
, Inlaying Pearl on, 279
, Muntz, 98
— Plates, Thin, Levelling', 106,
♦208, 839
Polishing Buffs, 24
Compositions, 83, 112
, Crocus for, 49, 83, U9
Repouss^ Work, 214
, , Polishing, 214
Screen, Perforated, for 'Win-
dows, 143
, Separating, from Asbes, 64
, Stencil Ink for, 218
— — Turning, Speed for, 109
Metals, Electro-iiiotive Forces of,
90
, Thermo-electric Properties
of, 90
Metalworker's Mandrel Dolly,
♦118
Meter, Dry Gas, Defects of, 45
, (3as Station, Heading, 83
, Wet Gas, Defects of, 46
Methyl Alcohol, 847
Methylated Spirit, 347 '
Metronome, Clockwork, *96
, Compound Pendulum, ^19
, , Tape and "Weight, 19
Mica, 41
, Biotite, 41
, Black; 221
- — , Cements for, 251
, Composition of, 242
, Electrical Uses of, 41
in Granite, 242
Kaolin, 32
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
371
Mica, Lepidolite, 41
, I>epidomelane, 41
, Lilac Lithia, 41
, JUning, 41
, Muscovite, 41
, Paragonite, 41 ,
- — , Fhlogopite, 41
- — , Pulverised, as Bronze Pow-
.dors, 115, 221
, - — , Paint, 221
, Red Eose, 41
, Sources of, 41
— — , Subdivision of, 41
0ses of, 41, 221
, Wuste, Utilisation of, 41
Microscope, Basalt viewed in,
266
, Brass Lens-cells of, *4S
Cells, 73
— ■, Built up, 73
, Eing, 7S
, Sunk, 73
. , Tube, 73
Lacquer, Eenbvating, 85
■ , Eubies viewed, in, 76
• , Pusty, Cleaning, 86
Slides and Cells, 73
, Thin Glass Covers for,
133
Midden Slead, Covered, *269
Mildew Stains, Eemoving, from
Leather, 255'
Milk, Condensed, 25
, Cow's, Sugar in, 348
, Detecting Adulteration of,
191
, Konniis'' made from, 348
, Mare's, Sugar in, 348
, Peytonising, 230
; Sterilising, 230
Mill, Lead, for Polishing Stones,
837
, List, for Polishing , Stones,
387
, Saw, •267
-^, Slitting, for Catting Stones,
337
, Wood, for Polishing Stones,
337
Millboard, Graining, to Imitate
Walnut, 197
, Sticking Artists' Canvas to,
104
— ^, Waterproofing, 111
Milled Sheet Lead, 352
Mimetesite an Ore of Lead, 352
Mina Nova, Cutting and Polish-
ing, 337
Mineral Specimens, Cement for
feepairing, 269
Minerals (see Asbestos, Mica,
the respective metals, etc.)
MineSi Coal, Gases in, 254
Mining Asbestos, 303
' Gypsum, 17
Kaolin, 32
Mica, 41
Minium, 16
Mirror (see also Glass)
Back, Paint for, 34
for Bathroom, *186
• , Damp-spotted, Renovating,
Frame, Black Polish for, 1S3
, Ebony, Combined Stain
and Vai-nish for, 38
— • '—, , Polishing, 88
— ^, Frosted, Eenovating, 41
, Silvering Glass to Form, 72,
108
, TeiU-tale, '177
Mites in Furniture, 120, 301
Mitre of Cortiioe Moulding, *12,
*122, »136
Mouldings meeting at
Acute Augle, •239
Obtuse
Angle, *239
Eight
Anglp, ^23 J
Mitres. Picture Frame, Cramping,
•302
Model Boat«, Copper-plating, 53
, White Coating for, 97
Brickwork Clock Stand, 149
, Imitation Grass in, 317 .
Locomotive Boiler, Working
Pressure of, 181
Model, Plast^r-of-Paris, 317
■ Pumping Windmill, *3]0
of Railroad, etc., 317
Steam- Engine,- Power of,
148
of Ti-act of Country, 317
Yacht Sail Pla,n, •168, *]S4
Modellers' Clay, Toughening, ISl
Modelling in Gesso, 260
, Materials tor, 317
in Pstpier-nlachi, 65
■ Plasticine for, 317
Wax, 317
Models, Plaster (see Plaster Casts
and Plaster Figures)
Money Box, Brass, *42
Monochtoriaes (see. Chlorides)
Moonlight Scenes for Diorama,
116
MooringBoUards or Posts, Fixing,
83
Mop, Drying, 102
TVfops for Polishing Brass Tubes,
68
Moquette, Re-covering Cushion
, with, 145
Mordant used in Dyeing, 82
Mortar, Burnt Clay Ballast for,
69 '
, Hydraulic Lime, Distin^
guisliing, 236
, Mixing, 35
, Lime for Making, 35
— — for Pointing Brickwork, 30,
116, 117, 241
, Pronoi-tions of Saud and
Lime in, 89
, Sand in, 305
, Substitutes for Sand in, 59
Moi-tise - and - tenon Joints,
Oblique, •196
Mortising Wheel Naves, Horse
for, •136
Mortuary Bier Stand, '73
Mdsaic Floors, Cleaning, 182
Pavements, Laying, 6r
r , Scabbling Hammer
used in Laying, 'ei
Moss Agate, 363
Moth-eaten Fur Necklet, Ee-
novating, 40
Mother-of-pearl, 279
, Inlaying with, 279
, Working, 279
Moths, Cork-lined Cases for, •306
, Killing, 7% 81, 306
, Killing-bottles for, 72, 81
, Paper Envelopes for, 306
, Preventing, from Attacking
Clothes, 211
, Preserving, 72, 213
, Eelaxing, 72
, Setting, 72
, Setting-boards for, 72, 213
, Tweezers for Ilolding, 72
Motors (see Clockwork, Engine,
Turbine, and Water Motor)
Mould forming on Glue, Gum,
■ Paste, etc., 169, 290
Moulded Stone Ci^p, Circular,
^ ♦236
Moulding Golf Balls, 21
Papier-mache, 65, 88
Sashes, Machine for, •259
Moulding-cutters, Machine for
Grinding, ^216
Moulding - machine, Vertical
Spindle, for Bevelling Frames,
270
Mouldings on Arches, Working,
•146
, Circular, ^78
, , Eouter for "Working,
'78
, Cornice, Mitring, •12, ,•122,
•136 •'
, Intersection of, *197
, Meeting at Acute ' Angle,
Mitring, •239
Obtuse Angle,
Mitring, ^239
■ Eight Angle,
Mitring, •239
, Oak Picture, Green Stain
for, 67
, Picture Frame, Facing, 112
, , Staining, 112
for Railway Carriages, *191
Mouldings, Raking Cornice,
Mitring, '122
, Scratch Plane for Working,
•168
-r— , Shelf Bracket, Working,
'■IS
Moulds, Autograph, for Rubber
Stamps, 89
for Brass Casting, 60, 271,
307
Cement Vase, 228
— — Composition Rollers,
217
, Copper, Tinning, 155
, Gelatine, 130
for Grease Paint,, 343
Lead Toys, 185
Night Lights, 246
Papier-mach^, 06, 88
, Plaster, Casting in Cement
with, 228
for Printers' Rollers, 217
Pump Cup Leathers, 199
Stone, 247
Sugar Toys, 147
, Wax, Depositing Copper on,
61
' , ;, for Plaster Castings,
1,96
Mountain-leather Asbestos, 303
Moniitain-wood Asbestos, 303
Mountants for Glazed Prints, 190,
, Photographic, 116
Mounted Photograph, Copying,
141 .
Mounting Antlers, *77 '
Bromide Prints, 217
Photographic Panorama
Views, 303'
Photograpjis, 21, 97, 303
Pictures to resemble Oil
Paintings, 245 ■
Stereoscopic Prints, ^53
Stuffed Fish, 217
Mounts for Antlers, ^77
, Gold Cardboard, 108
, Picture, Gold-lining, 31, 110
, , White-lining, 31
, Silver, Burnisher for, *29
, , for Tobacco Pipes,
•29
for Stag's Antlers, ^77
, Walking-stick, Engraving,
255
Mouth or Lip Glue, 236
Mulberry Stains, Removing, from
Boat Sail, 216
Municipal Water Supply, Filter
Beds for, *215
Muntz Metal, 98
Muriatic Acid, 342
, Commercial, 342
Gas. 342
, Specific Gravity of,
342 :
Muscovite Mica, 41
Music, Metronome for Beating
Time in (see Metronome)
Shelf for Piaijp, •33S
Musical Box connected to Strik-
, ' ing Clock, 836
- — Instruments i (see under
respective headings, Ameri-
can Organ, Piano, etc.) ,
■ , Brass, Loosening Slides
of, 228
, , Removing Dents
from, 168, 261
, Solder for Brazing, 200
Wind Instruments, Boehm
System bt Fingering for, ^162
Musk, Artificial, from Oil of
Amber, 334
Myrobalans, Preparing Tannic
' Acid from, l7
N
Nails Rusting in Wood, 76
Name Brooches, Gold Tfire, 69
NapoUon Marble, 292
Narwhal Ivory, 262
Naves of Wheels, Horse for Mor-
tising, *135
Necklet of Fur, Moth-eaten,
Renovating, 40
Needles, Adjusting,' in Sewing
Machine, 76
Breaking in Sewing Machine,
267
, Fixing, to Compass Cards, 49
, Magnntio, 307
Negatives (se'e Photographic)
Nessler's Reagent Jor Testing
Water, 256
Net, Fancy, for Supporting Large
Bag, •264
, Fisherman's Landing, *157
, Bound, 28
Nets, Purse, lor Catching Rab-
bits, 1-08
Nettle Beer, 338 ,
Neville's Formula for Water Dis-
charge of Pipe, 69
New Bnglaud Marble, 292
Newspaper Rack, Bamboo, *123,
•134
Nickel, Blackening, 288
, Cause of Blue Colour in,
210
, Depositing, on Wax Moulds,
61'
, Oxidising, 288
Plated Surfaces Rusty, 267
Plating Aluminium, 300
, Black Streaks in, 52
, Removing, fro-ii Cycle, 301
bijluJion, 229, 300
, Correcting Acidity of, '
229
, Working, 229, 363
, Thermo-electric Properties
of, 90
Night Pishing Lines, *234 ,
Night-lights, 140, 246
Nitrate of Soda, 16
Nitre (see Saltpetre)
Nobbling Picks for Working
Granite, -282
Nordhausen Acid, 343
Northern Pine, Strength of, 160
, Weight of, 160
Nuts and Bolt -heads. Square, 102
, Whitworth, 100
Oik, Baltic, Strength of, 160
, , Weight or, 150
Branches, Converting, to
Charcoal, ^109
Carvings, Finishing, 206
. , Eemoving Varnish
from, 38
, English, Strength of, 160
, , Weight of, 160
Finish for Yellow Pine, 142
Furnititre, Old, Jienovating,
184
, Gilding, 267
, , Size for, 267
, Grain Filler for,' 324
Graining, 148
Panel, Wai-ped, Straighten-
ing, 201
Picture Frames, Fumigatir.g,
196'
^, Green Stain for, 67
Shingles, 302
, Covering Roofs with,
302
Tan for Ilabbit Skins, 285
, Wainscot, 224
, Yellow' Stain for, 86
Oblique ' Mortise - and - tenoii
Joints, •iSe
Oboe, Boehm System of Finger-
ing, for, '162
Octagonal Do'me, Cu,v'ering, with
Sheet Lead, •280
Fountain for Greenhouse,
•340
Odontograph, Willis's, 81
Office Pastes, 234
Ogee Eoof, Lead Bays for, 280
Oil of Amber, 334 ' ' ',_
• , Artificial Miisk
made fi:om, 334 ,
, Distilling, 334
872
Cyclopaedia of Mechanrcs.
Oil of Amber Distillates, Bleach-
ing, 834
, Succinic Acid in,
334
Blowpipe, Reservoir for,
•323
Boiled, Damp-proofing Brick
Walls witli, Sd
, Cod-liver, Emulsion of, 27,
190
, Colouring, with Alkanet
Boot, 41
Colours, Box for, *190
, Mixing, 25
, CottonsL'nl, Soft Soap
made with, 328
, Earthnut, Soft Soap made
with, 328
Filter, 100, 275
, Filtering, 64
, , by Heat, *n5
Flash-point, Ascertaining,
114
, Fusel, Alcohols contain-
ing, 347
f Harness, 247
, Heiiip, Soft Soap made
with, 329
- — , Hydro-extractor for Oxidis-
ing, 263
, Incandescent Burner for,
•161
, Lagos, Soft SoaJ) made
with, 329
Lamp Burner, Cleaning, 319
, Multiple Wick, Illu-
minating Power of, 301
of Lavender, 169, 176
, Linseed, Bleaching, 328
, , Damp-proofing
Brick Walls with, 86
, , Distinguishing Boiled
(rotii Raw, 243
, , Soft Soap made with,
328, 329
, , Yield of, 328
lAibricators, Cements for,
106
, Neat'sfoot, for Oilstones,
i;4ii
for Oilstone, 216, 246
• , Olein, 268
, , Soft Soap made
with, 328
■ , Oleo, a23
, Olive, for Oilstones, 246
■ Paint^25
, Removiiig from Glass,
111
Paintings (see Paintings)
, Paraffin, Cements to with-
stand, 113, 253
, , Removing, from Barrel,
58
, Red, used in French Polish-
ing, 41
for Soft Soap Making, 328,
329
, Soluble, for Finishing Cotton
Goods, 261
-^,'Soot, 260
, Sperm, for Oilstones, 246
Stains, ' Removing, from
Stone, 172
, Sweet, for Oilstones, 246
of Turpentine, 66
of Vitriol (see Sulphuric
Acid)
Oilcloth, Paste for Laying, 113,
235
Hoot for Porch, ^33
— — , Sootblack used in Making,
260
, Table, Cream-coloured Faint
for, 91
OiliuK Clocks, 117
■ Machine Belt Pulleys, 247
Watches, 117
Oil-painted Letters, Removing,
from Olass, 111
Oilskins, 69, 112
, Colouring, 69, 112
, Stickiness of, 206
Oilstone, 246
, Action of White Lead on,
246
, Arkansas, 246
, Artificial, 294
Oilstone, Cementing, in Box, 246
, Charnley Forest, 246
, Cutting, 240
, Hard, Cause of, 246
, , Treatment of, 215,
246
, , Using Emery on, 246
, Oils for, 216, 246
, Sharpening Gouges on, 301
— — , Soap for use with, 246
, SMtening, 216, 246 ^
for Surgical Instruments,
246
, Turkey, 246
, Vaseline for use with, 216
, Washita, 246
Oily Bottles, Cleaning, 814
Barrels, Cleaning, 58
Old English Wire Gauge, 361
Olein Oil, 268
Soft Soaps, 328
Oleo Oil, 123
Oleographs, MakingTriad Pictures
of, '76
Oleomargarine, 123
Olivine, 266
Basalts, 266
Omnibus Under-carriage, •231
Onyx, Cutting and Polishing, 387
Marble, 202
Opal, Cutting and Polishing, 337
Glass, Paint for Lettering,
261
Printing Frame, ^236
Opalines, 73
Opera Glass, Photographing
with, •3e3
Optical Square, *114
Work, Cells for, *4S
Optics (see Camera, Len^^, Micro-
scope, and Telescope)
Orange Chrome, 194
Orange - coloured Liquid for
Chemists' Show Bottles, 13,
293
Luminous Paint, 263
Orange-yellow Stain for Billiard
Balls, 318
Ordnance Datum, *58
Map, •SS
Ores, Aluminium, 341
, , Reducing, 341
, Antimony, Reducing, 351
, Copper, '204
, , Reducing, 350
, Zinc, 335
, , Reducing, 336
Organ. American, Brush Polish
for, 109
, , Cleaning Reeds of,
299
, , Dust in, 299
, , Lubricant for, 2S9
, , Preservation of, 299
, , Reed Hook for, 299
, , Keeds of, 299
, ■ , Reviving Case of, 299
-, , Taking Apart, 209
Blowing, water Motor for,
•342
, Pipe, Electric Key Action
for, 167
, , Pneumatic Key Action
for, 167
, Pipes, Eeeds of, 89
Ormolu Clock Case, Cleaning,
311
Ornamental Bracket, ^278
Ornaments, Bronze, Renovating,
347
; Relief, Composition for
Casting, 166
Ostrich Feathers, Bleaching, 255
, Dyeing, Bhick, 183,
255
Otto of Roses, Perfuming Powder
with, 29.
Oval Baskets, Repairing, 'SOS
-^— Cask, Determining Bevels
for Joints of, 'Se
Frame, Running, in Cement,
•221
, Setting Out, *ee
Tin-plate Work, Hollowing,
71
Top Wood Box, •266
Oven, Baker's, Steam-heated, •37
, , Steaming, 217
Oven for Case-hardening Cycle
Parts, •107
, Hot-air, ^132
Overalls, Waterproofing, 69, 112
(see also Waterproofing)
Ox Horns, Polishing, 302
Oxford Picture Frame, *247
Oxidation of Molten Lead, Pre-
venting, 187
Oxide of Hydrogen, 306
Iron, 149
Lead, 1(.>
Potassium, 170
Tin, 149
Zinc, Red, 335
Paint for Brickwork, 170
Oxidised Silver, Cleaning, 352
Oxidising Brass, 55
Electro-plated Goods, 35
Nickel, 288
-r — Oils, Hydro Extractor for,
* 253
Silver, 66, 150
Steel, 150
Oxygen, 43
, Wright's Method of Pre-
paring, 43
Oxy-hydrogeu Jet for Limelight,
43
Light, Illuminating Power
of, 301
Packing for Plunger of Pump
Piston, 262
Pad, Ink, for Rubber Stamps, 91
, , of Typewriter, Re-
charging, 97
Paddling Skins, 78
Pail as Photographic Print
Washei', 154
Painswick Stone, Whitening, 821
Paint for Bedstead, 59
, Black, 126
, , for Leather Trunks, 38
, , — — - Lettering Glass,
180
— - for Blackboard, 58, 230
Blistering, 20, 30, S3
, Bronze-green, 62
for Calico, 262
, Cork, for Ship's Ironwqrk, 58
, Distemper, for Calico, 263
, Drying Qualities of, 269
, Enamel, 22
, , Brush for Applying, 67
for Farm Waggon, 308
Glass, 130, 273
, Gold, 106, 263, 264
, , Bronze, Powders for
Making (see Bronze)
, Golden Brown, for Castings,
154
, Grease, 343
, Green Varnish, for Venetian
Blinds, 241
■ for Lettering Opal Glass,
261
, Luminous, 160, 263
, , Varnish for Making,
263
for Mirror Back, 34
, Oil-colour, 25
, Oxide, for Brickwork, 170
, Phosphorescent, 160, 263
for Plant Labels, 270
, Primary, for Woodwork, 30
for Railway Waggons, 12
, Red, 126
, Removing, from Iron, 69,
228, 283
, , Wood, 20, 81, 163,
172 287
for Table Oilcloths, 91
', Tar, Removing, from Grave-
stones, 196
, Testing Drying Qualities of,
269
for Waterproofing Shed, 822
, White, for Leather Ti'unks,
38
, , Plant Labels, 270
Fainted Canvas, Keeping, Pliable,
223
Painted Letters, Removing, from
Glass, 111
Wall Drying Patchy, 188
Painter's Fillings, 88
• Knotting, 91
, Treating Creosote*
Timber with, 164
Painting Bath Stone, 59
— - Bedstead, 69
Blackboards, 230
Blind Laths, ins, 241
Blinds, 308, 810
Brir'kwork, 170
Canvas Canoe, 141
Cardboard for Slate Pencil
Writing, 68
Clock Dials, 129
Compo. Work on Buildlngr
143
Concrete, 32
Creosoted Timber, 154
, Crystoleum, 223
, , JIaterials for, 223
Dog-cart, 269
Door, 30
FarmWaggon, 308
, Fitches used in, 57
, Fresco (see Fresco)
Front Door, 30
House, 20
Leaded Lights, 345
Lines on Glass Plates, 12ft
Locomotive Engine, 228
Mail Cart, 325 •
Mantelpiece to represent
Marble, 172, 184
■ Outdoor Woodwork, 337
Phaetnn, 54
Photographic Backgrounds,
112, 203
Pony Cart, 176
Railway Waggons, 12
Bust-stained Wood, 76
Shop Blinds, 310
, Sign, Pigments used in, 194
Signs, 296
Staircase, 32
Wall, 168
Stone Mantelpiece to repre- ,
sent Marble, 172, 184
Venetian Blinds, lp2, 241
Waggon, 306
Wire Blinds, 214, 308
Paintings, Oil, Cleaning, 160, 169,
168
, , Giving Print Appear-
ance of, 245 ^
, , Photographing, 128
, , Removing Varnish
from, 163
, , Renovating, 159
, , Varnishing, 142, 150
Pallets, Clock, Hardening, 214
— —,. , Jewelling, 807
, , Testing, 242
Pampas Grass, Dyeing, 12
Pan, Copper, for Flying Fish, 199 ,
— — , ^, Be-tinning, 57
Panelled Dog-kennel, •352
Doors in Cabinet Work, ^285
: Joinery Work, ♦286
Panelling with Veneers, •128
Panels of Brougham, Polishing,,
109
, Cart, Boxing out, 248
, , Router for Boxing out,
•248
, Chinese Lacquer, 37 ,
of Landau, Bending, 27
, Canvassing, 27
, Plaster, to resemble
Mahogany, 68
, Warped Oak, Straightening,
201
Panoramic Views, Photographic,
Mountiijg, 808
Pans used in Qlue Making, 48
Paper, Albumeiiised, 46
, Applying Bromide Solution
to, "fee
„ Calcined Lampblack used
in Making, 250
. Calomel, for Indelible Writ-
ing, 288
, Carbon, 78
, Photographic Enlarge-
ment on, 816
for Ceiling, 342
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
373
Paper Envelopes for Freshly
Caught Butterflies, *306
, Ink, 266
— ~, Xjithogxaphic, 109
-.:— , Litmus, 246
, Parchment, 81
, Photographic Albumeriised,
46
. , Bromide, 'lee
, Printing out, 47
, , Washing, 220
, , not requiring Toning,
»233
Pulp, 33
, Flexible, 33
, TVprking, 149 '
, Eemovlnf; Damp Stains
from, 144, 206
, Grease Stains from, 22,
206
, Ink Stains from, 203
, Ee-transfer, for Litho-
graphy, 109
, Sensitising, for Photo-
graphioPurposes, 46,47, '166,
233
, Stretching, on Drawing
Board, 230
, Stripping, ftom Wall, 20
, Toughening, 81
, Tracing, Increasing Trans-
parency of, 264
, Transfer, for Carbon Pro-
cess, 330
, , ' Lithography, 109
, Turmeric, 246
, Wall, Eemoving Grease
Stains (rom, 22
, , Sizing, 137, 291
, , Varnishing, 137, 291
Papered Ceiling, Sizing, 291
, Varnishing, 291
' , Whitening, 72
, Whiting for 72
Wall, Sizing, 291
-. , Varnishing, 291
Paper-hanging, 148
Papering Ceiling, 72, 342
Papers, Fly, Adiiesive, 260
- — , — —, Poisonous, 281
Papier- m^cli6, 65
Masks, 173
.— , Modelling Animal Heads in,
65
■ Mouldings, 65, 88
ParaflJu'Barrel, Cleaning, 58
Blow-lamp, *151
• , Air-pump for, *73
, Eeservoir for, *323
•- — Oil, Cements to withstand,
113, 258
Paragonitei Mica, 41
- Parchment, Collotype Printing
on, 216
-. — Paper, 81
— — , Eemoving Ink Stains from,
, 203 ■
Parian Cement for ' Patching
Plastering, 325 i
Paris> White, 329
Parisian Diamonds, 76 ^
' Phaeton, »197
Party Walls, Deadening Sound
coming througli, 134
Passenger Lifts, Hydraulic, 71
Paste. 183, 234
- — for Anaglypta, 148
■ , Asbestos, Ajiplying, 286
— ,-, Billposters', 234
, Concentrated, 234
, Stock, 234
Blacking, 333
.Bookbinders', 234, 236
, Bootmakers', 235
■ , Crocus, for Polishing
, Metals, 83
.'. , Encaustic, for Polishing
', Photographs, 276
, Fishing, 198
Gems, Cutting and Polish-
ing, 337
for Labels, 234, 235
Leather, 235
Lincrusta Walton, 148
Linoleum, 113, 235
Mounting.Photograirhs,
116, 190, 228
■■ Office Use, 234
Paste for Oilcloth, 113,235
Polishing Brown Boots,
78
Metals, 83, 112
, rreservatives for, 290
, Resin, 320
, Shaving, '45, 260
— ^, Shoemakers', 235
Soap, Voiry's, 300
, Waterproof, for Labels, 235
, White, for Canvas Shoes,
354
Pasteboard Tube Umbrella Stand,
•262
Pasting Cloth to Carriage Frames,
206 . , '
Patching Goloshes, 296
— - Mackiiitosh, 141
Plaster Work, Cement for,
326
Patchwork, China, 294
, , Cement for, 294
— — , ■ , Odds and Ends for,
294
- — , , Putty for, 294
Patent Brass, 354
Patent-axed' Granite, 205, 246,
282
Patent-axes for Granite, '*205,
•238
— ^ , Sharpening, 245
Patent-leather Shoes Cracking
across Toes, 60
,, Renovating,' 102
Paths (see also Paving)
; Red Tar, 81
, Tar, Laying, 77
, , Repairing, 77
Pattern for Aquarium Top, *11S
Cast-iron Rollers, 243
Column, 200
Cone, '•37
Conical Elm, '•46 '
Frustum of Eight Cone,
*45 '
Greenhouse Fountain,
*340
Saddle-shaped Boiler,
•66
Ship's Ventilator, *157
Tuyere Bend, '284
-^ Wheel Felloes, 290
Paving (see also Floor)
, Concrete, 86, 91, a45, 235
• of Cowhouse, 235
, Granite, Scoring, 218
, Granolithic Concrete, 235
, Marble Mosaic, 61
Scabbling Hammer
, for Laying, *61
, Red Tar, 81
of Stable, 235
, Tar, Laying, 77
, , Repairing, 77
Pavodilos Joint in Flooring, '•98
Pavonazetto- Marble', 292
Pavonazzo Marble, 292
Pear Wood Carvings, Finishing,
•, 296
Pearl, Aurora, 279
-^-, Cutting, 279
, Green SnaU, 279
- — , Inlaying, on Metal, 279
, Mother of, 279
, Working, 279
Pebble Lens, Distinguishing,
from. Glass, 27*5
Pedal , of Double-action Harp,
81
— •—, Pneumatic, for Piano, 210
Pedestaifor Table, '•120
Pen, Draughtsnian's - Ruling,
Setting, *47
Pencil Drawings, Fixative for,
130
, Photographing, 266
Marking Gauge, *133
, Slate, Painting Cardboard
for writing with, 68
Pencils, Carbon, for Electric
Lamps, 264
- — , Lead, Colouring, 330
, , Polishing, 330
Pendulum, Clock, Length of, 91,
178
, , Weight of, 91
, Compensation, for Regulator
Clock, 77 ,
Penknives, Tempering, 310
Penmon Marble, 292
Pennants, Signal, *351
Peptonising Milk, 230
Perohloride of Lead, 24?.
Platinum, 269
Perfuming Powder with Otto of
Roses, 29
Peridot, Cutting and Polishing,
337
Periscopic Lenses, *327
Peroxide of Hydrogen, 306
Iron as Pigment, 194
• Polishing
Medium, 29
Persoective Drawings, Archi-
tects', 'ISS
Petersburg Standard of Timber,
156
Petrifying Liquid, 86
Petrolatum (see Vaseline)
Petroleum, Making Vaseline from,
211
Pettit.Tor Marble, 292
Pewter Articles, Repairing,'184
Polishing-lap, 337
, Soldering, 184
Teapot, Cleaning, 278
Pewterers' Solder, 184, 276
Phaeton, Painting, 54
, Parisian, '•197
.^ , Re-painting, 54
, Varnishing, 64
Phlogopite Mica, 41
Phonograph, Clockwork Motor
' for,>*68
Phosphate of Potassium, 262
Phosphorescent or Luminous
Paints, 160, 268
Paint, Varnish for Making,
263
Phosphorus, Eed, 46
, Yellow, 46
Photo Autocopyist Process, 216 .
Photograph(see'alsoPhotcfgraphic
tPrints and Photographs)
Frame in Carved Wood, 60
— '—, Group, Removing Figure
from, 215
, Mounted, Copying, 141
, Reproducing, by Half-tone
Process, 161
Photographic Actinometers, 295
^ — Backgrounds, 211
, Painting, 112, 203
- — Bromide Enlargements, 174
— Paper, •166
Plates, Sensitometer
for, 295 '
Camera (see Camera)
Carbon Process, Transfer
Paper for, 330
— r- Carbon Tissue, 136, 270
Collotype Printing Process,
216, 249
Dark Room, •213
Lamps, *W9, •233,
334 '
'■ , Ventilating, 'ISl
Developers, 171
, Keeping Qualities of,
171
, One-solution, 129
, Pyro, •263, 334
Doubles, Shutter for taking,
•212
Dry Plates, Fog on, 74
'■ ,■ Water-developed,
364
Enlargement on Carbon
Paper, 315
Enlargements, Bromide,
174
in Oil, 162
, Making Triad Pictures
of, •76
Enlarging, 117
Camera, ^275
by Daylight, *127 '
Lantern, *31, *277
, Lens for, 104
— with Fixed Focus Hand
Camera, •121
Pocket Kodak,
•68
without Camera, 89
Exposures, Times for, 95
Ferrotype Plates, 262
Photographic Films, Developing,
67
, Gelatine, Colouring,
90
Glass Positive, Copying, 158
Lantern Slides (see Lantern
Slides)
Lens (see Lens)
Moimtant for Glazed Prints,
190, 228
Mountants, 116
Negative, Bleaching, 306^
, Converting, to Positive,
•206 ,
, Copying, to make
Lantern Slides, 11,.*95
, Enlarging, 160
Hot Box, •26
, Intensifying, 155, 806 .
, Pinholes in, 61
, Plaster Beliefs Made
from, 112
, Printing Qualities of,
170
^, Removing Silver Stains
from, 167
, Yellow Stains
from, 170
, Retouching, 40, 262
, — — Medium for, ,
46, 98
, Tool for, •262
, Testing, for Hypo, 306
, Thin, Cause of, 21'3
, , Improving, 306
, Varnishing, 46
Negatives, Halation in, *313
Opalines, 73
Panoramic Views, Mounting,
303
Plaster Reliefs, 112, 307
Plates, Anti-halation Back-
ing for, 313 ^
, Backed, 313
• , Changing, in Hand
Camera, *175
— f , Development of, ^34
■ • , Dry, Fog on, 74
, Ferrotype, Black
Enamel for, 228
-^ , Water-developed, 354
Portraiture, Backgrounds
for, 112, 203, 211
, Camera Swing Back in,
•836,,
• , Electric Arc Lamp
for, •344
, Lenses for, 104, 281
Positive, Blocking out on,
819
, ConvertingNegativeto.
206
■ , Copying, 158
Printing Fi-ame, Half-plate,
•203
, Quarter-plate,
•236
Printing-out Paper, 47
, Albuuienised, 45
, Platinum Toning
Bath for, 168
not requiring
Toning, •233
■ , Washing, 220
■ Prints, Bar Burnisher for,
298
, Bromide, Burnishing.
217
, , Mounting, 217
'—, Burnisher for, 251 .
, Burnishing, 217, 261,
for, 275
-, Encaustic Paste
, Lubricantfor, 251,
, Embossing, 166
, Euamellers for, 298
, Enamelling, 166
, Encaustic Paste for '
Polishing, 275
, Gelatine Adhesives for
Mounting, 190, 228
, Glazed, Mountant for,
190, 228
, Glazing, 190, 228
, Making, by Gas and
Dull Light, 103
374
Cyclopsedia of Mechanics.
Photographic Prints, Matt Sur-
face on, S2
, Mounting, 21, 97, 303
, Paste for Mounting,
116
, Perninnence of, 24
, Polisliing (see Photo-
graphic Prints, Burnishing)
'■ — , Stereoscopic, Mounting,
•53
, Testing, for Hypo, 24
, , Permanence,
•275
, Toned and TJntoned,
Pernijinence of, 276
, Vif^uetting Apparatus
for, 'U, 44, 100
■ , Wasliing Apparatus for,
•126, 154
-— Reliefs, 112, 307
Sensitometers, 296
Shutter, Correct Speed of,
130
, Determining Speed of,
25, 128
-— , Bverset, 93
for Quarter-plate Stand
Camera, ^169
, Silent, 'IS
for Tailing Doubles,
•212
— ■ , Time and Instantane-
ons, •187
, Unioum Type, "79
Silhouettes, 78
Studio, '274 ■
Blinds, 323
-, Temporary Outdoor,
•346
Transfer Paper, 330
of Printed Pictures, 302
Pliotographing, AH-rouild,' Lens
for, 117 .
Coloured Pictures, 87, 123
Cyclists, '337
on Embossed Glass, 308
Oil Paintings, 123
with Opera Glass or Tele-
scope, •336
Pencil Drawings, 255
Procession Instantaneously,
84
Several Objei-ts on One
Plate, 23
Photographs (s^e also Photograph
and Photographic Prints)
, Blue,'140, 201
, Crystoleum, 123
, Enlarging, by Daylight,
♦127
, Quantity of, 117
^ , without Camera, 89 ,
; Postage Stamp, ♦305
, Printing, on China, 94
— -;■ , Fabrics, 86
• in EeUef, 112, 307
- — Stereoscopic, Mounting, *63
- — , Vignetting, m, 44, 109
Photography, Architectural,
Camera Swing Baclt in, 338
• , Carbon Process of, Sensi-
tometer for, 296
, Copying Manuscript by, 143
— — , Dusting-on Process of, 70
, , Sensitometer
for, 295
, Ferrotype, 262
, - — , Bath for, •307
, , Dipper for, '307
, Gum Bicliromate Process of,
'64, 262
, Kallitype Process of, 96
, Pinhole, ^211
, Platinotypc Px'ocess of,
Sensitometer for, '295
, Stereoscopic, 22, 105
, , Camera for, *22
, , Mounting Prints in,
•68
, Use of Su|)plenientary
Lenses in, 193
, Zinc Dishes in,
187
— ^, Wet Collodion Process of,
64, 262
, Wet-plate, 04
, , Wire Kefcts used in,
•100
Piano Cases, Finishing, 111
Front, qiilding, 118
, Inserting Wrcbt-plank in, 21
■ Keys, Bleaching, 310
, Cleaning, 310
, Distinguishing Cellu-
loid, from Ivory, 205
, Polishing, 295
, Preserving, 310
, Removing Scratches
from, 295
, Renovating, 295
, Music Shelf for, "338
, Pneumatic Pedals fbr, 210
, Reviving Polish on, 139
— r-. Tuning, 86
Pickle for Colouring Gold Alloys,
36, 46, 54
Gun-metal Castings, 97
to remove Silver Solder, 29
for Soldered Watch Case, 66
Picks for Dressing Granite, ♦205,
•238, •282 ,
Picric Acid, 98
Picture, Cleaning, -38, 206
, Coloured, Treated to Re-'
semble Oil Painting, 245
1 1 Photographing, 87,
123
,Crystoleum (see Crystoleum)
Frame, Applying Gold
Bronze to, 110
, Bevelling, •270
, Cramping, ^302
1 Ebonised, Compo. for
Repairing, 230
, Mahogany, Darkening,
132
Mouldinga, Facing, 112
, Oak, Fumigating,
196
, , Green Stain
for, 67
, Staining, 112
, Oxford, ^247
Mounts, Gold-lining, 31, 110
, White-lining, 31
, Printed, Transferring,
Photographically, 302
, Removing Damp Stains
from, 144, 206
Stretcher, 245
, Triad, ^75
Pig, Crate for Carrying, *97
Piseon Cote, '219
, House, Front for, •296
Pigments : Burnt Sienna, 194
: Burnt Umber, 194
■ : Chinese Red, 195
: Chinese or Zinc White,
196
Chrome Yellow, 297
Crimson Lake, 305
Emerald Green, 194
Flake White, 194
, Flesh-tinted, 19
: French Ultramarine, 196
— — : Green Lake, 194
: Imperial Yellow, 293
: Indian Red, 194
: Indigo, 194
: Ivoiy Black, 194
: Lemon Chrome, 194
: Orange Chrome, 194
: Paris White, 329
: Prussian Blue. 196, 30O
— ' — : Raw Sienna, 195
: Raw Umber, 196
: Spanish White, 329
■ : Ultramarine, 196
; Vandyke Brown, 195
: Vegetable Black, 195
J Venetian Red, 195
: Vermilion, 196
: Verrailionettcj 300
: White Lead, 195
: Whiting, 329
: Yellow Ochre, 196
: Zinc White, 195
:Zino Yellow, 291
Pile-driving Engine, •lOS, •316
Piles, Driving, on a Batter, •34'i
Piles, 'Thermo-electric, '90
Pillar, Turned, Cutting Slot in
Top of, •66
Pill-boxes, Wooden, Grease-
proofing, 334
Pills, Enamel for Coating, 142
Pin, and Shackle Draw-bar Hook,
•297
Pinchbeck Brass, 364
Pincushions made from Cows'
Hoofs, 309
Pine, American Red, Strength
of, 160 ,
" , , Woight of, 150
— T-, Ebonising, 91
, Filler for, HI
, French Polish for, 142
, Kauri, Strength of, 150
, •, Weight of, 150
, Northern, Strength of, 150 '
, , Weight of, 150
, Pitch, Strength of, 150
, , Weight of, 160
- — , Polish for, 91
, Staining, to Imitate Chip-
pendale, 127 i
, Matchboarding to Imi-
tate, 202
, Varnishing, 82
— -, White, Strength of, 160
, , Weight of, 160
, Yellow, 316
, , Oak Finish for, 142
Pinhole Camera, ^211
Plibtography, 211
Pinholes in Photographic Nega-
tive, 61
Pinions, Watch, Drilling,, 2S7,
300
Pink Liquid for Chemists' Show
Bottles, 13
Slain for Billiard Balls, 318
Pins, Brass, Blackening, 354
, Entomological, 220
, Scarf, in Gold Wire, 69
, Steel, Gilding, 77
Pipe, Caulked Joints in, 11,' 321
, Copper, Bending, 185
, , Tinning, 62, 140
, , Wiping Johit on, •62
, Drain, Cement Joints on,
191
, Effects of Bends in, 202
, Gas, Testing, 111
for Heating Drying-roont by
Steam, 91
, Hot-water, Applying As-
bestos Paste to, 286
, , Caulked Jo.nt on, 321
, -— , Cementing, 30
, , Cleaning, 3;j2
, , Clicking Noise in, 115
, Expansion, 117
, — -, Joints for, 217, ^347
, , Removing Lime De-
posit from, 352
.Hydraulic, Mean Depth of
Water in, ♦OS
, Lead, Castir^, 202 ,
, Soil, Joints for, 247
, .SolderingAstragals
and Tacks on, 172
Organs, Electric Key Actions
of, 167
, Pneumatic Key Actioris
of, 167
, Reeds of, 89
Orifice, Effect of, on Velocity
of Efflux, 201
Rack, •163
, Steam, Applying Asbestos
Paste to, 286
, , Borings -Cement for
Jointing, 11
, , Caulked Joint on, 11
, , Determining Super-
ficial Surface of, 26
, , Heat Insulating
Compo. for, 65
, , Socket Joint in, 11
, Tobacco (see Tobacco Pipe)
, Waste, Joints for, 247
, Water Discharge through,
31
, , Comparison
of Fornjulas for, 69
, , Hydraulic Gradient of,
•203
Pipeclay, Whitening Stono with,
321
Pipe-eye Scroll-irons, 66
Pit Saws, Tempering, 310
Pitch, Soot black made from, 250
, Swedish, 222
Pitching Tool for Gra;nite, •238
Pitch-pine Logs, Cutting Figured
Boards from, 16
^ — , Strength of, 160
, Varnishing, 82
, Weight of, 160
Pivot Hole, Watch, Repairing,
80
• in Watch Balance Staff, 268
Pivots of Drum Clock Balance,
Re-pointing, 285
, Watch, Poliijhing, 332
Plagioclase Feldspar in Basalt,
256
Plane Irons, Tempering, 310
', Router, ^243
, Scratch, for Working Beads
and Mouldings, ♦IdS
Planes, Ffench-poliehing, 311
— —t Preserving, 311
Plasma, Cutting and Polishing,
337
Plaster Bronzes, Renovating, 129
Bust, Cle.itn'ng, 144
Castings, Wax ^loulds for,
196
- — Casts, Giving Ivory appear-
ance to 36, 157
^ — ■ Coatings for Fresco Paint-
ing, 289 .
Cornice, Repairing, 71
Figures, Giving Ivory ap-
pearance to, 36, 157
, Preserving, 36
for Modelling Figures, 36
Mould for Cement Viise, 228
, Making Cement Cast-
ings ftom, 228
Panels to imitate Mahogany,
68
Reliefs made from Photo-
graphic Negatives, 112, 307
Statue, Electro-coppering,
264
Walls, Fire or Air Cracks iii,
69
, White Wall, 254
Plasterers' Gauged Stuff, ^54
I^lastering, Cement for Patching,'
325
Plaster-of-Paris, 17
, Action of, 17
, Calcining, 17
, Kilns for, 17 ,
, Mining, 17
Model, 317
, Retarding Setting of, 317
Plasticine, 317 • ^
Plate-casting in Cockfounding,
36
Plated Articles, Renloving Ink
Stains from, .165
Busty, 267
,— r-, Stripping Gold from,
231, 363
• , Silver from, 320,
337 '
Wire, Cleaning, 351
Plate-glass, Bevelling, 119
, Flat Grounds for, 247
, Painting Lines oh, 126
, Silvering, 72, 108
, , Table used in, ♦72
Plates; Collotype Printing, 216,' -
249
, Copper, Straightening, 106
, Ferrotype, 262
, , Black Enamel for^
223
, Mechanical Dental, 249
, Photographic (see Photo-
graphic)
, Steel, Setting or Straighten-
ing, 330 .
, Thin Metal, Levellinj;, '208
, Vulcanite Dental, 168
, Watch, Cleaning, 237
, , Gilding, 2S9
, , Softening, 289
Plate-stand, Tripod, ^344
Plating with Brass, Gold, Nickel,
Silver, etc. (see under re-
spective metals)
Platinum Ammonia-chloride, 269
■ Pei'chluride, 269 . .
in Self-littlitlng Inoaadeseent
Burners, 269
, Spongy, 269
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
375
Platinuin Toning Bath, 168
Playing Bowls, Wooden, Clean-
ing, 234
, , Re-staining, 234
, , Staining, 234
Marbles, Stone, 190
Pleated Back Sq^uab for Car-
riage, 308
Plotting Surveys, 'ISO
Plough, Snow, *T2
Plug and Feat;hers for Splitting
Granite, •238
Plum Wood Carvings, Finishing,
296
Plumbago Crucible, 46
Plumber'6 Astragal Joint, 172,
247
^-^iSxpansion Joint, 247
Glossy Black, 326
— Slip Joint, 247
Soil or Smudge, 347
, Thinning, 347
Solder, Removing Zinc from,
147, 263
Underhand Joint, *8S
Plumbing Work Aboard Troop-
ship, •341
plunger of Pump Piston, Packing
for, 262
Plush, Covering Circular Frames
, with, .'lOS
Pneumatic- Key Actions for Pipe
Organs, 167
Pedals for Piano, 210
Test for Drains, 175 ,
Pocket Compass and IHagnetic
North, 307
Pointillnge Watch Glasses, 344
Pointing Brickwork, *115, *127
• , Mortar for, 30, 115, 127,
241
■ , Portland Cement for,
344
Poles, Brass Curtain, Bejiding, 14
(see also Ben.ding)
Polish, Black French, 314
, , for Harness, 233
, , Mirror Frames,
183
, , Shop Fittings,
133
- — , Brush, for American Organs,
109
, French; 233
for Calf Kid Boots, 353 '
, French (see French)
for Mangle Rollers, 83
Pine, 91
Turned Wood, 29, 227
• on Piano, Reviving, 139
, Revivers, 139, 26S
' and Stain Combined, 38
■ — -, Transparent, 314
, White French, 13, 314
on White Marble, Restoring,
, 323
- Polished Furniture, White . Spots
on, 81
Wood, Removing Soda-water
Stains from, 46
Polishing Alabaster, 154, 240
Aluminium, 314
Amber, 339
Artificial Gems, 337
Bath Top, 134
Billiard Balls, 318
Birch Chairs, 199
, Black French, 314
Kid Gloves, 286
- — ^ Marble, 281
Brass, 83, 251 , '
Clock Dials, 345
r-^ Screw Heads, 310
"■ Tubes by Hand Float-
ing, 58
■ on Emery Wheel,
58
, Mops for, 68
Brougham Panels, 109
Brown Boots, 190
Bullock Horns, 302
Carnelian Stones, 72, 337
- — Carvings in Wood, 296
Celluloid Keys of Piano, 295
. Chisel Handles, 227
Ooffln, 41
Copper, 141, 251
and Iron Lamp, 330
Polishing Cornelian Stones, 72,
337
Cow's Hoofs, 309
Curling Stones, 14
Decorated Wood, 299
•^— Diamonds, 293
, Tum-table for, 293
Ebonite, 306
Ebony, 27
Fretwork, 44
MiiTOr-frame, 38
Walking-sticks, 100
— ^ Enamelled Slate, 297
Flooring, 143
, French (see French Polish-
ing)
Furniture, 199, 219
Glaci Kid Gloves, 286
Glass, Wheels for, 'SU
Goat's Horns, 65
Granite, 206, 245, 319
Handles of Tools, 227
Hoofs, 309
— — Horns, 65, ,302
Ivory,, 251, 295
Billiard Balls, 318
Kid Gloves, 286
Laps, Copper, 337
, Lead, 337
, , Hat-king, 337
^— Lead Pencil Cases, 330
Limestone Fossils, 202
Mahogany, 214 ;
Marble, 125, 246, 281
Clock Cases, 322
Metal, Buffs for, 24
, Compositions for, 49,
S3, 112
, Crocus for, 49, 83, 149
, Rouge for, 29, 49
Millboard to Imitate Walnut, ,
197'
Ox Horns, 302
Panels of Brougham, 109
Paste Gems. 337
for Metals, 49, 83, 112
'■ Photographs, 275
Pencil Cases, 330
, Peroxide of Iron for, 29
Pewter, 337
Photographs (see Photo-
graphic Prints, Buruishiog)
Piano Keys, 295
Pipe Mounts, 29
Planes, 311
— — Printed Wood, 299 -
Razors; 112
Repouss6 Metal Work, 214
Roller of Lever Watch, 834
, Rouge for, 29, 49
Rubies, 307
SchooLSlates, 330
Shells, 258
Slate, 45, 297, 330
Stalactites, 105, 181
Stones, 14, 72, 106, 181, 807,
.337
~ — Tarnished Copper, 141
Teak, 261 _
to resemble Rosewood,
139
Tin-plate, 67
Tool Handles, 227
— — Tortoiseshell, 250
Turned Wood, 29, 261
Vulcanite, 306
Watch Pivots, 332
Roller, 334
Wax 295
'wood Carvings, 296 '
Pom-poms, Upholsterer's, 36
Pony Cart (see also Carriage and
Cart)
, •16, 'oe
— — Cushions, Making, 303
■ , Painting, 176
, Varnishing, 176
Poplar, Staining, to Walnut
Colour, 209
Porcelain, 125
, Fixing Transfers to, Spi
Letters, Removing, from
Glass, 220
- — , Potter's Clay for, 185
Porch for Doorway, *3B
Porphyrites, 242
Porphyry, Cutting and Polish-
ing, 337
Porteriu's Process of Copying
Drawings, 236
Portiire Rod, •126, ^145
Portland Cenieut, 240
, Brown, 313
, Cracking, 344
, Green, 313
used Neat, 344
for Pointing Brick-
work, -344
, Red, 313
, Sand in, 305
Wash; 163
■, Whitening, 821
, Yellow, 313
Stone, 108
Portrait (see also Photography)
Enlargements in Oil, 162'^
Portraiture, Backgrounds for,
112, 203, 211
, Camera Swing Back in, *338
, Electric Arc Lamp for, *S44
, Lenses for, 104, 281
Positive, Photogi'aphic, Blocking
1 out on, 319
■ — ^, , Converting Negative
to, 206
, — — , Copying, 158
Postage Stamp Camera, 305
Photographs, 'SOe
Stamps, Damper for, *276
, Gam for, 234
Potash, 170
• Binoxalate, Remo'^ing
Stains of, from Clothes, 338 '
Lye, 247 (see also Soap)
Soft Soaps, 328, 329
Potassium Chlorate, 327
Cyanide, 137
Oxide, 170
Phosphate, 262
Potato Spirit, 347
Pots, Flower, Window Board
for, »326
Potters' Clay for China and
, ' Porpelain, 185
— , Toughening, 181
Pottery Glazes, 18
, Transferring Designs to, •38
Poultry Food Bin, Self-feeding,
•130 '
■- -, Rack for, •334
Powder, Crocus, 49, 83,140
, Dry Soap, 21
, Ink, 266
, Perfuming, with Otto of
Roses, 29
, Putty, 149
. , Salol Soap, 300
Powdering Brass Spelter, 175
Flint, 161
Soap, 201
Power of Engine, Determinyjsr,
from Indicator Diagrams, *92
* Transmitted by Leatlier
Belts, ^99
Prawn Trap, ^186
Precious' Stones (see Gems and
under respective names of
stones)
, Artificial (see Gems)
'■ , Colouring Matter in,
76
Precipitated Chalk, 331
Precipitating Dissolved Gold, 353
Silver, 337, 350
Prepared Chalk, 331
or Whiting, 329
Preserving Berries, 68
Blown Eggs, 91
Butter, 202
Butterflies, 72
Clay Figures, 36
Fish, 217
Flowers, 305
Gum, 169
■ Horns, 65, 281
Insects, 72
Lamb's Foot, 318
Liquid Glue, 290
Moths, 72
Paste, 290
Piano Keys, 310
Planes, 311
Plaster Figures, 36
Roach for Bait, 270
Sheepskins, 24
Shell of Tortoise, 316
Pl-ess for Mangle Shafts, '40
, Trousers, *154
Pressed Yeast, 165
Pressure on Retaining Wall,
•166
of Water, 29
Priming Outdoor Woodwork, 337
Printed Pictures (see Prints)
Wood, French Polishing,
299
Printers' Ink, 18
, Black, 18
, Varnish, 18
, Brown, 18
, Converting, to Type-
writer Ink, 74
, Lampblack for malaing,
260
, Varnish for making, 18
RoUers, 217
• ■ , Composition for, 217
; , Using old, 217
Printing, Collotype Process of,
216, 249
in Gold, 277
■ Silver, 277
Printing - frame. Photographic
Half-plate, ^203
, ' Quarter - plate, ' for
Opals, •236 ,
Printing-out Paper, 47
, Albunienised, 45
, Platinum Toning Bath
for, 168
■ ■ not requiring Toning,
•233
'-, Washing, 220
Prints, Bromide (see Photo-
graphic)
, Cleaning,' 38, 206
, Coloured, resembling Oil
Paintings, 245 . ,
, — — , Photographing, 87,
123
, Photographic . (see Photo-
graphic)
, Removing Damp Stains
from, 144, 9cl6
, Transfeiriiig, Photographic-
ally, 302 .
:, Triad Picture made from,
•75
Procession, Photographing, In-
.stantaheously, 84
Proof Spirit, 347 . '
Propyl Alcohol, 347
Prussian Blue, 195, 300
^ ; Soluble, 41
Gunpowder, 346
Pulley Belts, Cements for Join-
ing, 97
, Covering, with Leather, 97
, Determining Diameter of,
272
Pulp (see also Papier-mach6)
, Cane, Bleaching, 213
, Cardboard, 233
, Flexible Paper, 33
, Paper, 33
, , Working, 149
Pulpit, *131
Pulsohieter, •74
Pump, Air, for Blow-lamp, *7'3
, Air-vessels on, 97
, Centrifugal, •28
Cup Leathers, 199
, Garden, *381
, Lead, Removing Suction
Valve of, 196
• Piston Plunger, Packing for,
262
Pumping Windmill Model, •310
Punch or Puncheon for Working .
Granite, *205, »218, •238, 282 ,
for rem oving Watch Cylinder
Plugs, n62
Punch-and-Judy -Show, Frame-
work for, 329
, Pi'oducing Squeak for,
86
Punching Designs on Copper,
237
Holes in Corrugated Iron,
229
Punt,. Flat-bottomed, 170
Purbeck Marble, 292'
Purfling Gauge for Violin Wort,
•308
376
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
Purple Liquid for Cliemists' Sliow
Bottles, 13, 293
Purse Nets for Gatoliing Rabbits,
108
Purses, Leather, '261
Push, Double-contact Electric,
*99
Putty, Gilder's, 35B
- — for Glass, S5S
, Glazing with, ♦109, 343
Enires, 'SO
Powder, 149
, Eemoving Loose, after
Glazing, 343
Pyro Developer, 263, 334
, Apparatus for Making,
•263
Pyroinorphite an Ore of Lead,
352
I
Quartz, Cutting and Polishing,
337
• in Granite, 242
' Queen - post Boofs, Scantlings
for, 232
Eabbit Skins, Curing, lOS, 285
, Tanning, 286
Babbits, Purse Jfets for Catch-
ing, 108
Back, ]3ainboo, for Newspapers,
•123, "184
, Belt, on Tent Pole, •260
• , Book, ^229
, Boot, 'SIS.
, Brush, •206, •331
, Clothes, 'SSI, "sar
, Greenstutr, •334
,' Hall, *831, •346
, Hat, •331, •346
, Newspaper, •123, *134
, Pipe, •163
, Poultry Food, •334
, Eifle, on Tent Pole, •260
/Stick, •346
, Tumbler, '111
, Umbrella, •346
Backets, Lacrosse and Tennis,
Bending Wood for, •lOr
Badiators, Circulating Heating
Surface of, 122
Bafteis, Bevels for, *W5
, Hip, Bevels of, *57
— — , Jnck, Fixing, ^209
, Valley, Fixing, '209
Bail, Steel, Tempering Sett for
Cutting, 130
, Swinging Cuitain, fitted to
Iron Bedstead, tl04 ,
Eililroad, Model of, 317
Railway Carriage Doors, Sliding
Saalwjs iii, ^349
Mouldings, •191
Tunnel, Boring, from Both
Ends, 94
Wagon Brake Blocks, 'SOS
Draw-hook, ^297
, Painting, 12
Spring Furnace, '69
Bainfall on Roof, 168
Rainwater Tank, Lining, with
Lead, 63
, Underground, 208
Ram, Hydraulic, 'las
Range Boilers, Copper, 96
"Boot" Boilers, Safety
Valves of, 240
— >- Joints, Cementing, 73
Tap, Fastening, 151
Raw Linseed Oil, Distinguish-
ing, from Boiled Oil, 248
Sienna, 196
— - Umbei', 196
Razor Strops, Crocus for, 49
Razors, Polisning, 112
, Tempering, 310
Bearer, Chicken, Heating, •148
E^aumur Tliermometer, 804, 306
RSaumnr Thermometer Degrees,
Converting, to Centigrade
and Fahrenheit, 304, 806
Eebating Sashes, Machine for,
•259
Reciprocating Water Motor, •298
.Regulator for, •842
Rectangular Tank, Determining
Contents of, 19
Rectified Spirit, 847
Rectilinear Lenses, 60, *827
Red Bottle-waxes, 16
Brass, 864
Copying Ink, 220
Facing Bricks, 261
- — Pilling tor Engraved Letters,
102
Glaze for Terra-cotta Tiles,
18
— Tobacco Pipes, 28
Grease Paint, 343
, Indian, 194
Ink, 223
Stains, Removing, from
Marble, 233
Letters on Glass, 16
Liquid for Chemists' Show
Bottles, 13, 293
Luminous Paint, 263
Ogwell Marble, 292
Oil, French Polishers', H
, Oxide of Zinc, 336
Paint, 126
Phosphorus, 45
Pine, American, Strength of,
160
, , Weight of, 150
■ Portland Cement, 313
Sandal-wood, 247
Sanders-wood, 247
■ Slain for Alabaster, 240
Billiard Balls, 318
Stencil Ink, 87
Varnish for Straw Hats, 50
, Venetian, 195
Red-rose Mica, 41
Redwood, Baltic, 315
Eeed Hook, '299
Eeeds of American Organ, 299
, Removing
Dust from,^299
Organ Pipes, 89
Reel for Fishing Rod, 237
Reels; Winding Cotton on,301
, — - — -, Wield's
Machine for, 301
Refining Impure Tin, 156
Scrap Gold, 180
Reflected Image, 162
Refrigerating with Chemicals,
200
Register Stoves, Blowers for,
114
Eegnault's Air-weighing Experi-
' ments, S-tS
Eegulator Clock (see Clock)
for Reciprocating Water
Motor, •842
Relaxing Bird Skins, 168, 186
Butterflies.'etc, 72
Squirrel Skins, 186
Relief Pliotographs, 112, 307
Repoussi Work on Copper, 214
■ Metals, 214
, Polishing, 214
Repp Furniture Cover, Renovat-
ing, 849
Reservoir for ParafBn Blowpipe,
•328
Resin in Amber, 339
■ , Distillation of, 161
Paste, 820
Solt Soap, 829
in Spirit Varnish, 101
Resist for Sun Printing on Glass,
308
Rest, Portable, for Books, ^172
Retaining Wall, Pressure on,
•166
for Sunk Roadway, ^204
Retort Refuse, Gas, Artificial
Emeralds from, 76
Retouching Negatives, 46, 262
, Medium for, 46, 98
, Tool for, ^262
Reversing Gear for Locomotive,
Stephenson's, "218
Revivers for Pelt Hats, 286
Revivers for French-polished
Work, 268, 299
Revolver Springs, Tempering, 65
Rhinoceros Hide, Making Walk-
ing-sticks from, 247
Ribbon Agate, 353
Ribbons, Typewriter, Ee-inking,
807
Ridge Roll, Hollowing Under
Side of, 'lir
Hiifflcr *S2o
Rifle :^ck for Tent Pole, *260
Rifies, Gunpowder for, 346
Rim, Conical, Pattern for, ^45
Ring Weights on Safety Valve,
286
Rings, Brass, Making, 316
, Gold, Hard-soldering, 162
, Jewelled, Soldering, 325
River, Taking Cross Sections of,
•266
Water, Impurities in, 327
Riveting Corrugated Iron, 229
Rivets for Boilerplates, 167
.Determining Diameter and
Pitch of, 37
.Roach Fishing Paste, 198
, Preserving, as Bait, 270
Road, Macadam, 291
, , Granite for, 172, 291
Metal, Porphyrites as, 242
Roadway, Sunk, Retaining Wall
for, *204
Rock, Cement for, 259
Rock-cork Asbestos, 308
Rocking Chair, Bamboo, •287
Rock-leather Asbestos, 803
Rock-wood Asbestos, 303
Rod, Fishing (see Fishing Rod)
, Portitoe, •125, ^146
Rods, Engine, Forging, •M
Eoebling Wire Gauge, 351
Rolled Brass, 354
- Joists for Assembly-room
Floor, •217
Sheet Lead, 862
Roller, Cast-iron, Pattern for, 243
, Watch, Fitting, 334
, , Polishing, 334
Rollers, Composition, for Brand-
ing Sacks, 219
— ^, , Moulds for, 217, 219
- — , Iron, Cementing Felt to, 81
, Mangle, Machine for Press-
ing Shafts in, *40
, , Polish for, 88
, Printers', 217
, , Composition for, 217
, , Using Old, 217
Rolling Sheet Lead, Machinery
for, 218
Roll-top Desk, Eoll-shutter tor,
•291
Boot, Box Gutter on, 813
, Collar, Scantlings tor, 282
, Columns tor Carrying, *226
, Corrugated Iron and Felt,
•285
, , Method of Cool-
ing Shed which has, 216
, , Moisture con-
densing on,.47
, -Covering, with Oak Shin-
gles, 802
,. ;, with Zinc, •129
,- Cutting Corrugated Iron
Plates for, 229
— into Side of Dome, *25
Dome, Octagon, covered
with Sheet Lead, •280
, Girders for Carrying, •226
, Glass, Preventing Con-
densed Moisture Dropping
from, *299
Gutters, 158
Hip Ratter, Bevels of, •67
, Iron, ^180
, King-post, Scantlings for,
282
, Lead Stepped Flashings for,
•381
, Ogee, Lead Bays for, 280
, Oilcloth, for Porch, 'SS
, Queen-post, Scantlings for,
232
, Rainfall on, 168
Ridge Roll, Hollowing
UMer Side of, »117
for Ingle Nook,
Roof, Sanded,
•832
Slates, Replacing Broken,
•.281 /
, Span, Fowls' House with,
-BS9 ■ 1
, Timber, Scantlingi tor, 282
Truss, King-postl Hipped
End of, •328
Roofing with Felt, •239, *260
Room, .Atmosphere of,]289
, Dark, •213
, .Lamp for, "m, '233
, , Ventilating, 'ISl
, Drying Heating, 91, 208
Floor, Rolled Joists for, •217
, Papered, Sizing and Varnish-
ing, 291
^ — , Proportioning, for Sound,
98
, Window Areas for, 164
Rooms, Two, Heated from One
Fireplace, •235
Ropemaker's Jenny, 309
Ropes, Straw, 809
, , Jenny for Twisting,
309
— — , , Twisting Hook for,
•309
Rosa Carnagione Marble, 292
Rose Colour Grease Paint, 343
Rose Marble, 292
Enjugeraie Marble, 292
Eosewood Graining on Glass
Signs, 277
, Polishing Teak'to resemble,
139
Eosso di Levanto Marble, 292
Rotary-hook Lock-stitdi Sewing
Machine, 76
Eouge Acajou Marble, 292
Antique Marble, 292
du Var Marble, 292
Btrusque Marble, 292
Fleuri Marble, 292
Griotte Marble, 292
Rose Marble, 292
Royal Marble, 293
Rouge, Jewellers', 29, 49
Rough-casting Walls, 115
Router Planes, '243
tor Working Circular
Mouldings, '*78
Rubber Goods (seelndiarubber)
Rubber used in Tinning Vessels,
57
Rubbers for Marble, 246
Rubble Wall, Cement Rendering
on, 148
Ruby, Artificial, 76
, , Gaudin's Pi-ocess for
Making, 76
, Colouring.Matter in, V6
, Cutting, 807
, Distingaishing, from Arti-
ficial Gem, 76
, Polishing, 807
Ruby Lamp for Photographer's
Use, •189, *233
Rugs, Making, from Raw Hides,
184
, Sheepskin, Removing Salt
from, 68
Ruling Pen, Setting, •47
Bum, Amount of Alcohol in, 347
Rush-bottomed Chairs, Ee-seat-
ing, ^174
Russet Marble, 298 ,
Russian Gunpowder, 840
Kef or Koumiss, 848
Rust on Nickel-plated Suvfaoss,.
207
, Preventing, in Kitchen
Boiler, 142 '
, Removing, from Iron, 269
, — -. 1 Microscope, 85
, -^, Wood, 76
Rust-marked Wood, Painting, 76
Rusty Galvanised Iron Tank, 809
S
Saocharometer, Bate's, 161
Sacks, Composition Rollers for
Branding, 219
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
377
Sacks, Stencil Ink for Marking,
281
, Plates for Marking, *82
Saddle Soap, 39
Saddle-shaped Boiler, Pattern
for, 'Se
Safety Matches, 45
, Rubber on Box for, 45
. Valve on Hot-water Appa-
ratus, 190
Range "Boot"
Boiler, 240
, Ring Weights on, 285
Saffron Colour, Dyeing Feathers,
34
Sail, Converting, to Boat Cover,
169
Plan fbr Model Yacht, •168,
•184,
, Removing Mulberry Stains
from, 216
St. Amaude Maible, 293
St. Anne's Marble, 29S
, Polishing, 125
St. B^at Marble, 293
Bt. Sylvester Marble, 293
Saline, Etfervescing, 209
Salinometer, 119
Salmon Mshing Rods, 303
Salol Shaving Soap, 300
Snap Powder, SCO
Salt, Extracting, Irom Sheepskin
Bug, 68
-^, Glauber's, 260'
Saltpetre, Impregnating Char-
coal with, 251
-J Making Soda Nitrate from,
16
, Melting Point of, 16
Salts of Lemon Stains, Removing,
from Clothes, 838
Sample Case, Traveller's, ♦63
1 Sand in Mortar (see Mortar)
^ , Weight of, 89
^Sandal-wood, 2^7
. Sand-blast Process of Lettering
Glass, 16
Sanded Roof, Ingle Nook with,
*332
Sandstone, Grey, Imitation of,
218
, Red, Imitation of, 218
Sanitary Ari-angements of Troop-
ship, '341
Santo Crimp's Formula for Water
Discharge of Pipe, 69
Saponifying Oil, 329
Sapphires, Artificial, 76
, , Sidot's Process of
Making, 76
' , Colouring Matter in, 76
Sard, Cutting and Polishing, 337
Sardonyx, Cutting and Polishing,
337
Sarrancolin Marble, 293
Sarsaparilla Beer, 91', 338
Sash Bars and Rails, >198
— T— Lines, Putting, in Window
Frames, 47
Sashes, Doable, for Deadening
• Noise, •287
, , Machine for Grooving and
Moulding, 259
, Sliding, in Railway
Carriage Doors, *849
Satin, Printing Photographs on,
87
Saucepan Covers, *112
Saucepans, 146
Saucer, Transferring Design to,
•38
Sarings Bank or Money Box, "42
Saw for Alabaster, 68
, Band, Attaching Leather to
Wheels of, »262
, — !— , Brazing, 100, *272
—r—, ' , Using Broken, 166
— -, Circular, Bench for, *285
, , Cutting Floor Blocks
with, *330
, , Safety Guard for, •62
, , Sharpening, 277
, CylindricjQ, Cutting Ivory,
' Ebonite, etc., with, 306
— , Fastening, to Tool-chest
Lid, ^137
—— Piles, Granite-cutting Chisels
made from, 323
Saw for Marble, 246
Mill, Small, •257
Sharpening Machine, •248
for Soft Stone, 68
, Tempering, 310
Vice, 'eo
Sawing Amber, 339
Ebony, 27
Pitch-pine Logs, *15
Scabbled Granite, 205
Sc^bling Hammer for Laying
Marble Mosaics, *61,
Picks for Granite, '205,
•282
Scales on Thermometers, Re-
blacking, 37
Scalpels, Tempering, 310
Scantlings for Collar Roofs, 232
King-post Roofs, 232
• Queen-post Roofs, 232
Timber Roofs, 232^
Scarf-pins, Gold Wire, 69
Scenery, Theatre, Fireprooflng,
53
Scenes for Diorama, 116, 137
Scent Cabinet and Jewel Box
Combined, »199
Scenting Powder with Otto of
Roses, 29
Schatte's Varnish for Making
Luminous Paint, 263
School, Air Space in, 239
, Floor Space in, 239
Furniture, Yellow Finish
for. 111
■ Slates, 330
, Cutting, 380
, Polishing, 330
Schoolroom, Heating, 89
Scissors, Tempering, 310-
Scoop for Apples, *47
Coal-weighing Machine,
•342
Scoring Granite Pavement, 218
Scotch Fir, *315
Scraper, Cabinet-maker's, Sharp-
ening, *134 '
Scratch Piane for Working Beads
and Mouldings, *l68
Screed for Cement, •244,
Screen Frames, Hinging, *94
, Perforated Metal, tor Win-
dow, 143 -
, Stephenson's Thermometer,
•71
— — , Vestibule, Removing, •lOl
Screw Gauge, Swiss, 81 (see also
Screw)
Screws, Brass, Polishing, 310
— ^, Worm, fitted to Banjo, ♦115
Screw-threads, Britisli Associa-
tion, 81
-= , Watch, Taps for, 14, 87
Scribing Block, ^144
, Clip for,^«'166
Scroll-irons, Pipe-eye, 56
Sea Level, 336
— — , Determining Height
Above, 336
Seal Engraving, 192
Sealing Wax, 363
, Black, 353
, Blue, 353
or Bottle Wax, 15
. Fillings for Engraved
- Plates, 102, 288
, Red, 353
with Wick, 353
— , Yellow, 363
Seasoning Small Lumber Arti-
flciaUy, •167
Seat, Chair, Upholstering, 204
, Spring, in Armchair, *330
Seating Cord-bottomed Chairs,
•174
Rush-bottomed Chair,; •I?*
Sea-trout Fishing Rod, 803
Seats, Double, for Shop, ♦144
Secret Drawers attached to Jewel
Case, ♦se ■
Inks, 104
Segmental Opening, Splayed
Linings to, *350
Selenium, 20
Monochloride, 20
Tetrachloride, 20
Seltzogene Charges, Ingredients
for, 159
Sensitising Photographic Paper,
45, 47, •166, 233
Sensitometers, 295
for Bromide Printing, 295
^ — Carbon Printing, 296
Dusting on Process, 296
Platinotype Printing,
295
Serpentine in Basalt, 256
, Cutting and Polishing, 337
Set-square, IJevel, ♦IGO
Settee, Divan, •335
Setting Beetles, 226, 246
Boards for Insects, 72, 218
Butterflies, 72
Moths, 72
Ruling Pen, '47
or Straightening Steel Plates,
339
Sewage, Bacterial Filters for, 321
, Treatment of, 321
Filter, Automatic, •203
IiTigation, ♦263
Sewage-polluted Water, 327
Sewer, Connecting House Drain
to, ^23
, Hydraulic Gradient of, ♦263
Sewing Machine," Adjusting
Needles in, 76
, Adjustment of, 76
, Chain-stitch, 76
, Howe, 251
, Lock-stitch, 76
, Needles Breaking in,
267
■ ■, Rotary-hook Lock-
stitch, 76
Shackles, Railway Coupling, ♦67
, , Beiiding Block
used in Forging, •67
Shade, 'Cracked Glass, Cutting,
187
Shaft, Chiinney, Felling, 115
Shafts. Mangle, Press for, •40
Shampooing, Dr.y, , Liquid for,
345
Sharpening Axes, 245
Band Saws, 186
Boot Clicker's Knife, 247 '
Cabinet-maker'sSteelScraper,
•134
^ — ■ Circular Saws, 277
Engraving Tools, 79
Gouges, 301
Patent I Granite- dressing
Axes, 246
Pivots of Drum, Clock
Balance, 285
Saws, Machine for, ^248
Wood-carving Tools, 801
Shaving Paste, '45, 260
Soap, Salol, 300
Shears for Cutting Sheel) Metal,
♦210
, Tempering, 810
Shealhs for Hand Camera with
Changing Bag, ^343
Shed, Paint for Waterproofing,
322
for Storing Cycles, '170
use as Saw Mill, "267
with Corrugated Iron Roof,
Cooling, 216
Sheep Bones, Making Apple
Scoops from, ^47
Feet (see Lamb's Foot)
Skin Rugs, Extracting Salt
from, 68 * '
Skins, Chrome Tanning, 34
■■ — , Curing, 24
, Currying, 24
, Dyeing, 169
— , Preservative for, 24
, Removing Fat from,
83
, Flesh from, 24
, Wool from, 20
— , Tawing, 24
Sheet Aluminium, 341
Brass, 354
Copper, 360
Lead, 352
Metal Cone, ^284
Fountain for Green-
house, «840
. , Hand Shears for
Cutting, ^210
, HoUowing, 71, 284
Sheet Metal Letter Box, ^291
, Levelling and Straight-
ening, 106, ^208
Metal-worker's Brass, 354
Sheirer's Bottle-capping Mixture,
15
Shelf Bracket Mouldings, ^78
, Music, for Piano, *338
Shell, Tortoise (see Tortoiseshell)
Shellac (see also Varnish)
, Precautions in Storing, 13
— -, Uses of, 48
Shells, Aquarium, Cleaning, 65
, , Growth on, 65
, Grinding and Polishing, 258
Sheraton Easy Chair, 99
Inlays, Shading, 172
^ , Staining, 182
Shields for Mounting Antlers,
♦77
Shingles, Oak, 302
, , Covering Roof with,
302
Ship, Three-decked, Tonnage of,
268
Ship's Gross Tonnage, 258
Ironwprk, Cork Paint for,
68
Limber Holes, 59
Log, Working, '159
Net Tonnage, 258
Tonnages, 258
Under-deck, Tonnage, 258
Ventilator, ' Pattern for,
♦167
Watertight Sliding Door,
♦77
Well, Taking Soundings of,
69
Shoeing Kicking Horses, Stocks
for, ^43
Shoemakers' Finishing Irons, *53
Paste, 236
Shoemaking: Attaching Bristle
to Waxed Thread, ^104
Shoes (see also Boot)
, Black Canvas, Re-dyeing,
255
, Brown Leather, Darkening,
117
, ~. , Polishing Paste
for, 78
, Indiarubber, Re-soling, 275
, Kid, Staining, Brown, 169
, Patent Leather, Cracking
across Toes, 60
, , Renovating, 102
, Snow, 257
, White Canvas, Cleaning,
283
, Kid, Cleaning, 22
Shooting Gallery, Grotesque Tar-
get for, *97
Shop Blinds, Lettering, 310
Counter, •812
Door, Electric Alarm for,
•181
; Double Seats for, ^144
Fittings, Black Polish for,
183
Window, Glass Louvre
Ventilator for, ^34
, Preventing Steam Con-
densing on, ^34
Show (see Punch-and-Judy)
ShowBottles,Chemists', Coloured
Liquids for (see Cheuiist's)
Shutter, Photogi-apliic (see Cam-
era)
Shuttleworth's Typewriter Ink,
74
Siberian Ivory, 262
Sicilian Marble, 293
: , Polishing, 126
Sidot's Artificial Sapphires, 76 .
Sienna, Burnt, 194
, Raw, 195
Sienna Marble, 293
Sign, Swinging Glass-faced, •295
Signal Flags, •351
— ~ Sounds^, Far-reaching, 142
Signboard, Preparing, for Gild-
ing, 152
, Triad, ^76
Sign-painting, Pigments used in
(see Pigments)
Signs, Glass, Rosewood Graining
on, 277
378
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
Sign-writers' Material for Sltetcli-
ing on Glass, 14S
Sicn-wnting, '2<J.5
Silliouettes, Photographic, 78
Silicate of Zinc or Electric Cala-
mine, 386
Silk Fibres, *10S '
Fishing Lines, Waterproof
Dressings for, 64, 217
Furniture Coverings, Clean-
ing, 306
, Printing Photographs on,
sr
■ - — Tapesti-y Covers, Cleaning,
306
Tassels, *274
Sills, Concrete, '111
Silver, Annealing, 352
Blackened by Burning Gas,
42
■ , Blai'kening, 55, 150
■ Bronze Powder, 116, 263
, Mica as, 115
Chains, Oxidising, 150
, Stripping Gold from,
2TS
, Cleaning, 851, 362
■ Coins, Cleaning, 35J
, Dissolved, Precipitating,
337. 350
— - Foil in Chinese Lacquer
Work, 87
' , Frosting, 345
^ — , Fumigating, 55
, German, Gilding Liquid for
Dipping, 209
, Gilded, Removing Gold
from,. 231, 273
, Gilding Liquid for Dipping,
209
, , without Battery, 351
Jug, Obliterating Engraved
Crest on, 121
, Spinning, in Lathe, 14
Leaf, Applying, to Leather,
30
, Melting, on Open Fire, 50
, Oxidised, Restoring Lustre
of, 362
, Oxidising, 56, 150
, Pickling, 852
Pipe-mounts, *29
, Burnisher for, *29
, Polishing, 29
'■ — , Soldering, 29
' Plated Surfaces Blackened
by Burning Gas, 42
— r-. Removing^ Ink
Stains from, 165
Plated Ware, Cleiining, 351
Plating, 248
-~ ■ Aluminium, 300
, Bright, 243
copper, 274
. Solutions, 152, 243, 300
, Deteriomtion of,
233
, Striking Solutions for,
243
Tin Teapot, 264
, Printing in, 277
. , Removing Ink Stains from,
166
■ Solder, 60, 63
, Converting Ordinary
Solder to, 63
-: , Hard Soldering with,
276
— , Pickle to removej 29
• in Solution, Precipitating,
387, 850
Stains, Removing, from
Negatives, 167 ,
Stick-mounts, Cleaning.
after Engraving, 265
, Holding, whilst
Engraving, 266
' ^ , Stripping, ft-om Plated Ar-
ticles, 820, 337
, Snlphuriscd, Restoring
- Lustre of, 862
— ^, Thermo-el-acfcric Properties
of, 90
Watch- Dials, Cleaning, 363
- — Watch-case, Soldering, 66,
103
Silvering (see also Silver Plating)
Brass, 85
Silvering Brass Clock Dials, 345
Coppei', 85
Glass, 72, lOS
, Table used in, '72
• Leather, 30
Metal, French Method of, 86
on Mirror, Paint to Pro1;eet,
84
■ , Renovating, 41
Singer Sewing Machine, Needles
Breaking in, 267 (see also
Sewing Machine)
Single-stick Baskets or Hand
Guards, *808
Sinks, Slop, Fixing, 200
Size, 48 '
^,AmericanMethod of Making,
48
, Boilers or Pans for, 48
• for Ceiling, 72
Gilding Oak, 267
Kip Work, 228
Materials, Liming, 48
~ — , Raw Materials lor, 48
Sizing Wall-paper, 137; 291
Skeleton Clock, Fitting Main-
spring to, 145
Skeletonising Animals' Heads,
23, 286
Skin Hugs, 184
, Extracting Salt from,
68
Skins Badger, Cleaning, 244
, Bird, Preservative used in
Curing, 44
, - — , Relaxing, 168, 186
, Calf, Chroine Tanning, 34
, , Preparing Banjo Vel-
lum from, 344
, Chrome Tanning, 84
, Cleaning, 19, 181
, Dyeing, 78, 164
, Fur, Cutting, 266
, , Distinguishing Good
and Bad, 142
for Glove Leather, 78, 286
, Goat, Chrome Tanning, 34
, , Curing, 89
, , Softening, 169
, Hairing, 78
, PaddUng, 78
, Polishing, 78
, Babbit, Curing, 105, 285
, , Tanning, 285
, Sheep (see Slieep)
, Snake, Softening, 269
, Squirrel, Relaxing, 186
, Staking, 78
, Tanning, for Glove Leather,
78
■ ,' Tiger, Cleaning, 216
, Washing, 78
Skulls, Animals', Bleaching, 286
, , Skeletonising, 23, 286
Sky Shade for Camera Lens, •345
Skylight, Preventing Condensed
Moisture Droppingfrom, *299
Slate, Cementing Glass to, 232
■ ■ Damf)-proof Course, 259
. , Enamelled, Polishing, 297
, , Removing Scratches
from, 297
, Enamelling, 46, 297
Mantelpiece, Enamelling, 297
Pencil Writing, Painting
Cardboard for, 58
, Polishing, 46
on Roof, Replacing Broken,
•281
Slates, School, 830
, , Outthig, 330
■ , , Polishing, 330
Sledge, ''54
Slide, Comet, Loosening, 228
Valve of Steam Engine, Lead
of, 100
Slide-rest, Tool-holder for, 'lOl
Slides, Magic Lantern (see Magic
Lantern)
, Microscope (see Microscope)
Sliding Sashes in Railway Car-
riage Doors, *849
Slip Joint, Plumber's, 247
Slitting Mill for Stones, 337
Slop Shoots on Board Troopship,
•341
Sinks, 200
Slopes, 262
Slot, Cutting, in Top of Turned
Pillar, 65
Smoke Test for Drains, 176
Smoker's Companion, *163
Smoky Chimney, 113
Kitchen Chimney, 83
Smudge, Plumber's, 347
, ■ Glossy, 320
, , Thinning, 347
Snake Skins, Softening, 269
Snips for Catting Corrugated
Iron, 229
Snow Plough, ^72
^ Shoes, •267
Soap, Alumina, 80
, , Watei'prooflng Cloth
with, 80
, Ammonia, 202
, Arsenical, 217
•, Bar, 25, 121
, , Mould for, 25
, Blue Mottled, 246
, Boracic, 800
, Borax, 300
Box and Tumbler Rack, •111
, Camphorated Sulphur, 300 '
, Carbolic, 300
, Cocoanut Oil Paste, 300
, Converting Bacon Cuttings
to, 113
, Fat to, 159
, Dry, 21 ' '
for Dry Shampooing, 345
, Grube's Thiosavonal, 300
, Hard and Soft, 80
, Ichthyol, 300
-, Liquid Sulphur, 300
, Thiosavonal, SOU
Lyes, 25, 113, 159, 202, 245,
250, 255
, Hydrometer for, 266
, Medicated, 300
, , Bases for, 300
, Mercurial, 300
for Oilstone Use, 246
, Potash Lye for, 247
Powder, 21
^ , Salol, 300
, Ppwdering, 201
, Removing, from Sponges,
344
, Saddle, 39
, Salol Shaving, 300
-: — , Shaving, 46, 260, 300
, Soft, 265, 828 ^
-^ — , Boi-acic, 200 ,
, , Bleaching Oil for, 329
, , Crutehing, 329
, .Filling, 329
, , for Fleece Washing,
328
, , Grain, 320
, , Green, 329
, , Indigo for, 329
, , Lagos Oil, 329
, , Linseed Oil, 328
, , Lyes for, 329
, , Oils for, 328
, , Oleine, 328
, , Pale Amber, 829
, , Potash, 329
, , Resin, 829
, ^— , Tallow Oleine, 828
, , Textile, 328
, , Unfilled Natural
Grain, 328
, , Well Filled, 329
, , White, 265
, Sulphur, 800
-Tablets, 121
-, Tar, 800
— — , Thiosavonal, 300
, Voiry's Paste, 300
Socket Joints in Steam Pipes, 11
Soda, 256
— i^ Ash, 265
, Bicarbonate of, 818
Nitrate, 16
Stannate, 25
Sulphate, 200
Soda-water Stain, Removing;-
from Polished Wood, 46
Sodium, Castner Process of Mak-
ing, 217
Soffit of Splayed Framed-up
Linings, *360
Soft Soap (see Soap, Soft)
Softening Copper, 182
Eofte-iing Fitches, 76
Goat Skin, 160 '
Leather Machine Belt, 247
Oilstone, 216, 246
Snake Skins, 269
Watch Plates, 289
Soil Pipes, Lead, Soldering
Astragals and Tacks on, 172
, Plumber's, 347
, Glossy, 326
, , Thinning, 347
Solder for Aluminium, 164, 174
Brazing Brass, 60
Iron, 60
Musical Instru-
ment^, 200
Stfeel, 236
-Ccp;ier, 89
■ Fusible in Boihng Water,
272 -
, Pewlerers', 184, 276
, Removing Zinc from, 147,
263
, Silver, 60, 63
, , Converting Ordinary
Solder to. 63
: , Hai'd-soldering with,
29, 275
, , Pickle to remove,
29
Soldered Joints of Plated Gooils,
R;-gilding, 114
Watch-case, Pickle for, 66
Soldering Aluminium, 164, 174
Astragals on Lead Pipes,
172
Britannia iletal, 276
■ Brooch Catches, 163; 177
. Catch on Gun Barrel, 343
, Difference Between Hard
and Soft, 311
Gold Rings, 153
Gun Barrel^, 48, 343
, Flax for, 48
, Hard (see Brazing)
Jewelled Riug, 325
Pewter, 184 .
Seconds Dial of Watch,
2T2
Silver Pipe-mounts, 29
Spout on Copper Kettle,
8T
Watch Case, 66, 103
Solub.e Oil for.Finishing Cotton
Goods, 251
Prussian Blue, '41
Solutions (see sepal ate headings)
Soot Black, 260
Oil, 250
, Removing, Chemically from
Chimneys, 166 '
Sound coming through Party
Walls, Deadening, 134 .
, Proportioning Booms for,
98
founding Tube and Stopcock
Key Combined, ^271
Sounds, Par-reaching Signal, 142
Spall or Spaul Hammer for Dress-
ing Granite, *238, •282
Span Hoof Fowls' House, *339
Spanjsh Mahogany, Strength of,
160
', Weight of, 160
Spanish White, 329
Sp^r, Adamantine, 187
Spaul or Spall Hammer for Dress-
ing Granite, •238, •282
Specific Gravities, Comparison of
Eeaume Hydrometer Degrees
with, 150
, TwaddeV
Hydrometer Degrees with,
68, 260
Gravity of Aluminium, 341
Amber, 339
Antimony, 351
Copper, 350
Hydrocldoi'ic Acid,
343 , '
Lead, 852
■ Sulphuric Acid,
L!43
Zinc, 335
Specimen Woods, Fitting up Se
of, ^271
Spsculum Manufactore and
Gnndiug, 82, 153
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
Spelter (see also Solder)
for Brass, 60
Powdering, 175
, Brazing, Brass Wire as, 311
— '■ ^ Iron, 60
-^ Musical Instruments,
200
Steel, 236
— ^ or Cast Ziiio, 336
Sphere, Determining Contents of,
173
Spill Cutter, 'ise >
bpinuing Copper in Lathe, 73
Silver Jg^ in Lathe, 14
Spix'al Curves, Projection of, 110
Flute, Developing, on
Column, *323
Spirit (see also Alcohol)
, Corn, 347
, Methylated, 317
, Potato, 847
of Salts, 342
• , Commercial, 342
, Specific Gravity
' of, 342 '
Stove for Vapour. Bath, 327
of Turpentine, 66
Varnish, 214, 219, 233
■ , Colouring, 232
, liJnamel, 221
, Resin in, 101
for Violin, IS ,
Spirit-level, Setting out Water-
course Gradient with, *324 '
Tubes, *207
' — , Fixing, *207
Splaved Linings to Segmental
Opening, *860
Spoke Tongues, Fitter for,. 290
Spokes (see also Wheel)
, Carriage Wheel, Dressing
up, 'lOS , »
— — . Cart Wheel, Making Tongues
on, 81
, Cutting down Shoulders of,
290 I
Sponges, Cleaning, 344
Spooling Machine, Wield's, 301
Spout, Soldering, to Copper
Kettle, 89
Sprain^ and Bruises, , Embroca-
tion for, 247
Spring Seat, Putting, in Arm-
chair, 'SSO ,
, , to Cushion-seat
Couch, 103
■ Water, Impurities in, 327
Springs, Gun, Tempering, 55,
191
;, Hair, 137
— — , , Fitting, to Watch, 63,
135
, , Straightening, 283
■ , , Timing,. 56
, Main, Fitting -Barrels of,
147
, , to Skeleton Clock,
145
, Railway Wagon, Furnace
for, *68,
, Revolver, Tempering, 55
, Tempering, 56, 191, 310
■ , Vehicle, Strength of, 100
Spruce, 316
Fir, *315
, Strength of, 160
-^ '■ — , Weiglitof,,loO
Squab, Pleated Back, 308
Square Baskets, Repairing, ♦SOO
■ , Carpenter's, Testing, *50
, Optical, *Ui
Squeak for Punch-aud-Judy Per-
fonnances, 85
Squirrel Sliins, Relaxing, 186
Stable Floor, Grooved, 320
Stablesi Paving for, 235
Stain for Alabaster, 240
■ Bamboo Canes, 34
, Black, for Wood, 164
for Cane, 34
Darkening Wood, 237
, Dragon's Blood used in
Making, 210
, Ebony, combined with
Varnish, 195
for -Edges of Brov?n Boots,
85
for Elm, 123
Stain for Floors, 200
■, Green, for Oak Picture
Mouldings; 67
, , Wood, 103 '
, Mahogany, 210
, , ior Baskets. 315
, , combined with
\Varnish 190
and Polish Combined, 38
, Purple, for Wood, 115
lor Tonquin Cane.s, 34
Towel Rail, 136
and Varnish Combined, 195,
200 , ,
— , Removing, 240
, Walnut, 163
, Yellow, for Oak, 86
, , Venetian Blinds,
66
Stained .Stucco Work, Wash for,
88 '
Staining (se? also Colouring and
Dyeing)
Alaba.-iter, 240
Bamboo, 34 ,
Baskets to Mahogany Colom*,
316
. Billiard Balls, 318
Bowls, 234
Floors, 200
Ivory Billiard Balls, 318
— r Kid gloves Brown, 160
Shoes Brown, 169
Jaunting Car Body, 302
Marquetry Inlays, 182 ,
Matchboarding to Imitate
I Pinei 202 ' '
Millboard to Imitate Walnut,
197 •
— ^ Picture Frame Mouldings,
67,, 112
Pine to Imitate Chippen-
dale, 127 '
Plaster to Imitate Mahogany,
68
Playing Bowls, 234 ' .
Poplar to Imitate Walnut,
269
Stair Margin, 200
Tonquin Canes, 34
White JVood to Imitate
Teak, 124
Wood to Imitate Mahogany,
68, 105
Woodearvings, 296
- Wooden Playing Bowls, 284
Stiains, Removing Binoxalate of
Potash, from Clothes, 388
, Damp, from Marble,
67, 336
, , — — Pictures,
144, 206 - . :
, fron) Engravings, 206
, ■ Fmit, ft'om Lijien, 17
, Grea&e, from Gloth, 315
, , '- Engiuvings,
206
, , Furniture,
31(V
, - — — , r Wall-paper,
22
, Ink /(see Ink Stains,
Removing)
, Iron, from Marble,
148
- , Ironmould, from Linen,
203 -
~ — , Mildew, from 'Leather,
265
, —— Mulberry, from Sail,
210
— — ,' Oil, from Stone Steps,
172 ' .
, Red Ink, from Marble,
233
, Rust, from Iron, 269
, , — , Microscope,
85
, , Wood, 76
, — — Salts of Lemon, from
' Clothes, 338
, . Silver, from Negatives,
167
, Soda-water, from
Polished Wood, 46
'■ '; Tar, from Black CJoth,
318
, Tea, from Linen, 17.
Stains, Removing Vaseline, from
Brown Boots, 215
, Weather, from Marble,
335
, ^Yellow, from Ne.iiatives,
170
Staircase, Balanced or Dancing
Steps of, •177
Balusters, Finishing^ Green
and Bronzy, 62
Hung 'with Wall-paper,
Painting, 32
Margin, Staining, 200
— - Wall, Paintinp:, 168
— '— Well Development, *1S7
Stairs, Stone, Whit.ming, 321
Staking Sitins in prei>aring Glove
Leather, 78'
Stalactites, Polishing, 105, 181
Stamp Photographs, '305
Stamps, Indiarubber, Autograph
Moulds for, 89
— , , Ink for, 100, 225
, ■ , Ink-pad for, 91
, Postage, Damper for, *276
, - — ,'Gum for, 234
Stand for Baby's Cradle, "41
, Biimboo, for Camera, *336
, Biei", for Mortuary, '^73
for Flower-pot, "246
, ModelBrickwork, for Clock,
»149
for Telescope, *94
, Toast, "344
— ;, Tripod, for Plate, *344
— ^'for Umbrellas, "'252
Standard Lamp (see Lamp)
—^ Wire Gauge, 361
Staiinate of Soda, 25
Stannous Chloride, 25
Star Agate, 363
Starch, Converting, to Sugar, 347
Paste for Jlouhliiiig Photo-
graphs, 116
Starling, Cage lor. •169
Statuary Bronze, 353
Marble, 293
Vein Marble, 293
Steam, Action of, in Locomotives,
26 ■ ,
Condensing on Windows,
Preventing, •34
CoQsumpl^ion in Engines,
101
Cooking, Boiler System for,
174
, "Boot" Boiler for, n74
— -, Heating Drying Raom by,
91, 208
-^^ System, •228
Pipes, Applying Asbestos
, Paste to, 286
' , Borings Cement for
Jointing, 11
~ , Heat Insulating Compo.
for,. 65
, Socket Joints in, 11
, Superficial Surface of,
25
, Velocity of, 105
Steam-bending Wood, •167
Steam-heated Baker's Oven, "37
Steaming Baker's Oven, 217
Stearin, 258
Steel, Brazing, 236
, . , Solders for, 236
, Cast, Breaking Stress of,
163
for Castings, Breaking Stress
of, 168
Castings, Flatting for, 295
, Crocus for Polishing, 49, 83,
149
, Crucible Furnace for, *89
Dies, Cutting, 87
Drills, Hardening, 294, 300
, Tempering, 294
Etching, 11, 82
-J, Acids for, 11, 82
. — r. Resists or Grounds
for, 11, 82
, Tool used in, 11
Frames, Cementing Lead
Lights to, 74
, Galvanising, 174
, Gilding, 77
, Mild, Breaking Stress of,
163
379
steel. Oxidising, 160
Pins, Gilding, 77
Plates, Setting or Straight-
ening, 339
Rails, Tempering Setts tor
Cuttmg, 130
Scraper, Cabinet-maker's,
Sharpening, *134
, Tempering, in Linseed Oil,
310
-y — ■ — , — ^ Metallic Baths,
310
Type, Cutting, 87
Watch-pinions, Drilling, 237,
800
, Welding, 87
Steel-facing Electrotypes, 313
Steel-plating, 318
Steel-red Crocus, 49
Stemp's Patent Wick, 171
Stencil Ink, 37, 218
for Glass, 273
Metal, 218
Sacks, 218 -
, Bed, 87
Plates! Zinc, *82
Step Turner for Folding Lead, 331
Stephenson's Reversing Gear for
Locomotive, *213
Thermometer Screen, *71 '
Step-ladder, '30
Stepped Flashings for Roofs; ♦881
Steps, Balanced or Dancing, *17S
, Stone, Removing Oil Stains
from, 172
, , Repairing Worn, 209,
•218, ^32, 237
, ^, Whitening, 321
Stereoscope, *61
Stereoscopic Camera, *22
Photographs, Mounting, •63
Photography, 22, 105
Stereotypei-s' Flong, 111
SterOising Milk, 230
Stewjians, Copper, Re-tinning, 67
Stibnitean Antimony Ore, 3.ol
Stick and Umbrella Rack, *346
- — , Walking (see Walking-
stick)
Sticks, Single, Baskets or Hand
Guards for, ■ 808,
Stiffening Solutions, Damp-proof,
100
for Straw Hats, 145
Stills (see Distilling)
Stilukdaiup in Coal-mines, 254
Stock Hoops, Bevelled, •252
Knife, Umbrella-maker's, .
•164
Stockholm .Tar, 222
^ , Thinning, 261
Stockings, Dyeing, Black, 228
Stocks for Shoeing Kicking
Horses, *43
Stone, Bath, 309
, , Painting, 59
~ — , , Preserving Colour of.
59
, Saws for, 68
-, Treated with Fluate,
— Szerelmey
■ Liquid, 59
, Beer, Saws for, 68
, Blackening Letters on, 213
Cap, Circular Moulded, ^230
Cement, Artificial, 221
— — , Cements for, 89
, Ci-aigleith, 309
Damp-proof Courses, 259
— '—, Granite (see Granite)
, Grave or. Head (see Grave*
stone or Heads^tone)
, Lead Flashings Burnt into,
•229 '
Mantelpieces, Marbling, 172,
184
• Marbles, Making, 190
, Painswick, Whitening, 321
, Portland, Selecting, 108
, — r-, Whitening, 321
, Preserving Colour of; 59
,'Soft, Saws for, 68
Steps, Removing Oil Staiua
from, 172
■ , Repairing Worn, 209,
•218, 232, 237
, Whitening, 321
380
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
EJtoiie, TVeatheriiig Properties of,
309
, York, S09
, Zinc Muulds for, 24"
Stones, Cornelian, Grinding, 72
, , Polishing, 72
, Curling, Composition of,
14
• , , Polishing, 14
, Cutting, 337
, Polishing, 105, ISl, 337
■ , Precious (see Gems,
Diamonds, etc.)
Stoneware Jar, Cutting, 51
Stonework, Interior, Cleaning,
231
, Repairing Damaged, S9
, Tracery Window in,"2S7
Stool, Angler's Three - legged
Folding, '21
, Fender, •264
Stopcock Key and Sounding
Tube, •271
Stopping, Gilder's, 250
Knife, »343
. Knots in Wood, 91
• , for Lead-light Glazing, 74
Wood, Painter's Fillings
for, 88
Stops, liens (see Lens)
Stove, Black Varnish for, 318
for Heating Lanndry Irons,
•242
or Lamp for Vapour Bath,
327
Rack for Drying Clothes,
•337
, , Register, Blower for, 114
used in Lacquering Brass,'
277
Stove-enamelling Bedstead, 59
Stoving Enamel, 268
, Black, 268
-, White, 268
Straightening Buckled Copper,
106
Ivory 'Walking-stick, 249
Steel Plates^39
—^ Thin Metal Hates, *208
■ Warped Fretwork, 81
Oak Panel, 201
Table Top, 214
Watch Haiisprings, 283
Strain, Meaning of term, IBO
Straw Bands or Ropes, 309
, Jenny for
Twisting, 309
, Twisting
Hook for, •SOO
, Bleaching, 23
Hats, Stitlening for,- 145
— ' , Varnislies for, 60
, White, Cleaning, S38
Street Lamp Door, Catch for
Fastening, ♦92
Water Main, Temporary
Supply whilst Relaying, •230
Strentith of Materials (see [separ-
ate headii^gs)
Stretcher, Picture, 246
, Trousers, 84
Striking Clock, Musical Box Con-
nected to, 336
Stringing, Inlaying, in Cabinet
Work, •104
Strops, Razor, Crocus for, 49
Strut, Strength of, 170
Stubb's Wire Gauge, 351
Stucco, 250
, Cement, Wash for, 327
, Damp Preventive for, 84
, Stained, Wash for, 88
. Studding Edges of Upholstered
Chairs, •210
Studio Camera, •267
, Photogi'aphic, *274
- — , , Blinds of, 323
■ , Temporal^ Outdoor Photo-
graphic, •846
Studs in Upholstery, Gauge for
Marking Position of, ^210
Stuffed Bird Cases, Imitation
Earth for, 173
• Fish, Mounting, 217
White Birds, Cleaning Heads
of, 186
Stuffing Cart Cushions, 303
- — Fish, 217
Stuffing Fish, Preservative used
in, 217
Stump Bench, ^64
Moulding in Brass, and Iron
Pounding, 36, ^64
Succinic Acid in Amber, 339
Oil nf Amber, 334
Succinite (see Amber)
Sucker-valve of Load Pump, Re-
moving, 196
Sugar, Alcohol made from, 346
, Amount of, in Cows' Milk,
348
, , Mares' Milk,
S48
, Converting Starch to, 847
Figures, Hollow, 26
, Moulds for, 147
, Solid, 26
Sulky, Trotting, 'SIS
Sulphate of Ammonia, 187
Lime (see Plaster.of-
Paris)
Soda, 260
Sulphide of Arsenic, 291
Lead, 382
■ Zinc, 335
Sulphur Soap, 300
Sulphuretted Hydrogen, 264
■ Blackening Silver Goods,
42
Sulphuric Acid, 343
— t , English Method of
Making, 343
t Pickle for Gunnietal
Castings, 97
, Preparing, at Nord-
hausen, 343
, Specific Gravity of, 343
, Valentine's Method of
Making, 343
Sun Printing on Embossed Glass,
308
Sun-blinds for Doors, 83
Surgical Instruments, Oilstone
for, 240
, Tempering, 310
Survey, Plotting, •185
Surveyor's Box Sextant, ^92
— - Level, Adjusting, 270, 330
, Reading Distances
with, 330
, Setting up, 270
Telescope, Cross in, 69
Wells Distance Measurer,
' ^294
Swedish Pitch, 222
SwiminingBath,ColouriugBottom
of, 204
Swing, Baby's, *205
Swiss Screw Gauge; 81
Swords, Tempering, 310
Syenite, 242
Syenltie'Gi-anite, 242
Sympathetic Inks, 226
Syrup, Gelatine, Clarifying, 89
, Glue, Clarifying, S9
Szerelmey Liquid, Treating TSath
Stone with, 69
T.ible, Bedroom, •36
, Billiard^ Corner of, 'ISS
Book,rest, '114, ^172
Cloths, Dyeing, Turkey Red,
82
Cover, Removing Ink Stains
from, 165
— ^, Velvet-pile, Cleaning,
119
, Folding, •143
Framework, ^223
for Glass Silvering, ^72
', Kitchen, •171
Lamp, Brass, 212
Oilcloths, Cream-coloured
Paint tor, 91
Pedestal, '120
■ Stand for Toast Plate, etc.,
*344
Top, Bamboo, Fastening
Legs to, ^128
- , Detachable Lath for,
■ *6a
Table Top, Mahogany, Removing
Inli Stains froui^ 165
, , Re-polishing,
214
, , Straightening
Warped, 214
Trestles, ^289
, Writing, 'loe
Tableaux, Theatrical, 54
Tables : Brasses, 3.")4
: B. A. Screw Threads, 81
: Bronzes, 353
— — : Comparison of Beaume
Hydrometer Degrees with
Specific Gravities, 150
: Conversion of Thermometer
Degrees, 304
: Current Canying Capacities
of Copper Wires, 81
; Gas Consumption of Burn-
ers, 297
; Gunpowder Compositions,
346
: Hydrometer Degrees, 150
: Illuminating Power of Gas'
Burners, 297
: Marbles, 292, 293
: Measurement of Timber,
150
: Metallic Baths for Temper-
ing Steel, 310
— ' — : Metronome Lengths, 19
: Pinhole Photography, 211
:' Scantlings foi; Timber
Roofs, 232
: Strength of Timber, 160
: Vehicle Springs,
100
: Swiss Screw Gauge, 81
; Thenro-electric Properties
of Metals, 90
: Themioineter Scales, 304
— - : Timber Values, 208
: Twaddel Hydrometers, 68
: Water Composition, 827
: Discharge of PipeSj 69
: Weight of Air, 348
: r Timber, 150
: Whitworth Nuts and Bolt-
heads, 100
: Wire Ganges, 351
; Woods, Haid and Soft, 165
Tablets, Soap, 121
Taclts, Brass, Blackening, 854
Tallow Oleine Sort Soap, 328
Tan for Glove Leather, 78
Rabbit Skins, 286
Tan-colour Dye for Glove Leather,
78
Tangs, Knife, Cementing, into
Handles, 263
Tank, Chemical, for Magic
Lantern, •ei
, Cylindrical, Contents of,
98, 118, 275
, Fish, Circulation of Water
in, 276
, , Management of, 276
, 6-galJon, Boiling Water in,
•200 ,
, Galvanised Iron, going
Busty, 309
, Hot-water, Noise in, 28
, Lead-lined Wooden, 68
, Measuring Liquid from,
•203
,- Rectangular, Contents of,
19
, Sheet Iron, Strength of,
116
, Underground - Rainwater,
208
, , Waterproofing, 331
Tannic Acid, ,17
Tanning, Clirome, 34
Rabbit Skins, 285
Skins for Glove Leather, 78
Tap, Cold - water, Renewing
Washer in, 283
— ^, Kitchen Range, Fixing, 161
, - — . , Leaking, 202
Tapering Vessels, Contents of,
140
Tapestiy Covers, Silk, Cleaning,
-306
Tapping Amber, 339
Taps, Watchwork, Hardening and
Tempering, 14, 87
from
(see
Tar, Benzene made from,' 336
Di.stiIlation, 182
- — ■ Products, 182
Footpath, Laying, 77
, Repairing, 77
^ Paint, Removing,
Gravestones, 196
Paving, Red, SI
, Removing, from Cloth, 348
— Soap, 300
, Stockholm, 222
, , Thinning, 261
Target, Gi'otesque, for Shooting
Gallery, '»97
Tarpaulins, Dressings, 24
also Waterproofing)
Tai'tario Acid, 22
Tartar's Koumiss, '348
Tartrate of Aninionium, 262
Tassels, Small Silk, ^274
'rawing Sheepskins, 24
Taxidermy (see Animal, Bird,
Pish, Horns, Skins, etc.)
, Preservatives used in, 44,
217 '
Tea Stains, Removing, from
Linen, 17
and Sugar Case, ^240
Table Trestles, •289 -
Teak, Grain Filler for, 324
, Polishing,' to resemble
Rosewood, 139
, Staining White Wood to
resemble, 124
, Strength of, 150 .
, Turned, French Polishing
261
, Weight of, 150
Teapot, Pewter, Cleaning, 278
, Tin, Electro-silvering, 264 '
Teeth, Artificial, Mechanical
Opiates for, 249
, ■ , Vulcanite Plates for,
168
Telescope Cells, Brass, '48
, Garden Tripod for, *D4
, Levelling, Wells* Apparatus
for, •294
, Photographing with, *336
of Surveyor's Level, Adjust-
ing, 270, 330
, Cross in, 69
Telescopic Beam Compass, 321
Tell-tale Mirror, 177
Tempering Augers, 310
-f Axes, 310
Cold Cliiscls, 810
Setts, 130
Cycle Cones, 198
Daggers, 310
- — Drills for Glass, 294 ,
Firmer Chisels, 810
' Gun Springs, 66, 191
Hoes, 310
Knives, 310
Lancets, 810
Marble-working Tools, 246
Penknives, 310
Pit Saws, 310
Plane Irons, 310
Razors, 310
Revolver Springs, 55
Saws, 310
Scalpels, 810
Scissors, 310
Shears, ,310
Springs, 56, 191, 810
Steel, Colours in, 310
in Linseed Oil, 310
, Metallic Baths 'for, 310
— -/Surgical Instniments, 310
. Swords, 310
Taps, 14, 87
Watch Springs, 810
Tennis Rackets, Bending Wood
for, 'lO? ■
Tenon Saw, Fastening, to Tool-
chest Lid, *137
Tenoned Joints, "196
Tenons for Entrance Gates, *124 /
Tension, 130"
Tent Pole, Rifle and Belt Racks'
for, ^260
Terra-cotta, Red, Clays for Mak-
ing, 87
Tiles, Glaze {or, IS
, Glazing, 18
Test, Pneumatic, for Diains, 176
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
Test,, Smoke, for Draius, 175
Tester Head to Bedstead, *198
Testing Amber, 389
Brougham Undercarriage,'
•79
Carpenter's Square, *60
— ^ Cloci Hairspring, 298
Pallets, 242
— - Crimson Lake, 305
Drains, 176, 266
— '— Gas Pipes and Fittings, 111
Gold, 124
Gravel (or Gold, 77
Hardness of Lens, 275
Negatives for Hypo, 306
Paint for Drying Qualities,
i59
Prints for Hypo, 24
. ■ Permanence, *275
- — . Try-square, *50
Watch Depth, •200
Water, 266
■ , Nessler's He-agent for,
256,
Tetrachloride of Selenium, 20
Textile Soft Soap, 328
Textiloid, 98
Theatre Scenery, Fireproofing, 53
Theatrical Bald Wig, 19, 3Q7
Grease Paint (see Grease
, Paint)
Tableaux, 54
Theatricals, Amateur, Ghost Illu-
sion for, 54
Theodolite Leg Adjustment, 270
Thermo-electric Piles, ^90
Properties of Metals, 90
Thermometer, Centigrade or Cel-
sius, 304, 305
- — , Clinical, 126
Degrees, Conversion of, 304,
306
, Fahrenheit, 304, 305
, Bfeumur, 304, 306
, Ee-blackening Scales of, 37
Screen, Stephenson's, *7]
Thinning, ;piunibei''& Soil or
Smudge, 347
Stockliolm Tar, 261
Thiosavonal Soap, 300
Thread, Waxed, Putting Bristle
on, ^104
Thmsh, Cage for, 'log
Ticket Ink, Dead Black Water-
proof, 137
Tides,, Power from, 141
Tiger Skin, Cleaning, 216
Tile Floor, Cleaning, 162
Hearth, 302
— . Eemovable, *244
Hearths, Curbs for, '244
Mosaic Floor, Cleaning, 182
Tiles, Cutting, 19, 244, 302
for Hearths, 244
, Terra-cotta, Glaze for, 18
, • , Glazing, IS
Timber (see also Wood)
. Building, Sham, •142
, Creosoted, Painting, 154
, Cutting up, *15
' , Measurement of, 53, 150
^ , Petersburg Standard of, 166
Roofs, Scantlings for, 232
, Bound, Cubing, 53
r. Standing, Estimala^g Value
of, 208
, Strength of, 160, ^208
, Weight of, 150
Timber-framed Biiildings, 128
Tin Crystals, 25
f. Deoxidising, 320
Foil in Chinese Lacquer
Work, 37
, Fixing to Leather, 30
, Gdld Lacquer for, 268
Oxide, 149 I
— -,, Kelining, 155
, Removing Zinc from, 263
-^^ Jieapot, Silver-plating, 264
, Thermo-electric Properties
of, 90
Tinmen's Workshop, ^34
Tinning Brass, 140
Copper Moulds, 165
Pipes 62, 140
Vessels, 57
Iron Wire, 214, 227
- — Sheet Copper, 103
Tinning Vessels, Rubber used
ui, 57
Tin-plate, Cutting, 60
, Hollowing, 71
; , Blocks for, 71
, , Hammers for, 71
Letter-box, *291
, Polishing, 67
Sauoejians, 146
Tissue, Carbon, 136, 270
Toast Stand, Tripod, '344
Tobacco Pipe, Cementing Amber
Mouthpiece of, 156
■ Mounts, •29
, Burnisher for, *29
, Polishing, 29
, Soldering, 29
Pipes, Glazing, 28, 86
, Back for, 163
Toilet Cream for Chapped Hands,
244
Tombac Brass, 354
Tonnage, Co-ef&cient, of Vessel,
258
for Three-decked Ship, 258
-of Vessel, 258
, Gross, 258
, Net Register, 268
, Under Deck, 268
Tonquin Canes, Staining, 34
Tool Chest, Coach Maker's, f 66
Cupboard, Carpenter's, *317
for Electrical Engineer,
•36
for Folding Lead, 331
Handles, Polishing, 227
Holder for Slide-rest, *191
Lid, Fastening Tenon Saw
to, 'IS?
Tools (see also respective names)
, Alabas'ter-working, 240
, Ebonite-working, 306
for Engraving Letters, 79
— -, Granite-workingi •206, •238,
•245, •282
■ — -, Marble - working, Temper-
ing, 246
, vulcanite-working, 306
, Wood-carving, -Sharpening,
301 *
Top, French Whipping, 286'
Topaz, Artificial, 76
, Cutting and Polishing, 337
Topmast of Flagstaff,. Fixing, to
Mainmast, 260
Tortoise, Preserving Shell of, 316
Tortoiseshell, 250
, Cements for, 250
Combs, 260
, Knobs on, 250
, Finishing, 250
, Imitation, 168
, Polishing, 250
, Welding, 250
, Working, 260
Toughening Paper, 81
Tuurnette or Diamond Compass,
344
Towel Bail, Staining, 136
, Varnishing, 136
Toys, Lead, Castings for, 185
^^, Sugar, 26
, , Moulds for, 147
Tracery Window, ^287
Trachyte an Aluminium Com-
pound, 341
Tracing Paper, Increasing Trans-
parency of, 204
Trammel Compasses, *321
Heads made from Dunlop
' Tyre Valves, ^218
Transfer Paper for Carbon Pro-
cess, 330
, Lithographic, 109
Transferring Drawings to Linen,
119
■ Printed Pictures Photo-
graphically, 302
Transfers, Fixing, to Cycles, 225
, , —^ Glass, 301
, , Metal, 801
, , Porcelain, 301
, , Wood, 225, 301
, Marquetry, 39
, Pottery, '38
, Varnish for Fixing, 225
Transparency of Tracing Paper,
I Increasing, 264
Transparent Cements for Glass
and China, 61, 232
Trap, Pony, 'le, •OO
for Prawns, 'ISB
Traveller's Sample Case, •63
Tray, ;Washing, *206
Trees, Estimating Value of, 208
Trellis Work, *146
Trestle, Builder's, •314
Trestles for Tea-tables, '289
Triad Pictures, ^75
Signioards, *76 '
Trinitrocellulose or Collodion
Cotton, 249
, Solvents for, 249
Tripod Camera Stand, ^94
Plate Stand, *344
Troopship, Plumbing Work
Aboard, *341
Troopship's Latrines, *341
Slop Shoots, "341
Washhouses, •341
Trotting Sulky, *31S
Trousers, Cleaning, 164
Press, ^154
Stretcher, •84
Trout Fishing, Paste for, 198
, Rods for, 303
Trunks, Leather, Black Paint
, for, 38'
, , White Paint for, 38
Truss, King-post, Hipped End
of, *32S
Trusses, Gelatine for Casting, 189
Try-squa?:e, Testing, *dO
Tub or Trap for 13.hands Pony,
•16 (see also Cart)
; Washing, •206
Tube Chimes, 148
Drill for Glass, 294
Microscope Cells, 73
WeU through Chalk, 87
Tubes, Brass, Bending, 14, 276,
316
i , DeterminiugThiclaiess
of, 264
, , Machine for Bending,
•286, "Sie
, , Mops for Polishing,
68
, , Polishing, by Hand
Floating, 58
, , , on Emery Wheel,
68
, Indiarubber, 136
, Pasteboard, Umbrella Stand
made from, *262
^, Spirit-level, • 207
, , Fixing, ^207
Tuck Pointing Brickwork, *115,
•127
Tuftiijg Upholstered Chair Backs,
244
Tumbler Rack and Soap Box, •111
Tuning Piano, 85
Tunnel, Railway, Boring, 94
Turbine, Girard, 99 ,
, Jonval, 98.
Turkey Oilstones, 246
Turkish Lebau, Yaourt, or Kou-
miss, 348 ' ^ ■
Turmeric Paper, 246
Turned Pillar, Cutting Slot in,
•65 '
Teak, French Polishing, 261
; Wood Case for Cloclir, *62
, Polish for, 29, 227
, Polishing,- 29
Turning Ebonite, 306
- — Ebony, 27
Engine Crank-Shaft, *]02
— ^ Metals, Speed for, 109
Vulcanite, 306
Turns, Watchmaker's, 42, 262
Turn-table for Polishing Dia-
monds, 293
Turpentine, Crude, 66
—, Fat Oil of, 66
, Oil of, 66
, Spirit of, 66
Turret Clock, Small,, 222
Tuyire Bend Pattern, *284
Twaddel Hydrometer, 68, 266
^^ Degrees, Converting, to
Specific Gravities, 68, 266
Tweezers for Holding Insects, 72
Twisted Column, Diminished, 99
Twisting Straw Bands, 309
381
Twisting Straw Bands, Hook for,
•309
, Jenny fdr, 309
Type, Steel, Cutting, 87
Typewriter Ink, 74
, Black, 74
— — , Copying, 74
, Glycerine in, 74
, Printing Ink as, 74
■' , Biggin's, 74
, Slinttleworth's, 741
, Violet, 74
■ Pad, Re-inking, 97
Ribbons, Ee-inking, 307
Tyre, Single-tube, Repairing, 198
Valve, Dunlop, Trammel
Heads made from, ^218
Tyring Cart Wheels, 347
Ultramarine, 196
Umber, Burnt, 194
, Raw, 195
Umbrella Covers, Cutting out,
•82
Handles, Fixing, 43
Maker's Stock Knife, •164
Back, *346
Stand of Pasteboard Tube,
•252
Under Deck Tonnage of Vesnel,
268
Underground Water-tank, Water-
proofing, 331
Underhand Joint, Wiping, *88
Underpinning Chimney Breast,
' '260
Unicum Camera-shutter, ^79
United States Gunpowder, 346
Universal Cements, 259
Upholstered Chs.a. Backs, But-
' toning, 244
, Tufting, 244
■ ', Cloae-studdiug, ^210
Upholsterer's Studs, Gauge for
marking Position of, *210
Upholstering Chair Seat, 204
— ^ Fender Stool, *264
Upholstery, Blind-stitch used in,
207
: Cushion for Gig, 314
-, Leather, Cleaning, 209
, , Renovating,, 207, 209
: Pleated Back Squab for
Carriagej SOS
, Pompoms used in, 36
, Velvet, Renovating, 191
Utensils, Tinning (see Tinning)
Valencia Waistcoat, Di-y -cleaning,
90, 124
Valentine's Sulphuric Acid Pro-
cess, 343
Valley Rafters, Fixing, •209
Valve, Carliss, for Engines, 103
, Safety, on Hot - water
Apparatus, 190
, , • Range "Boot"
Boiler, 240
, , Ring Weights on, 285
, Slide, of Steam Engine,
100
Valves, Dunlop Tyre, Trammel
Heads made from, *218
Van (see also Cart, Carriage,
etc.)
Sheets, Waterproofing, 139
(see also Waterproofing)
, Varnishing, in Natural
Wood, 17, '121
Vanadium, 89
Vandyke Brown, 195
Vapour Bath, Stove for, 327
Varnish, Amber, 323
^, Black, 50, 314
Blooming, 317
, Celluloid, 249
for Chairs, 131, 259
, Colouring, 50, 259
382
Cyclopaedia of Mechanics.
Varnish, Comljined Ebony Stain
and, 196
, Maiiogany Stain and,
106
, Stain and, 200
for Corlv Frames, 116
Elm, 123
Fire Grates, SIS
Fisli Hool< Bindings,
ISS
Fixing Peixcil Drawings,
130
■ Transfers, 226
Gunstocli, 7-7
Kitchen Chaii-s, 181, 269
Luminous Paint, 263
Mail Cart, 326
for MaiiRle Rollers, 38
, Printers', IS
, Removing, from Boots, 22
, , Furniture, 79, S6,
103
, , Oak Carving, 88
, Removing, from Oil Paint-
ing, 163
, Scliatte's, for Making Lu-
' mi nous Paint, 263
, Spirit, 214, 219, 233
, , Colouring, 60, 232
, , Resin lor Making, 101
■ , , for Violin, 18
for Stoves, 318
fur Straw Hats, 50
Towel Rail, 136
Turning White, 317
, for Venetian Blinds, Green,
241
for Wall Paper, 291
■ Walnut Gimstock, 77
Varnished Celestial Globe, Reno-
vating, 251
Map, Cleaning, 32
Surl.i.- ■<. Dulling, 260
Varnishiiir,' v-arriage, 17
~ Ironwork, 17 .
Celestial Globe, 251 '
Dog Cart, 269
Farm Waggon, 308
Gunstock, 77 '
Jaimting Car, 302
— Kitchen Chairs, 259
Lantern Slides, Hot Box for,
•26
Mail Cart, 325
Oil Paintings, 142, 160
Papered Ceiling, 291
WaU, 291 I
Phaeton, 54
Pliotographic Negatives, 46
■ ■ , Hot Box for, '26
— - Pitch Pine, 82
Pony Cart, 176
— — Railway Wagon, 12
Transfers, 226
Van in Wood, 17, 121
- — Violin, 18, 23
Waggon, 308
WaU Paper, 137
Vase, Crazy Ohinawork, 294
, Garden, in Cement, •228
Vaseline, 211
, Imitation, 211
for Oilstone, 215
Spots, Removing, from
Brown Boots, 215
in Typewriter Inks, 74
Vegetable Black, 195
Vehicle (see also under names of
vehicles)
Axles, Caae-hardenjng, 66
— '■ , IForging, 66
-. — Springs, Strength of, 100
Vein Marble, 298
Vellum, Preparing, from Calf Skin,
344
Velvet Chair-seat, Renovating,
191
Velvet-pile Table Cover, Clean.
ing, 119
Veneer, Panelling with, '128
— — , Removing, from Furniture,
•227
Veneered Furnitiu'e, Renovating,
227
Venetian Blinds, Colouring,', 241
, Painting, 102, 241
, Removing Old Paint
from, 172
Venetian Blinds, Varnish Green
for, 241
, Yellow Stain for, 06
Red, 193
Ventilation, 289
of Dark Room, 'ISl
Ventilator, Glass Louvre, for
Window, ^84
, Ship's, Pattern fnr, *167
Verde Antique Marble, 293
di Levauto Marble, 298
Pegli Marble, 293
-' Prato Marble, 293
Vermilion, 195
Vermilionette, 300
Verona Red Marble, 293
Vert d'Arrifege Marble, 293
Isahellc Marble, 293
Maurin Marble, 293
- — Moulins Marble, 293
Vertical Boiler Grate Area, 14
Spindle Moulding Maehine,
•270
Vessel (see Ship)
Vessel, Tapering, Contents of, 140
Vestibule Screen, '101
Vice, Impi'oved Saw, •eo
Victoria Red Marble, 293
A'ictoria Under-caiTiage, Grease
ior, 119
Vienna Regulator Striking Clock,
•123
View Finder for Camera, 86, *148
Vignetting Photographs, *14, 44,
109
Vinegar, •265
Violet Copying Ink, 220
Liquid for Chemists' Show
Buttles, 13
Luminous Paint, 263
Typewriter Ink, 74
Varnish for Straw Hats, 60
Violin Bow, Re-hairing, ^214
', Filling in, 18, 23
, Inlaying Puriling on, "^SOS
, Be-vamishing, 18
, Spirit Varnish for, 18
, Varnishing, 18, 28
Vitriol (see Sulphuric Acid)
Voiry's Paste Soap, 800
Vulcanised Rubber, Utilising, 121
Vulcanite or Ipbonite (see also
Indiarubber)
, 168
, Boring, 306
, Cements for, 236
, Colouring, 168
, Cutting, with Cylindrical
Saw, 306
Plates for Artificial Teeth,
16S
, Polishing 806
, Tools for Working, 306
, Turning, 306
W
Waggon, Brickmaker's Side-tip-
ping, 854
Covers, Waterproofing, 199
, Farm, Painting, 308
, , Varnishing, 808
, Railway. Brake Block for,
•303
, , Draw-hook for, *297
, , Painting, 12
, , Varnishing, 12
Springs, -Furnace for, *69
Wheels, Setting Out, •178.
Waggonette Head, ^279
Wainscot Oak, ^224
Waistcoat, Valencia, Dry-clean-
• ing, 90, 124
Walking-stick, Ebony, Polishing,
100
Handles, Fixing, 43
, Ivory, Straightening, 249
Mounts, Holding, whflBt
Engraving, 265 *
Rack, *846
, Rhinoceros Hide, 247
Wall, Batter of, 262
, Concrete, formed under
Watur, 200
, Curved, Setting out, *217
Wall, Curved Wing, Projection
for, '264
, Damp, in Basement of
House, 218
, , Remedies for, 818
, Damp-prooilng, 262
— ^, Hanging Anaglypta on, 148
, Lincrusta-Walton on,
148
, Painted, Drying Patchy, 1S3
Paper, Removing Grease
Stains from, 22
, Sizing, 137, 291
, Varnish for, 291
— - ^— , Varnishing, 137, 291
'-, Party, Deadening Sound
coming through, 184
: Plaster, Cracks in, 69
, White, 264
^ Racks (see Rack)
, Retaining, Pressure on, 166
, , for Sunk Roadway,
•201
, Roughcastihg, 115
, Rubble, Cement Rendering
on, 148
, Staircase, Painting, 82, 168
, Stripping Paper from, 20
Walnut Graining, 142, 863
Gunstock, Varnish for, 77
. ■ Stain for Light Wood, 163
, Staining Paper to resemble,
269
, Treating Millboard to re-
semble, 197
- — Wood Carvings, Finishing,
296
Walrus Ivory, 262
Ware, Biscuit, tTnderglaze
Colours for, 158
Warner Wheels, 80
Warming Buildings (see Heating)
Warped Fretwork, Straightening,
81
Oak Panel, Straightening,
201
Table Top, Straightening,
214
Wash, Hair, 239
, Portland Cement, 153
for Stucco, 88, 327
Washer for Photographic Prints,
164
Washers for Callipers, 331
, Renewing, in Cold-water
Taps, 283
Wash-hand Basin, Cementing
Broken, 232
Washhouses on Troopship, *341
Washing (see also Cleaning)
Crocus, 49
Fleeces, Soft Soap for, 328
Pliotographic P.O. P., 220
Skins in inakihg Glove
Leather, 78
Washing-copper, Flash-flue, •283
, Wheel-flue,283
Washing-soda, 266
Washing-tray, •206
Washita Oilstone, 246
Washleather Gloves, Cleaning, 811
Watch, Adjusting, in Positions,
62
Balance, Poising, 302
Balance-statf, Putting New
Pivot in, 258
Barrel Arbour, lltting, 332
Bouchons, 80
, Bringing, to Time, 163
Cannon Pinion, Removing,
60
Case, Engraving on, 140
, Erasing Initials li-ora,
140
, Hard Soldering, 66, 103
, Soldered, Pickle for, 66
, Cleaning, 99
Cylinder Pivots, Fixing, 162
— ;- Plugs, Punch for re-
moving, *162
, Demagnetisiiig, 128
Depth, Testing, ^200
— Tool, 22
Dials, Copper, 272
, ', Brazing, 272
- — . , , Enamelling, 272
, , Soldering in
Seconds Di»l of, 272
Watch Dials, Copper, White
Enamel for, 272
, Silver, Cleaning, 353
, Drawing Pivot Hole in, 184
, Bpglish Fusee Lever, Cor.
recting Barrel of, 346
, Lever, Cleaning, 99
■■ , , Taking Apart,
99
Fusee Chain, Mending;, 2do
Gaining Time, Remedy for,
23
, Geneva, Fixing Loose End-
stone in, 274
, — —, Putting in Beat, 89
, . , Repairing Jewel Hole
in, 69
, , Setting Jewel Hole in,
251
, Geneva Lever, Taking
Apart, 119
Glasses, 344
, Cheves, 344
' , Flettage, 344
, Pointillage, 344
— >— Hairsprings, 137
, Pitting, 63, im
— : , Straightening, 283
, Timing, 66
, Keyless, Removing Cannon
Pinion from, 60
Lever Escapeirient. Depth-
ing, 173
, , Fitting Roller and
Pin in, Sk
,' , Mending Fusee
Chain of, 260
, , Setting in Beat, 185
Losing Time wheu Carried in
Pocket, 115
Mainspring Barrel, Fitting, ,
147
, Winder for, 271
, Winding in, 271
Making " Long Arcs," 66 ,
" Short Arcs," 56 '
, Oiling, 117
. , Perpetual Calendar, ^44
Pin, Pitting, 334
Pinions, Drilling, 237, 300
Pivot Holes, Repairing, 80
Pivots, Polisliing, 332
Plates, Cleaning, 237, 289
. , Gilding, 289-
, Softening, 289
, Regulating, 153
Roller, Fitting, 334
, Polishing, 334
Screw Threads, Taps for, .
14, 87
Seconds Dial, Soldering in,
272
Springs, Tempering, 310
Staff, Drilling, ^42
Stopping in One Position
Only, 08
, Taking Anart, 99, 119
Watch-case G'livanonieter, *66
Watches, " Eggs of Nuremberg,"
3U
Watchmakers' Eye Glasses, 224
Turns, 42, 262
Water, 327 '
, Aerated, Machine for, •329
, Boiling Point of, 836
. ; , in Tank, 'liOO
— - Butt, Converting Paraflin
Barrel to, 58
•, Disinfecting, 201
Discharge through Pipes, 31 ■
, FormulEe foi",
09
, Distilling, •lOS
, Drinking, S27
, -, impurities in, 327
Filter, 843
, Flow of, over Weir, 82
Flowing through Pipe, Hy-
draulic Mean Depth of, 68
in Qas-meter, Keeping, from
Freezing, 111
, Hardness of, 102
in Hot-water Tank Boiling,
28
Leakage, Instrument for
, Locating, ^271
Mains, Protecting, from
Frost, 96
Cyclopsedia of Mechanics.
383
Water Mains, Temporally Supply
v.'hilst Belaying, 'aso
, Nessler's Reagent for Test-
ing, 266
Pipe, Hydraulic Gradient of,
•263
Pipes, Lead, Casting, 202
Pressure, 29
, Pulsometer for Raising, *74
Pump, *331
- — , RiVer, 327
, Sewage-polluted, 327
— , Spring, 827
— - Supply, Municipal, Filter
Beds for, •216
Tanlt Contents (see Tanks)
, Sheet Iron, Strength
of, 116
, Underground, Water-
prooang, 331
Taps, Eenewing Washers in,
283 .
, Testing, for Impurities, 255
Turbine, Girard, 99
, Jonval, US
, Upland Surface, 327
, "Well, 827
Water-closet Basins, Cleaning,
60
— K Flushing Cisterns, Repair-
ing, *277
Water-colours, 20
— r, Fixing, 262
Watercourse Gfadient, Setting
out, »324
Waterfall, Power of, 141
Water-glass Cenientfor Glass, 232
Water-motor, Reciprocating, *298
, , Regulator for, *342
, Small-power, *39
Water-motors, Efficiencies of, 132
Waterproof Black Ticket Ink, 137
■ Writing luk, 212
Cements, 241
for China and Glass,
232
Covei^ for Boat, 169
— - Glue, 241
— — Harness Composition, 161,
307
Paste for Labels, 236
Waterproofing Coal Bags, 199
■ — ■ Fabrics, SO
■ , Alumina SOap for, 80
ill Colours, 80
■ ; Hime and Node's Pro-
cess for, SO
,1 Holfert's Process for,
80
with Alumina Soap, 80
Linseed Oil, 69,
112, 139, 199
Rubber, 80
— ^ Fishing Lines, 64, 217
Grey Millboards, 111
— - Hatch Covers, 199
, Materials for, 100
■ Overalls, 69, 112
Shed, Paint for, 322
Silk Lines, 64, 21?
-7— UndeTground' Tank, 331
— - Yiin Sheets, 139
Watertight Sliding Door, '77
WauLsnrt Marble, 293 ■
Wax, Benzine, 296
• Candles, 95
Filling for Engraved Plates,
for Fish Hook Bindings, 183
, Modelling, 317
Moulds, Nickelling, 51
for .Plaster Castings,
196
, Sealing (see Sealing Wax)
Waxed Thread, Putting Bristle
on, *104 ,
Waxes for Bottle Capping, 215
Candle Making, 95
Waxing Bottle Corks, 276
Wax-polishing Wood-carvings, 296
W.C. Basins, Cleaning, 60
Flushing Cisterns, Reyiair-
ing, '277
Weather-stained Marble, Bleach-
ing, 67, 836
. Weighing Air, 348
Weighing-machine, Coal, Scoop
for, *342
Weight of Air, 348 .
American Red Pine, 150
Ash, 160 '
Baltic Oak, 150
Beech, 160
Copper Wire, 66
Blin, 160
• English Oak, 160
Greenheart, 160
Honduras Mahogany,
160
— ■ Iron Wire, 66
Kauri Pine, 150
Larch, 150
Lime, 89
Mahogany, 150
Northern Pine, 150
Oak, 160
Pitch Pine, 160
Sand, S9
Spanish Mahogany, 160
Spruce Fir, 150
Teak, 150
White Deal, 316
Pine, 160
Yellow Deal, 315
Pine, 315
Weights, Ring, on Safety Valve,
285
Weir, Flow of Water over, 82
Weisbach's Formula for Water
Discharge of Pipe, 69
-Welding Cast Steel, 87
Tortoiseshell, 260
Well, Ship's, Taking Soundings
pf, 59
, Staircase, Development of,'
•187
, Tube, sunk through Chalk,
87
Water, Impurities in, 327
Wells' System of Measuring Dis-
tances, ^294
Welsbach Burners, 22
, Gas Consumption by,
297
Mantle, 51
Wet - plate Photography (see
Photography)
Whale Ivory, 262
Wheel, Band - saw, Attaching
Leather to, 'aea
I /for Bevelling Glass, *814
, Cart, Lining Out, 91
, , Measuring Wheel for,
*847
, , Pitch of, 277
, , Tyring, 347
, Emery, Polishing Brass
Tubes on, 68
Felloes, Pattern for, 290
— ■■ ', Putting on, •31,1 290
Hoops, Bevelled, *252
, Machine for withdrawing
Axle Boxes from, *126
• Naves, Horse for Mortising,
*135
for Polishing Glass, *314
-r— Spoke Tongues, Fitter for,
* 290
— - Spokes, Cutting down
Shoulders of, 290
, Dressing up, *103
, Making Tongues on,
81
, Waggon, Setting out, •178
, Warner, 30
of Water-motor, •89
Wheelbarrow,, •176, *216
Frame, Setting out, '32
Wheel-flue Washing Copper, 283
Whip Stock, Making, from
Lamb's Foot, 318
Whip-top, French, '286
Whisky, Amount of Alcohol in,
347
, Distilling, •204
White Aeld for Glass Embossing,
107
Brass, 364
Buckskin Boots, Cleaning,
224
Canvas Shoes, Cleaning, 233
Cement Floor, 131
, Chinese, or Zinc White, 195
Coating for Model Boats, 97
Deal, 816
Enamel, Ball Clay for, 29
White Enamel, Preventing Knot
showing through, 152
for Stoviiig, 268
Watch Dials, 272
, Flake, 194
French Polish, 13, 314
Glazes, 18, 29
Grease Paint, 843
Ground for Drawing Board,
91
Ink, 229
Kid Shoes, Cleaning, 22
Lead, 196
on Oilstones, 246
Leghorn Hats, Cleaning, 388
Luminous Paint, 268
Marble, Cement lor, 822
, Cleaning, 160
, Removing Ink Stains
from, 233
, Iron Stains from,
143
^ — , Restoring Polish of,
Metal Leaf, 253
Mica, 115, 221
Paint for Leather Trunks,
Plant Labels, 27
, Paris, 329
Paste for Canvas Shoes, 854
Pine, Strength of, 150
, Weight of, 160
Soft Soap, 255
— r. Spots on Polished Furniture,
81
, Spanish, 329
Straw Hats, Cleaning, 338
Varnish for Straw Hats, 50
; Wall Plasterer Gauged Stuff,
254
Wood, Staining, to resemble
Te,ik, 124
White-damp in Coal-mines, 264
White-enamelling Furniture, 147
Whitening Engraved Letters on
Blectro-plate, '276
~ Papered Ceiling, 72
■ Stone, 821
Whitewash, 3i29, 852
for Ceiling, 352
Whitewood, 315
, Archangel, 315
Whiting, 329, 352
, Gilders', 250
for Papered Ceiling, 72
Whitworth Nuts and' Bolt-heads,
100
Wick, Preventing, from Charring,
171
<, Sealing Wax with, 853
, Stemp's Patent, 171
Wickerwork (see also Basket)
, Crystals on, 124
Wicket Gate, Garden, *320
Wieland's "Alaska" or
" Parisian " Diamonds, 76
Wield's Spooling Machine, 301
Wig, Theatrical Bald, 19, 307
Williams' Artificial Emeralds, 76
Willis' Odontograph, 81
Willson's Furnace for Calcium
Carbide, 28
Wilton Pile, Re-covering Cushion
with, 145
Winding Cotton on Reels, 301
. • . , Wield's
Machine for, 301
WindmUl, Model, *310
Window (see also Leaded Lights)
Area for Room, 164
Blinds (see Blinds)
Board for Flower Tats, *326
, Cementing Enamel and
Glass Letters to, 282
-j^. Cleaning, 261
, Flower Box for, 311
Frames, Putting Sash Lines
in, 47
Glazing, '109, 843
Heads in Concrete, *111
Pane, Replacing, *109
Sashes, Double, for Deaden-
ing Noise, •287
— — in Railway Carriage
Doors, *349
Screen of Perforated Metal,
143
Window, Shop, Glass Louvre
Ventilator for, *34
, , Preventing Steam Con-
densing on, *34
Sills ill Concrete, 'HI
, Tracory, in Decorated Style,
•287
Windsor Chair converted to Bar-
ber's Chair, •gs
Merlin Chair,
•345
Wine, Amount of Alcohol in, 347
Wing .Wall, Curved, Projection
of, •264
Wiping Joints on Copper Pipes,
•62
— '- Plumber's Underhand Joint,
•S8
Wire Articles, Galvanising, 221
Blind, Frame for, ^64
, Gilding, 214
, Gold Lettering on, 175
, Painting, 214, 388
, Brass, Bending, 316
, , as Spelter, 311
in Cable, Weight of, 66
, Cleaning, 214, 227
, Copper, Current-carrying
' Capacity of, 81 '
, , Weight of, p6
Gauge,' Birniinghain, 351
, Browne and Sharpe,
351
, English Legal Stand-
ard, 3.51
, Londoner Old English,
361
, Roebling, 351
, Stubbs', 361
Gauze Blind, Painting, 308
■ , Repairing, 308
, Ii-on, Tinning, 214, 227
, , Weiglit of, 66
Same Brooches, etc., 69
Rests used in Wet-plate
Photography, '*100
, Sectional Ai-ea of, 66
, Rotted Brass, 288
Wires, Electric, Jointing, 79
Wood (see also, respective names
of woods)
Ball, Cutting, Inside
another Ball, *825
Balls, Hollow, «326
Bedstead, •278
— , Child's or Doll's, '70
, Bending, bySteam, •lO?
for Boat Making, 81 -
Box, Oval Top, 266
Carving Knife, •325
Tools, Sharpening, 301 .
Carvings, Smoothing, 296
' — , Staining, 296
, Varnishing, 296
, Cementing Glass to, 282
Clmck made in Sections, *1A
, Coral, ,247
, Darkening Colour of, 237
, D17 Rot in, 26
, End-grain, French Polish-
ing, 111
, Fireproofing, 35
for Fishing Rods, 303
, Fixing Transfers on, 39, 225,
301
, Grain Fillers for, 18, 23, 40,
91, 324
Mill for Polishing Stones,
337
, Nails Rusting in, 70
, Painting (see Paint and
jpaiuting)
Panelling with Veneers, *128
Pill-boxes, Grease-proofing,
83'4
Playing Bowls. Cleaning, 284
, Re-staining, 234
, Staining, 234
Priniing, before Painting,
337
, Red Sandal, 247
, Sanders, 247
, Removing Ink Stains from,
166, 208
, Paint from, 237
, Rust fioiH, 76
— ^, Soda - water Stains
■from, 46
384:
Wood, Rust-marked, Re-painting,
■re
, Seasoning Artificially, *167
, Staining (see Staining and
Stains)
■ — — Tank, Lining, with Load, 68
Tester Head for Bedstead,
•198
-r— , Tliree-ply, for Fretwork, SI
, Warped, Straightening, 81
, Worms in. 120, 301
Wood - block Floor laid with
Mastic Asphalt, *245
Woods, Distinguishing, 316
• , Hard and Soft, 155
, Set of Specimen, 271
Woodworking Lathe, Bending
Spindle for, •288
Wool Fibres, 'lOO
, Removing, from Sheep-
skins, 20
Work-box for Beadworli,' •49
Workman's Tea and Sugar Case,
•240
Workshop, Air Space in, 239
■ Doorway, Porch for, *33
, .Tinmen's, *34
Woi-m Screws, Fitting, to Banjo,
•116
Worms in Woodwork, 120, 301
Worsted, Distinguishing, from
Cotton, 106
Wrest-piank, Inserting, in Piano,
'21
Wright's Method of preparing
Oxygen, 43
Cyclopsedia of Mechanics.
Wringing Machine, *27
Writing Ink, Bellande's Indelible,
238
, Indelible, Calomel Paper
for, 238
Ink (see also Inks)
■ , Black, 212
, Blue, 213
, Blue-black, 211
, Red, 223
, Waterproof Black, 212
Slates, 330
• — , Cutting, 330
, Polishing, BSO
Table, 'lOe
Written Matter, Graphs for Copy-
ing, 180
Wrought Iron, Case-hardening,
213
Cone, •37
, "Working Leaves in, 165
Xylonite, 262 1
, Cementing, to Glass, 236
, , Metal, 236
, Cements for, 236
Yacht, Model, Sail Plan for,
•184
yaourt (see Koumiss)
Yeast, German or Pressed, 166
Yellow, Chrome, 297
Deal, 815
' Finish for School Furniture,
111
Grease Paint, 343
, Imperial, 293
Liquid for Chemists' Show
Bottles, 13, 293
Luminous Paint, 263
Ochre, 195
Phosphorus, 45
, — •- Pine, 815
— , French Polish for, 142
, OakFinish for, 142
Portland Cement, 313
Stain for Alabaster, 240
■ Billiard Balls, 818
■ — ; Oak, 85
■ Venetian Blinds, 66
Stains, , Removing, from
Negatives, 170
, Varnish for Straw Hats, 50
, Zino, 291
Yellowish - brown Luminous
Paint, 263
York Stone, 809
Zinc, 335
, Brassing, 247
, Bronzing, 247
Zinc Carbonate, or Calamine;
335
, Oast, 835
, Covering Epof with, •129
■ Dishes used, in Photo-
grstphy, 187
, Distillation of, 335
Fountain for Greenhouse,
•340
■, Hardening, 335
—, Melting Point of, 335
Moulds for Stone, 247
Ores, 335
, Reclucing, 335
Oxide, or Zincite, 335
, PuriQ-ing, 294
-, Removing Arsenic frpm,
294
; Bismuth from, 294
, Lead from, 294
, Eolled, 385 ■
•, Separating, from Lead, 99 "
, , Solder, 147, 26S
■ , ■ , ■ Tin, 263
, Sheet, Cutting, 247
Silicate, or Eleotrio Cala
mine, 335
, Specific Gravity of, 336
Steocil Plates, •82
Sulphide, or Blende, 335
, Thermo-electric Propertiea
of, 90
^, White, 196
- — , Yellow, 291
Zincite, 335 -
Zone A^ate, 353
Printed by Cassell and Compakv, Limited, La Belle Sauvaoe, London, B.O,
16.301
Practical
Men.
Practical
Cycle
Parts.
Successful
Cycles.
ARE YOU THINKING OF BUILDING
YOUR OWN CYCLE ?
If SO, too much attention cannot
be given to the parts which you
will be using. First of all —
Reliable material in the
parts, then an up=to-date
desigfn ; don't waste your
time and energy upon parts
which when built up look
anyhow; simplicity of as=
semblingf and absolute in=
terchangeability of parts
are also important.
If you decide to use
L THE KLY TO GOOD CYCLES P-, ,jj
parts your task will be easy and
the result gratifying.
A WARNING. — There Is so much old stock on the
market, and so many Job lines to clear at any
price, that buyers are cautioned to see that
their cycle parts are stamped thus:
Cbe Cpcle Components rRanufacturins Co., £td.,
COMPONENTSViLLC, BIRMINGHAM.
Lists may be had from and the parts seen at—
LONDON : 15 & 16, Giltspur St., Holborn BIRMINGHAM ; 9, Dale End.
— Viaduct. WOLVERHAMPTON: Lichfield Cham-
MANCHBSTBR: 10, St. Mary's Street, bers, Princes Sq.uare.
Deansgate. NOTTINGHAM : Mount Street.
And at the establishments of cycle makers generally throughout the United Kingdom.
. CycloP/Edia of Mechanics. A
How ''WORK" helps its Readers to
Increase their Earnings, improve
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"WORK" ADDS 10s. WEEKLY TO A LABOUEEK'S
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golden Wokk, my best friend, to which I wish every
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HOW CYCLES ARE BUILT FROM INSTRUCTIONS IN
"WORK."
SiE,— Your paper is very valuable to anybody that
reads it. The most noticeable to all my friends, and a
good many people in Edinburgh, was a cycle that -I
made from the articles on " How to Build an tip-to-date
Cycle." I made it right from the black tubes, and it
cost me a little over £9. It was a beauty ; at that time
I could not have purchased one at £14 to equal it. I
learnt a great deal about cycle construction while
studying the articles in Work, and was puzzled a little
about building the wheels and truelng the same, but
I stuck in and managed ; now I can build wheels quite
easy, as I have got the right tangent and the system of
truelng the wheels. I built this machine in the middle
of the season of 1897, and rode it all that season, and
what a pleasure it was to ride it after riding on a cheap
machine. After nine months I sold it for £11, thus
making about £2 profit and the pleasure I got from it.
— S. B. (Leifh, N.B.).
A FACTORY HAND EARNS POUNDS AFTER WORKING
TWELVE HOURS A DAY.
Sir,— I have been a reader of your valuable paper for
about two years only, but I must say I have both bene-
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In a factorv from six to six, and I can honestly say
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can earn as much as I do all day in the factory. When
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which I was offered £2.— J. W. (Gilford, Ireland).
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"WORK" INSTRUCTS A CLERK HOW TO EARN 5s. A
DAY WHEN WORK IS StACK.
Sir,— My occupation is clerk in a coal merchant's
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often earned 5s. a day writing signs. Our waggons are
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of lighter work, I have made and sold for a good price,
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C. (Preston)
HOW TO MAKE AND MEND BOOTS AND SHOES
LEARNED FROM " WORK."
Sir,— As a constant reader of Work I receive great
benefit from its information, the most definite being ,ln
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EXTRA £3 A WEEK EARNED BY THE HELP
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SHOWS HOW TO SUCCEED IN
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A MINER WINS PRIZES AND EARNS MONEY BY THE
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finished to have been done by me, as I am a miner;
but I was able to prove to them that I was capable of
doing better things than they had disqualified, after
which all the judges and the committee apologised for
their action and awarded me first and special prizes,
the second time I have won this honour at their show.
— J. T. (AnnfiM Plain).
paper. —A. W. ,- , . , ,.
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Review.
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BUILDING WORLD
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Readers who know the value of Building World
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Important New Series of Practical Volumes.
Edited by PAUL N. HASLUCK.
With numerous Illustrations in the Text. Each Booh
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Practical Gas Fitting.
With 120 Illustrations.
Contents : How Coal Gas is Made— Coal Gas from the Retort
to the Gas Holder— Gas Supply from Gas Holder to Meter-
Laying the Gas Pipe in the House— Gas Meters— Gas Burners-
Incandescent Lights — Gas Fittings in Workshops and Theatres —
Gas Fittings for Festival Illuminations — Gas Fires and Cooking
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Practical Draughtsmen's Work.
With 200 Illustrations.
This book deals » ith the principles upon which mechanical and
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Practical Staircase Joinery.
With 21$ Illustrations.
Contents: Introduction: Explanati in of Terms— Simple Form
of Staircase — House-l Stringed Stair — Measuring, Planning, and
Setting Out — Two-flight Staircase— Staircase with Winders at Top
and Bottom — Staircase with Half-space of Winders — Staircase over
an Oblique Plan - Staircase with Open or Cut Strings — Cut String
Staircase with Brackets — Open String Staircase with Bull-nose
Step— Geometrical Staircases— Winding Staircases — Ships' Stair-
cases.
Practical Metal Plate Work.
With 247 Illustrations.
Contents : Materials Used in Metal Plate Work- Geometrical
Construction of Plane Figures— Geometrical Construction .and
Development of Solid Figures — Tools and Appliances Used in
Metal Plate Work — Soldering and Brazing — Tinninp, Re-tinning,
and Galvanising — Examples of Practical Metal Plate Work —
Examples of Practical Pattern Drawing,
Cassell's Technical Manuals
Illustrated throughout with Drawings and Working
Diagrams, bound in cloth.
Applied Mechanics. Cloth, 2S,
Bricklayers, Drawing for, 3s.
Building Construction, 3S.
Cabinet-makers, Drawing for, 3s.
'Carpenters and Joiners, Drawing for, 3s. fid.
Gothic Stonework, 3s.
Handrailing and.Staircasing, 3s fid.
Linear Drawing and Practical Geometry, 2s.
Lineat Drawing and Projection. The Two Vols, in One, 3s, fid.
Machinists and Engineers, Drawing for, 4s, f d.
Model Drawing, 3s.
Orthographical and Isometrical Projection, 2s.
Practical Perspective.
Stonemasons Drawing for. Cloth, 3s.
Systematic Drawing and Shading 2s.
Manuals of Technology.
Edited by Professor Ayrton, F.R.S., and Richard
WoRMELL, D.Sc, M.A. Illustrated throughout.
The Dyeing of Textile Fabrics. By Prof. Hummel. 5s.
Watch and Clock Making, By D. Glasgow. 4s. fid.
Steel and Iron. By Prof. W. H. Greenwood, F.C.S.,
M I.C.E,, &c. 5s.
Spinning Woollen and Worsted. By W. S. B. McLaren.
4.S. fid.
Design in Textile Fabrics. By T. R. Ashenhurst. With
Coloured Plates. 4s. 6d.
Practical Mechanics. By Prof. Perry, M.E. 3s. fid.
Cutting Tools worked by Hand and Machine, Prof. R, H.
Smith. 3s, fid.
Practical Electricity. A Laboratory and Lecture Course for
First Year Students of Electrical Engineering. By Prof.
W. E. Ayrton. Completely rewritten. Current. Pres-
sure. Resistance, Energy, Power, and Cells. With
247 Illustrations. 7s. fid.
CASSELL & COMPANY, Limited, London ; and all Booksellers.
"WORK" HANDBOOKS.
A Series of Practical Manuals.
Edited by PAUL N. HASLUCK, Editor of "Wopl<."
Illustrated.' Cloth, is. ; or Post Free, ts. 2d. each.
Great Praise from a Technical Authority.
The Scientific American, a publication recognised the
wide world over as an authority on all technical matters,
thus speaks of the series of *' Work " Handbooks :— " For
practical instruction in numerous mechanical or art tech-
nical pursuits, these convenient little handbooks cover a
wide field. They are fully illustrated, the descriptions of
methods and means and tools employed for doing the work
"^ considered in each volume are brought fully up to date,
and all in language so plain and simple that any youth or
the most uninformed workman may readily educate himself
to do the work described. Everyone may learn from them
better how to do the numerous small jobs which, sooner or
later, come to most people to do."
House Decoration. Comprising Whitewashing, Paper-
hanging. Painting, etc. With 79 Engravings and Diagrams.
Co}tteftts,—Co\o\ir and Paints. PigmentSt-Oils, Driers, Varnishes, etc. Tools
used bjIPainters. How to Mix Oil Paints. Distemper or Tempera Paintmg.
Whitewashing and Decorating a Ceiling. Painting a Room. Papering a
Room. Embellishment of Walls and Ceihngs.
Boot Making and Mending. Including Repairing, Lasting,
and Finishing. With 179 Engravings and Diagrams.
Con^^«/f.— Repairing Heels and Half-Soling;. Patching Boots and Shoes.
Re-Welting and Re-Soling. Boot Making. Lasting the Upper. Sewing and
Stitching. Making the Heel. Knifing and Finishing. Makyig Riveted Boots
and Shoes.
How to Write Signs, Tickets, and Fosters. With 170
Engravings and Diagrams.
Conie7tts.~i\\a Formation of Letters, Stops, and Numerals. The Sign-
writer's Outfit. Makmg Signboards and Laying Ground Colours. The Simpler -
Forms of Lettering. Shaded and Fancy Lettering. Painting a Signboard.
Ticket-Writing. Poster-Painting. Lettering with Gold, etc.
Wood Finishing. Comprising Staining, Varnishing, and
POLISHING. With Engravings and Diagrams.
Cff»/'««^j-.— Processes of Finishing Wood. Processes of Staining Wood.
French Polishing. Fillers for Wood and Filling In, Bodying In and Spiriting
Off. Glazing ana Wax Finishing. Oil Polishing and Dry Shining. Re-polishing
and Reviving. Hard Stopping or Beaumontage. Treatment of Floors. Stains.
Processes. ofVamishing Wood. Varnishes. Re-polishing Shop Fronts.
Dynamos and Electric Motors. With 142 Engravings and
Diagrams.
Co«/«i/i,— Introduction. Siemens Dynamo. Gramme Dynamo. Manchester
Dynamo. Simplex Dynamo. Calculating the Size and Amount of Wire for
Small Dynamos. Ailments of Small Dynamo Electric Machines: their Causes
and Cures. Small Electro-motore without Castings. How to Determine the
Direction of Rotation of a Motor. How.to Make a Shuttle- Armature Motor.
Undertype 50-Watt Dynamo. Manchester Type 440- Watt Dynamo.
Cycle Building and Repairing. With 142 Engravings and
Diagrams
C(j«r«i/'^.— Introductory, and Tools Used. How to Build a Front "Driver.
Building a Rear-driving Safety. Building Tandem Safeties. Building Front-
driver Tricycle. Building a Hand.Tricycle. Brazing. How to Make and Fit
Gear Cases. Fittings and Accessories. Wheel-Making, Tyres and Methods
of Fixing them. Enamelling. Refjairing.
Decorative Designs of All Ages for All Furposes, With
277 Engravings and Diagrams.
Contents. — Savage Ornament. Egyptian Ornament. Assyrian Ornament.
Greek Ornament Roman Ornament. Early Christian. Ornament. Arabic
Ornament. -Celtic and Scandinavian Ornaments. Medisval Ornament. Rena-
scence and Modem Ornaments. Chinese Ornament. Persian Ornament,
ndian Ornament, Japanese Ornament,
Mounting and Framing Fictures. With 240 Engravings,
etc.
Contents. — Making Picture Frames. Notes on Art Frames. Picture Frame
Cramps. Making Oxford Frames. Gilding Picture Frames. Methods of
Mounting Pictures. Making Photograph Frames. Frames covered with Plush
and Cork. Hanging and Packing Pictures.
Smiths' Work. With 211 Engravings and Diagrams.
Contents.— "For^s and Appliances. ' Hand Tools. Drawing Down and
Upsetting, Welding and Punching. Conditipns of Work; Principles-of For-
mation. Bending and Ring Making, Miscellaneous Examples of Forged
Work. Cranks, Model Work, and Die Forging,. Home-made Forges, The
Manipulation of Steel at the Forge.
Glass Working by Heat and Abrasion. With 300 En-
gravings and Diagrams.
Ci?«?««/'x.— Appliances used in Glass Blowing. Manipulating Gliss Tubing.
Blowing Bulbs and Flasks. Jointing Tubes to Bulbs forming Thistle Funnel,
etc. Blowing and Etching Glass Fancy Articles ; Embossing and Gilding Flat
Surfaces. Utilising Broken Glass Apparatus; Boring Holes in. and Riveting
Glass. Hand-working of Telescope Specula. , Turning, Chipping, and Grind-
ing Glass. The Manufacture of Glass.
Building Model Boats. With 168 Engravings and Diagrams.
Contents.— ^m\Am% Model Yachts. Rigging and Sailing Model Yachts.
Making and Fitting Simple Model Boats. Building a Model Atlantic Liner.
Vertical Enginafor a Model Launch. Model launch Engine with Reversing
Gear. Making a Show Case for a Model Boat,
Electric Bells, How to Make and Fit Tbem. With 162
Engravings and Diagrams.
Contents.— i:\\e Electric Current and the Laws that Govern it. Current
Conductorsiused in Electric-Bell Work. Wiring for Electric Bells Elaborated
Systems of Wiring ; Burglar Alarms. Batteries for Electric Bells. The Con- .
structionof Electnc Belts, Pushes, and Switches. Indicato-s for ElectricDell
Systems.
New Volumes in Preparation.
CASSELL & COMPANY, Limited, London; andallBookselkrs.
JUST PUBLISHED.
Price 6s. the Set, or 4d. each Plate.
LATHE CONSTRUCTION.
24 COLOURED PLATES (J8 in. by 13 in.),
DRAWN TO SCALE,
By PAUL N. HASLUCK,
Formerly Instructor in Latheujorh at the Regent Street Polytechnic; Author of '• Latheworh "
"Milling Machines and Processes," etc.
THIS carefully prepared Set of Scale Drawings of typical Lathes represents machines now in actual use, and
displays methods of construction that should be useful to all mechanical engineers. Details are comprehensivelv
shown m Elevations, Flans, and Sections. , i.oiui<iouomiiveiy
CASSELL & COMPANY, Limited, Ludgate Hill. London.
LIST OF VALUABLE COLOURED PLATES
Issued with the Monthly Parts of WORK and BUILDING WORLD.
Each plate measures ij in. by i8 in., and is lithographed in three colours.
Pedestal Writing Table (W115)
American Roll Top Desk with Cabinet
for Typewriter (wioi)
Bookcase and Overmantel Combined
(W124)
Bonding for Brick Flues (857)
Brickwork Arches {B19)
Brickwork Bonds (B7)
Brickwork Openings (B43)
Brickwork Piers and Walls (B12)
Brickwork Retaining Walls (B41)
Cabinet Bookcase (W126)
Centering for Arches (bsi)
Chiffonier with Cellarette (wii8)
Chimney-piece and- Overmantel in
Wood (win)
Coal Vase with Carved Panel (W112)
Colour Combination (B21)
, Conservatories and Greenhouses (B37)
Cupboard with shelves, Hanging (wi2s)
Detached Residence, Double-fronted,
Elevations and Roof Plans (b 38)
Detached Residence, Double-fronted,
Plans and Sections (B39)
Detached Suburban Reside.'.ce, Plans,
etc. (B27) •
Doors, Ledged, Panelled, etc, (B13)
Drains, Traps, and Tanks {bi8)
Facework in Masonry (B29)
Fireplace, Design for {W113)
Floors and Flooring (B17)
Framed Partitions {B42)
Framed Partitions, Trussed (B23)
Games Compendium (W132)
Glove Box and Mirror (wri7) ■
Hat and Umbrella Stand (wi2g)
Heating by Low Pressure, Principles
and Plans (b4S)
Heating by Low Pressure, Further
Plans (bsq)
Hot-water Apparatus, Domestic Supply
„ (B36)
Hot-water Apparatus, Low Pressure
(B40)
Houses, Semi-detached, Plans (B52)
Houses, Semi-detached, Elevations and
Sections (B56)
Incubator, so-egg Hydro, with Drying
Box (wios)
Iron Roofs (B14)
Joints for Lengthening Beams and
Posts (B31)
Joints in Carpentry (B25)
Joints in Coach Body Making (W119)
Joints in Joinery (B24)
Joints of Posts and Beams (B44)
Lantern Light, Plans and Elevations
(B30) ■
Lantern Light, Details for Lower
Lights {B32)
Lantern Light, Details for Upper
Lights (B33)
Lathe, Dividing Attachment for (W106)
Lathe for Plain and Ornamental Turn-
ing (W107)
Liqueur Stand, Design for (W134)
Memoranda for Builders (eii)
Model Horizontal Engine (W12.8)
Model Railway Wagon {wii6)
Music Cabinet (W122 and W138)
Overdoor Fitment (wi23)
Overdoors, Dados, Overmantels, Chim-
ney-piece, etc. (B48)
Overmantel made from Picture-frame
Moulding (W127)
Overmantel with Shelves and Turned
Pillars (wi2o)
O.ty- Hydrogen Biunial Lantern (W114)
Patterns and Coie-boxes for Small
Plate and Cutlery Cabinet (W130)
Plumbers' Work, External (bio)
Plumbers' Work, Internal (b8)
Repouss^ Work Designs (wiio)
Revolving Bookcase (W135)
Roofs, Open Timber (B58)
Roofs, Small, Framing for (B22)
Roof Trusses, Composite (B53)
Roof Trusses, King-post and Queen-
post (B9)
Siloon Bar Counter (B49)
Saloon Doors {B46)
Secretaire Bookcase with Cupboards
(W102)
Sewer Manholes, Lamp Eve. etc
(B26)
Ship Saloon Finishes'(wi2i)
Shoring and Strutting (B34)
Sideboard, Cottage (W137)
Stencil Designs (B54)
Stencil Designs for Panels (BS9)
Stone Stairs (B47)
Stone Walling {bi6)
Technical Drawing (wio8)
Trussed Beams (B35)
Ventilators and Water-tight Work in
Ship Joinery (W104)
Vertical 8-horse-power Boiler (W103)
Wardrobe, Design for (W133)
Water-closets, Urinals, and Fittings
(B15)
Window Conservatory (855)
Window Sashes (B20)
Window Sashes and Casements (B28)
Wood Carving Designs (wiog)
Writing Cabinet with Shelves (W131)
Cistern Pump (W136)
Any plate may be obtained separately for 3d. through a newsagent, or for 3jd. post free from the publishers ;
or any six of the plates may be obtained through any newsagent for is., or post free from the publishers for is. ijd!
The reference number of the plate required should be indicated on the order.
CASSELL & COMPANY, Limited, Ludgate Hill, London ; and all Booksellers.
Best Quality Tools.
Firm Joint Callipers.
No. 26 or 27.
4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 24 in.
1/10 2/6 3/- 3/3 3/9 E/6 6/6 7/6 9/- 11/-
The above sizes refer to the length of the Callipers. Their
capacity is about one-third greater than the size given.
The improvement in these Callipers consists in the construction
of the joint, which is so made as to be drawn together by means
of a screw forcing a vifasher on to the squared end of the main
rivets, which extends through the legs, thus clamping them
together between bearings so shaped as to induce a smooth and
uniform friction of more or less tension to suit the user. The
quality of these Callipers is incomparably superior to that of any
old-style rivetted-joint Calliper on the market.
Improved Parallel Vice with Steel Jaws.
0. 00
1
2
3
4
2} i"-
2| in.
2j in.
3iin.
3f in.
4J in. Jaws
5/6
6/6
8/6
12/8
17/6
29/6 each.
Our
Box Squares. Machine Planed Inside and Out.
For Markiner Keyways on Shaftingr, &c. &c.
4 5 6 8.9 inch.
*.'- B/- 6'- 8/- 9/. each.
lustrated Catalogue, containing 312 Pages and over 2,000 Illustrations,
sent post free to any address for 6 stamps.
Face Cover 3.]
CHARLES NURSE & CO., Invicta Tool Works,
182 & 184, WALWORTH RD., LONDON, S.E.
Also at 144, BishoitsgatB St. Without, E.G.; lOOi Fleet St.,
ludgate Gircus, E.G.; and 173, Walworth Rd., S.E.
LABOUR-SAVING TOOLS.
Bench Drilling Machine, <<.
With Cut Gears, Adjustable Table, Steel Feed Screw, and 3-Jaw
Chuck, taking drills to f in. Set of 8 Fluted Drills included.
Without Vice, 25/-. With Vice, as shown, 31/6.
Hand Drill No. 5.
Has a wide-rimraed Gear Wheel, which can
be run between thumb and finger when
extra fine drills are used, or for delicate
work. Weighs 20 ozs. lij ins. long.
Price, including set of Fluted Drills, 6/6.
Instantaneous Bench Vices.
This Vice does away with 75 per cent, of the labour expended on an ordinary bench screw. No Joiner's bench
should be without it.
7i ins.
g m'i.
10^ ins.
9 ins.
loi ins.
Iron Racks ...
.. 14/-
15/6
19/-
With Bench Hook
.. 16/6
20/-
Cut Steel Ricks .
17/-
18/6
22/-
... 19/6
23/-
(Recommended)
Send- Six Stamps for Illustrated Catalogue. Contains 812 Pages, and over 2,000 Illustrations. The
completest and most convenient List published.
CHARLES NURSE & Co., Tool Makers,
183, 184, 173, WALWORTH ROAD, LONDON, S^
144, BISHOPSQATE STREET WITHOUT, EX.
100, FLEET STREET, LUDQATE CIRCUS, E.C.
Cover 3.]
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